The document discusses the lead poisoning crisis in Flint, Michigan where switching the city's water supply from Lake Huron to the Flint River in 2014 caused lead to leach into the drinking water from aging pipes. This predominantly impacted low-income African American residents and children, increasing their blood lead levels. While laws have reduced lead in water infrastructure, many older pipes remain. The crisis highlights the need for investment in water system upgrades, policies to prevent future crises, and medical/educational support for affected children and communities.

1. Lead Poisoning (in water supply) in African American
Families
Flint, MI

2. Location
Flint, Michigan is a majority black city
where 40% of the people live in
poverty.
Due to the communities race and
poverty, the population was at
higher risk for lead poisoning.
Problem
Lead gets into drinking water when
lead service pipes corrode.
According to Aizer et. al (2015),
“African American children had
lead levels 58% higher than white
children.”
Problem and Location

3. In 2014, Flint switched their water supply from Lake Huron to the Flint River in
efforts to save money
The switch of water supply caused lead poisoning in children and adults, affecting
thousands, the majority being African Americans.
The prevalence of lead poisoning in water is not isolated to the city of Flint.
According to Fears (2016), “350 schools and daycare centers failed lead test a total of
470 times from 2012 to 2015.”
Time/Prevalence and Occurrence

4. History
In the 1800’s the United States began using lead pipes at a large scale.
According to Rabin (2008), by the 1900’s more than 70% of cities with populations
greater than 30,000 used lead water lines.
By the 1920’s it was well documented and concluded that lead pipes used for
drinking water were the cause of lead poisoning.
The lead industry benefited from the absence of federal laws or environmental
regulations until the 1960’s.

5. Significance
Lead is a toxic metal that is harmful to human health.
There is no safe level of lead exposure.
Young children, infants and fetuses are the most vulnerable, because of the physical
and behavioral effects.
According to Brown and Margolis, “Children represent approximately 80% of the
disease impact attributed to lead.”
Laws have restricted the amount of lead allowed in new pipes/fixtures, but many

6. Resources
At no cost, residence are able to receive: bottles of water, water filters, replacement
cartridges, and home water testing kits-with transportation to sites containing
items.
Health care coverage is available, however strict requirements to qualify.
The EPA has awarded $100 million to fund drinking water infrastructure upgrades
in Flint.

7. Resources
There are several organizations raising funds for the water crisis.
The city of Flint is also offering crisis counseling and education on health and
nutrition.

8. Regulations
According to Crow (2017), the EPA ordered the state and city to counteract the
contamination, and provide full information to the public..
A team of EPA specialist began testing water quality and advising local officials.
In 2016, the EPA published the Drinking Water Action Plan. Which addresses things
such as: aging infrastructure, limited funding and management capacity,
maintaining state oversight programs.

9. Regulations
In 2016, the EPA released a set of revisions to the Lead and Copper Rule. The Lead
and Copper Rule is a federal regulation that limits the amount the amount of lead
and copper allowed in public drinking water.
They include lead service line replacement, improving corrosion control treatment
requirements, strengthening tap sampling requirements, increasing transparency
and public education requirements.

10. Laws
Local
Revision or Appeal of the Local Government Fiscal Responsibility Act. This, which allows
officials to intervene in local governments that experience serious financial problems.
State
Law requiring water suppliers to notify the public within three days if testing shows lead levels
that exceed allowable limits.
Federal
In 2016, law passed that adds lead to the list of contaminants that public water utility companies
are required to notify their customers if dangerous levels are detected.

11. CHN Role Primary, Secondary, &
Tertiary Preventions.
Primary
Water infrastructure investment.
Changes in EPA policies/federal legislation.
Education
Secondary
Routine child lead screenings.
Ensure those children affected by lead poisoning. Receive appropriate medical care.
Initiate program to ensure follow up based on elevated levels

12. CHN Role Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary
Preventions
Tertiary
Chelation therapy
Provide appropriate educational interventions for children affected by elevated
blood levels (to serve children that suffer from cognitive, behavior and physical
medical issues).
Focus on nutritional education while encouraging foods that reduce lead absorption
in the body.

13. References
Aizer, Anna, Currie, Janet, Simon, Peter, Vivier, Patrick, 2015, “Lead exposure and
racial disparities in test scores.”
Fears, Darryl, 2016, “The Washington Post.”, “It’s not just Flint. Lead taints water across
the U.S EPA records show.”
Rabin, R. (2008). The lead industry and lead water pipes “A modest campaign”
American Journal of Public Health, 98(9), 1584–1592.
http://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.113555

14. References
Brown, Mary Jean, Margolis, Stephan, 2012, Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Lead in Drinking Water and
Human Blood Lead
Crow, Patrick, 2017, Retrieved on April 22, 2017, from
http://www.waterworld.com/articles/print/volume-32/issue-4/departments/washington-up
date/flint-water-crisis-spurs-federal-legislation-rules.html