1. The document discusses various industrial practices that utilize radiation sources, including non-destructive testing (NDT), well logging, irradiators, and nucleonic gauge practices.
2. It describes different types of equipment used in NDT, such as gamma radiography sources and containers, x-ray radiography equipment, accelerators, pipe crawler equipment, and real time radiography.
3. Guidelines for gamma radiography sources include requirements for marking, labeling, and documentation of exposure containers. Maximum permissible dose rates and inverse square law calculations are also discussed.
Instrumentation of infrared spectroscopyANKITHRAI4
This document discusses the components and instrumentation of infrared spectroscopy. It describes the key components as the light source, sample holder, monochromator, detector, and recorder. Common light sources discussed include the Nernst glower and Globar source for the mid-IR region. Various sampling techniques are used for solids, liquids, and gases. Thermal detectors like thermocouples and bolometers as well as photon detectors like lead sulfide cells are used to detect the infrared radiation.
This document provides an overview of radiation and radioactive elements. It discusses the classification of radiation into ionizing (alpha, beta, gamma) and non-ionizing radiation. It lists many naturally occurring radioactive elements and their properties. The document describes different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, and gamma decay. It discusses applications of radioisotopes in medicine, industry, and research. Nuclear fusion and fission are also summarized. The document provides information on radioactivity, radiopharmaceuticals, and detection of radiation.
This document discusses infrared (IR) spectroscopy. It covers various topics such as sample handling techniques, factors affecting vibrations, instrumentation components, and applications. Specifically, it describes the four main types of sampling - solid, liquid, gas, and solution. It also explains how coupled vibrations, Fermi resonance, electronic effects, and hydrogen bonding can influence IR spectra. Common instrumentation components like sources of radiation, detectors, and applications like identification of functional groups and substances are summarized.
Infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry are two common forms of spectroscopy used to determine molecular structure. Infrared spectroscopy works by shining infrared radiation on a molecule and observing which wavelengths are absorbed, providing clues about its bonds. Mass spectrometry works by firing electrons at molecules to form radical cations, then detecting their mass-to-charge ratios to determine molecular mass and obtain additional structural information. Both techniques provide essential data for elucidating molecular structures.
How it works IR spectroscopy, applications in Cultural Heritage Restoration and in Materials Science for the characterization of films (thin film deposited on a substrate and polymeric films - in particular how the deformation affects the dichroism ratio)
Infrared Spectroscopy: Analyse the functional groups of benzoic acidHaydar Mohammad Salim
IR spectroscopy deals with the interaction of infrared radiation with matter.
It is a light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light.
Typical IR wavelengths range from 8x10-5 cm to 1x10-2 cm, and this corresponds to energies of around 1-10 kcal.
This energy is sufficient to make atoms vibrate, but not enough to cause electronic transitions.
This document provides information on radioactivity and radioactive isotopes used in clinical medicine. It discusses the properties of natural and artificial radioactivity and types of radioactive decay. Common medical radioisotopes used for therapy and diagnosis like radium-226, cesium-137, cobalt-60, iridium-192, gold-198, and iodine-125 are described in terms of their production, half-lives, emissions, and clinical applications and source forms. The ideal properties of radioisotopes for use in teletherapy and brachytherapy are also summarized.
Instrumentation of infrared spectroscopyANKITHRAI4
This document discusses the components and instrumentation of infrared spectroscopy. It describes the key components as the light source, sample holder, monochromator, detector, and recorder. Common light sources discussed include the Nernst glower and Globar source for the mid-IR region. Various sampling techniques are used for solids, liquids, and gases. Thermal detectors like thermocouples and bolometers as well as photon detectors like lead sulfide cells are used to detect the infrared radiation.
This document provides an overview of radiation and radioactive elements. It discusses the classification of radiation into ionizing (alpha, beta, gamma) and non-ionizing radiation. It lists many naturally occurring radioactive elements and their properties. The document describes different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, and gamma decay. It discusses applications of radioisotopes in medicine, industry, and research. Nuclear fusion and fission are also summarized. The document provides information on radioactivity, radiopharmaceuticals, and detection of radiation.
This document discusses infrared (IR) spectroscopy. It covers various topics such as sample handling techniques, factors affecting vibrations, instrumentation components, and applications. Specifically, it describes the four main types of sampling - solid, liquid, gas, and solution. It also explains how coupled vibrations, Fermi resonance, electronic effects, and hydrogen bonding can influence IR spectra. Common instrumentation components like sources of radiation, detectors, and applications like identification of functional groups and substances are summarized.
Infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry are two common forms of spectroscopy used to determine molecular structure. Infrared spectroscopy works by shining infrared radiation on a molecule and observing which wavelengths are absorbed, providing clues about its bonds. Mass spectrometry works by firing electrons at molecules to form radical cations, then detecting their mass-to-charge ratios to determine molecular mass and obtain additional structural information. Both techniques provide essential data for elucidating molecular structures.
How it works IR spectroscopy, applications in Cultural Heritage Restoration and in Materials Science for the characterization of films (thin film deposited on a substrate and polymeric films - in particular how the deformation affects the dichroism ratio)
Infrared Spectroscopy: Analyse the functional groups of benzoic acidHaydar Mohammad Salim
IR spectroscopy deals with the interaction of infrared radiation with matter.
It is a light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light.
Typical IR wavelengths range from 8x10-5 cm to 1x10-2 cm, and this corresponds to energies of around 1-10 kcal.
This energy is sufficient to make atoms vibrate, but not enough to cause electronic transitions.
This document provides information on radioactivity and radioactive isotopes used in clinical medicine. It discusses the properties of natural and artificial radioactivity and types of radioactive decay. Common medical radioisotopes used for therapy and diagnosis like radium-226, cesium-137, cobalt-60, iridium-192, gold-198, and iodine-125 are described in terms of their production, half-lives, emissions, and clinical applications and source forms. The ideal properties of radioisotopes for use in teletherapy and brachytherapy are also summarized.
SPECTROSCOPY
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
HISTORY
PRINCIPLE
MODES OF VIBRATION
INSTRUMENTATION
SAMPLE HANDLING
FTIR (FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED) SPECTROMETER
PRINCIPLE
INSTRUMENTATION
WORKING
DISPERSIVE VERSUS FTIR
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF FTIR WITH APPLICATIONS
FACTORS AFFECTING VIBRATIONAL FREQUENCIES
IR SPECTRA REGION
IR SPECTRA INTERPRETATION
EXAMPLES
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IR
APPLICATIONS OF IR
Reference
This document discusses applications of infrared spectroscopy. It begins by explaining how infrared radiation corresponds to vibrational modes in molecules and can be used to identify functional groups and determine molecular structure. It then discusses specific applications such as identifying exchangeable hydrogens, determining substances, tracking organic nanoparticles in space, quantifying proteins, and various applications in food analysis, forensics, homeland security, medicine, and more. Infrared spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique due to its non-destructive nature and ability to identify functional groups and analyze molecular structure and composition.
This document contains a Level-II radiography testing quiz with 37 multiple choice questions covering topics like isotopes, radiation interactions with matter, x-ray tube components and operation, radiation measurement units, and particle accelerators. The questions test knowledge of fundamental radiation and x-ray physics concepts important for nondestructive testing methods like radiography.
This document provides an overview of UV spectroscopy. It discusses electronic transitions that occur in the UV region, including σ → σ*, n → σ*, n → π*, and π → π* transitions. Selection rules that determine observable transitions are also covered. The Beer-Lambert law relating absorbance to concentration is introduced. Instrumentation for UV spectroscopy including various light sources, monochromators, and detectors is described.
UV/Visible spectroscopy involves electronic transitions that absorb light in the ultraviolet-visible region. There are several types of transitions including n→π*, π→π*, and σ→σ* transitions. The energy and wavelength of absorbed light depends on the difference between molecular orbital energies. Chromophores and auxochromes determine absorption properties, and solvents, concentration, and temperature can affect observed spectra. UV/Vis spectrometers contain a light source, monochromator, sample holder, and detector to measure absorption of light by a sample.
IR spectroscopy is the study of infrared spectra caused by vibrational transitions in molecules. It provides a valuable tool for probing molecular structure. IR spectroscopy works by detecting the frequencies at which molecules vibrate when absorbed infrared radiation. Different functional groups within molecules vibrate at characteristic frequencies, allowing IR spectroscopy to be used to determine a molecule's structure. It has various applications such as compositional analysis of organic compounds, detection of impurities, and analysis of aircraft exhausts and toxic gases.
Infrared spectroscopy involves using infrared light to analyze chemical bonding and structure. A Fourier transform infrared spectrometer directs infrared light through a sample, and detects the wavelengths absorbed to produce a spectrum. This spectrum can be analyzed to determine molecular structure based on the vibrational and rotational energies absorbed corresponding to different chemical bonds like C-H, C=O, and N-H. Infrared spectroscopy is widely used for structural analysis in fields like organic chemistry, biology, physics, and engineering.
Infrared spectroscopy can be used to identify organic compounds by analyzing their infrared absorption spectra. IR spectroscopy measures the vibrational frequencies of bonds in a molecule. Each type of bond absorbs infrared radiation at characteristic frequencies that appear as peaks in the IR spectrum. The presence or absence of peaks corresponding to common functional groups like C=O, O-H, N-H, etc. allows the identification of bonds and functional groups in an unknown sample.
An IR spectrum is a plot of percent transmittance (or absorbance) against wavenumber (frequency or wavelength). The interpretation of IR Spectra helps in the characterization of the unknown organic compound.
This document discusses the use of infrared spectroscopy (IR) to determine the functional groups of compounds. It provides background on IR spectroscopy, including how IR radiation causes molecular vibrations and the types of vibrational modes that can be observed. It also describes the basic components of IR instruments, including sources that emit IR radiation, detectors, and the mechanisms of dispersive and Fourier transform IR spectrometers. The document serves to explain how IR spectroscopy can be used to identify functional groups present in compounds based on their vibrational absorption spectra.
This document provides information about infrared spectroscopy, including:
- It describes the basic components and operation of infrared spectrometers, including dispersive and Fourier transform instruments.
- Infrared spectroscopy is used to identify organic and inorganic compounds by detecting their characteristic absorption of infrared radiation.
- Samples require only small amounts in the range of micrograms to analyze solids and liquids, and as low as parts per billion for gases.
Applications of IR (Infrared) Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical Industrywonderingsoul114
1. Infrared spectroscopy can be used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze compounds. It is used to identify unknown substances by comparing their IR spectra to reference standards.
2. The "fingerprint" region from 1200-700 cm-1 is particularly useful for identification because small molecular differences result in significant spectral changes in this region. Computer search systems can also identify compounds by matching IR spectra to profiles of pure compounds.
3. IR spectroscopy allows determination of molecular structures by identifying the presence or absence of functional groups from their characteristic absorption bands. It can also be used to study the progress of chemical reactions.
Infrared spectroscopy involves interaction of infrared radiation with matter. It covers absorption spectroscopy techniques and is conducted using an infrared spectrometer. The infrared region is divided into three regions based on wavelengths. Infrared spectroscopy follows Beer's law and analyzes the selective absorption bands in a sample's infrared spectrum to determine its molecular structure and identify functional groups, compounds, and impurities. It has applications in analyzing organic and inorganic compounds.
Predictive Modeling of Neutron Activation Analysis of Spent Nuclear Fuel for ...Raul Palomares
A method for the identification of observable radionuclides from neutron activation analysis of spent nuclear fuel was investigated. A predictive model was formulated using ORIGEN-ARP and nuclear decay data to predict neutron activation analysis results of two spent nuclear fuel samples with variable burnup values and cooling times. Model predictions were tested by performing thermal instrumental neutron activation analysis on the spent nuclear fuel samples using both cyclic and conventional irradiation methods. Preliminary results indicate neutron activation analysis was successful in identifying several stable and long-lived radionuclides predicted via model calculations but results appear limited to sample concentration. Spent nuclear fuel samples of higher specific activity are needed to further validate model results.
Applications of uv spectroscopy, by Dr. Umesh Kumar Sharma and Anu MathewDr. UMESH KUMAR SHARMA
This document discusses various applications of UV-visible spectroscopy. It begins by describing the basic principles of UV-visible absorption and transitions. It then discusses qualitative applications such as identification of compounds, detection of conjugation and functional groups, and characterization of inorganic complexes. Quantitative applications including determination of concentration, molecular weight, and chemical kinetics are also covered. The document concludes by discussing multicomponent analysis techniques like derivative spectroscopy and photometric titrations.
This document provides an overview of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. It discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and how infrared radiation lies between visible light and microwaves. Infrared spectroscopy works by detecting the vibrations of bonds between atoms in molecules as they absorb infrared light. An FT-IR uses an interferometer to measure an infrared spectrum with advantages of high sensitivity, accuracy, and resolution compared to other methods. The document outlines applications of infrared spectroscopy such as pharmaceutical analysis and environmental monitoring.
Fundamentals and Interpretation of Organic Compounds. Infra Red Spectroscopy.THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, INFRA RED REGIONS. MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS. HOOKE’S LAW. Fermi Resonance. Typical IR Absorption Regions. C-H STRETCHING VIBRATIONS.The O-H stretching region, Effect of Hydrogen-Bondingon O-H Stretching, The N-H stretching region. RESONANCE EFFECTS and HYDROGEN BONDING. HOW THESE FACTORS AFFECT C=O FREQUENCY. CONFIRMATION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP in IR.CONJUGATION AND RING SIZE EFFECTS in IR, Finger print region in IR.
XRF & XRD analysis techniques are used to analyze materials. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Over time, scientists developed an understanding of X-ray diffraction and how to use it for crystallography. By the mid-20th century, powder diffractometry techniques and databases had been established. X-rays are electromagnetic waves or photon beams with wavelengths between 0.01 to 10 nm, corresponding to energies from 0.125 to 125 keV. They can be hazardous due to their ionizing properties, requiring safety precautions as they are invisible, travel in straight lines at the speed of light, and can cause serious injury.
1) UV-Visible spectroscopy involves the study of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. It is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of compounds that absorb in the UV-Visible range.
2) Key applications include detection of functional groups and impurities, structure elucidation, and determination of concentration through Beer's Law.
3) Absorption maxima can shift due to effects like auxochromes, and absorption intensity can increase or decrease with effects like hyperchromicity and hypochromicity. These effects provide information about compound structure.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique used to detect metals and metalloids in samples. It works by heating the sample into a gaseous state, then passing it through a flame or furnace where it absorbs light from a lamp containing the element of interest. This absorption is measured to determine the element's concentration. The first atomic absorption spectrometer was developed in 1954. It uses the principle that free atoms can absorb radiation at specific frequencies to quantify the amount of a given element present. Modern instruments have improved components like graphite furnaces for heating samples and better light sources, detectors, and optics for higher sensitivity and precision.
This document provides an overview of medical x-ray equipment and radiological concepts. It discusses the nature and properties of x-rays, including their electromagnetic properties and interaction with matter. It describes the components of an x-ray tube, including the cathode, anode, window, and how x-rays are generated via the interaction of electrons with the anode. It also covers x-ray units and measurements, tissue contrast, the line focus principle, anode heel effect, x-ray spectra, tube ratings and heat load calculations to prevent thermal damage to tubes. Grids and collimators are discussed as methods to reduce dose by limiting the beam to the area of interest.
SPECTROSCOPY
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
HISTORY
PRINCIPLE
MODES OF VIBRATION
INSTRUMENTATION
SAMPLE HANDLING
FTIR (FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED) SPECTROMETER
PRINCIPLE
INSTRUMENTATION
WORKING
DISPERSIVE VERSUS FTIR
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF FTIR WITH APPLICATIONS
FACTORS AFFECTING VIBRATIONAL FREQUENCIES
IR SPECTRA REGION
IR SPECTRA INTERPRETATION
EXAMPLES
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IR
APPLICATIONS OF IR
Reference
This document discusses applications of infrared spectroscopy. It begins by explaining how infrared radiation corresponds to vibrational modes in molecules and can be used to identify functional groups and determine molecular structure. It then discusses specific applications such as identifying exchangeable hydrogens, determining substances, tracking organic nanoparticles in space, quantifying proteins, and various applications in food analysis, forensics, homeland security, medicine, and more. Infrared spectroscopy is a powerful analytical technique due to its non-destructive nature and ability to identify functional groups and analyze molecular structure and composition.
This document contains a Level-II radiography testing quiz with 37 multiple choice questions covering topics like isotopes, radiation interactions with matter, x-ray tube components and operation, radiation measurement units, and particle accelerators. The questions test knowledge of fundamental radiation and x-ray physics concepts important for nondestructive testing methods like radiography.
This document provides an overview of UV spectroscopy. It discusses electronic transitions that occur in the UV region, including σ → σ*, n → σ*, n → π*, and π → π* transitions. Selection rules that determine observable transitions are also covered. The Beer-Lambert law relating absorbance to concentration is introduced. Instrumentation for UV spectroscopy including various light sources, monochromators, and detectors is described.
UV/Visible spectroscopy involves electronic transitions that absorb light in the ultraviolet-visible region. There are several types of transitions including n→π*, π→π*, and σ→σ* transitions. The energy and wavelength of absorbed light depends on the difference between molecular orbital energies. Chromophores and auxochromes determine absorption properties, and solvents, concentration, and temperature can affect observed spectra. UV/Vis spectrometers contain a light source, monochromator, sample holder, and detector to measure absorption of light by a sample.
IR spectroscopy is the study of infrared spectra caused by vibrational transitions in molecules. It provides a valuable tool for probing molecular structure. IR spectroscopy works by detecting the frequencies at which molecules vibrate when absorbed infrared radiation. Different functional groups within molecules vibrate at characteristic frequencies, allowing IR spectroscopy to be used to determine a molecule's structure. It has various applications such as compositional analysis of organic compounds, detection of impurities, and analysis of aircraft exhausts and toxic gases.
Infrared spectroscopy involves using infrared light to analyze chemical bonding and structure. A Fourier transform infrared spectrometer directs infrared light through a sample, and detects the wavelengths absorbed to produce a spectrum. This spectrum can be analyzed to determine molecular structure based on the vibrational and rotational energies absorbed corresponding to different chemical bonds like C-H, C=O, and N-H. Infrared spectroscopy is widely used for structural analysis in fields like organic chemistry, biology, physics, and engineering.
Infrared spectroscopy can be used to identify organic compounds by analyzing their infrared absorption spectra. IR spectroscopy measures the vibrational frequencies of bonds in a molecule. Each type of bond absorbs infrared radiation at characteristic frequencies that appear as peaks in the IR spectrum. The presence or absence of peaks corresponding to common functional groups like C=O, O-H, N-H, etc. allows the identification of bonds and functional groups in an unknown sample.
An IR spectrum is a plot of percent transmittance (or absorbance) against wavenumber (frequency or wavelength). The interpretation of IR Spectra helps in the characterization of the unknown organic compound.
This document discusses the use of infrared spectroscopy (IR) to determine the functional groups of compounds. It provides background on IR spectroscopy, including how IR radiation causes molecular vibrations and the types of vibrational modes that can be observed. It also describes the basic components of IR instruments, including sources that emit IR radiation, detectors, and the mechanisms of dispersive and Fourier transform IR spectrometers. The document serves to explain how IR spectroscopy can be used to identify functional groups present in compounds based on their vibrational absorption spectra.
This document provides information about infrared spectroscopy, including:
- It describes the basic components and operation of infrared spectrometers, including dispersive and Fourier transform instruments.
- Infrared spectroscopy is used to identify organic and inorganic compounds by detecting their characteristic absorption of infrared radiation.
- Samples require only small amounts in the range of micrograms to analyze solids and liquids, and as low as parts per billion for gases.
Applications of IR (Infrared) Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical Industrywonderingsoul114
1. Infrared spectroscopy can be used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze compounds. It is used to identify unknown substances by comparing their IR spectra to reference standards.
2. The "fingerprint" region from 1200-700 cm-1 is particularly useful for identification because small molecular differences result in significant spectral changes in this region. Computer search systems can also identify compounds by matching IR spectra to profiles of pure compounds.
3. IR spectroscopy allows determination of molecular structures by identifying the presence or absence of functional groups from their characteristic absorption bands. It can also be used to study the progress of chemical reactions.
Infrared spectroscopy involves interaction of infrared radiation with matter. It covers absorption spectroscopy techniques and is conducted using an infrared spectrometer. The infrared region is divided into three regions based on wavelengths. Infrared spectroscopy follows Beer's law and analyzes the selective absorption bands in a sample's infrared spectrum to determine its molecular structure and identify functional groups, compounds, and impurities. It has applications in analyzing organic and inorganic compounds.
Predictive Modeling of Neutron Activation Analysis of Spent Nuclear Fuel for ...Raul Palomares
A method for the identification of observable radionuclides from neutron activation analysis of spent nuclear fuel was investigated. A predictive model was formulated using ORIGEN-ARP and nuclear decay data to predict neutron activation analysis results of two spent nuclear fuel samples with variable burnup values and cooling times. Model predictions were tested by performing thermal instrumental neutron activation analysis on the spent nuclear fuel samples using both cyclic and conventional irradiation methods. Preliminary results indicate neutron activation analysis was successful in identifying several stable and long-lived radionuclides predicted via model calculations but results appear limited to sample concentration. Spent nuclear fuel samples of higher specific activity are needed to further validate model results.
Applications of uv spectroscopy, by Dr. Umesh Kumar Sharma and Anu MathewDr. UMESH KUMAR SHARMA
This document discusses various applications of UV-visible spectroscopy. It begins by describing the basic principles of UV-visible absorption and transitions. It then discusses qualitative applications such as identification of compounds, detection of conjugation and functional groups, and characterization of inorganic complexes. Quantitative applications including determination of concentration, molecular weight, and chemical kinetics are also covered. The document concludes by discussing multicomponent analysis techniques like derivative spectroscopy and photometric titrations.
This document provides an overview of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. It discusses the electromagnetic spectrum and how infrared radiation lies between visible light and microwaves. Infrared spectroscopy works by detecting the vibrations of bonds between atoms in molecules as they absorb infrared light. An FT-IR uses an interferometer to measure an infrared spectrum with advantages of high sensitivity, accuracy, and resolution compared to other methods. The document outlines applications of infrared spectroscopy such as pharmaceutical analysis and environmental monitoring.
Fundamentals and Interpretation of Organic Compounds. Infra Red Spectroscopy.THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, INFRA RED REGIONS. MOLECULAR VIBRATIONS. HOOKE’S LAW. Fermi Resonance. Typical IR Absorption Regions. C-H STRETCHING VIBRATIONS.The O-H stretching region, Effect of Hydrogen-Bondingon O-H Stretching, The N-H stretching region. RESONANCE EFFECTS and HYDROGEN BONDING. HOW THESE FACTORS AFFECT C=O FREQUENCY. CONFIRMATION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUP in IR.CONJUGATION AND RING SIZE EFFECTS in IR, Finger print region in IR.
XRF & XRD analysis techniques are used to analyze materials. X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen. Over time, scientists developed an understanding of X-ray diffraction and how to use it for crystallography. By the mid-20th century, powder diffractometry techniques and databases had been established. X-rays are electromagnetic waves or photon beams with wavelengths between 0.01 to 10 nm, corresponding to energies from 0.125 to 125 keV. They can be hazardous due to their ionizing properties, requiring safety precautions as they are invisible, travel in straight lines at the speed of light, and can cause serious injury.
1) UV-Visible spectroscopy involves the study of the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. It is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis of compounds that absorb in the UV-Visible range.
2) Key applications include detection of functional groups and impurities, structure elucidation, and determination of concentration through Beer's Law.
3) Absorption maxima can shift due to effects like auxochromes, and absorption intensity can increase or decrease with effects like hyperchromicity and hypochromicity. These effects provide information about compound structure.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a technique used to detect metals and metalloids in samples. It works by heating the sample into a gaseous state, then passing it through a flame or furnace where it absorbs light from a lamp containing the element of interest. This absorption is measured to determine the element's concentration. The first atomic absorption spectrometer was developed in 1954. It uses the principle that free atoms can absorb radiation at specific frequencies to quantify the amount of a given element present. Modern instruments have improved components like graphite furnaces for heating samples and better light sources, detectors, and optics for higher sensitivity and precision.
This document provides an overview of medical x-ray equipment and radiological concepts. It discusses the nature and properties of x-rays, including their electromagnetic properties and interaction with matter. It describes the components of an x-ray tube, including the cathode, anode, window, and how x-rays are generated via the interaction of electrons with the anode. It also covers x-ray units and measurements, tissue contrast, the line focus principle, anode heel effect, x-ray spectra, tube ratings and heat load calculations to prevent thermal damage to tubes. Grids and collimators are discussed as methods to reduce dose by limiting the beam to the area of interest.
This document discusses neutron radiography techniques and applications. It describes the principles of neutron radiography and reviews techniques such as the direct exposure technique using gadolinium converter foil, the transfer technique using indium or dysprosium foil, and the track-etch technique using nitrocellulose film. The document also reviews applications of neutron radiography in fields such as the nuclear industry, other industrial uses, and non-industrial areas like biology and medicine.
It is an analytical technique uselful for detection of functional groups present in particular molecules and compounds.
It is highly applicable in pharmaceutical and chemical engineering.
This document is a 38-page seminar report on spectroscopy submitted by two students, Arpit Modh and Parth Kasodariya. It includes an introduction to spectroscopy, descriptions of various spectroscopy techniques like atomic absorption spectroscopy, infrared absorption spectroscopy, and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. The report covers principles, instrumentation, applications, and more for different spectroscopy methods. It aims to provide a basic review of spectroscopy and its uses in various important fields like structure analysis.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the principle, which is that IR radiation causes molecular vibrations when absorbed by bonds with a change in dipole moment. Factors affecting absorption frequencies and intensities are described. The instrumentation of an FTIR spectrometer is explained, including its source, interferometer, sample handling, and detectors. Various sample preparation techniques for analyzing solids, liquids, and gases are also outlined.
Mobility dependence of the temperature during of the growth
Original Research Article
Journal of Chemistry and Materials Research Vol. 1 (3), 2014, 56–59
Zehor Allam *, Abdelkader Hamdoune, Chahrazed Boudaoud, Aicha Soufi
Nanomaterial characterization techiniques by kunsa h. of ethiopiaKunsaHaho
FTIR spectroscopy, thermoluminescence, four point probe measurements, magnetic property measurements, and cyclic voltammetry are techniques described for characterizing nanomaterials. FTIR spectroscopy identifies functional groups using infrared absorption spectra. Thermoluminescence measures light emitted from a sample when heated after irradiation. Four point probe and impedance spectroscopy measure electrical conductivity and impedance. Magnetic properties are examined using SQUID magnetometry, VSM, ESR, and other methods by studying response to magnetic fields. Cyclic voltammetry evaluates redox reactions of nanomaterials.
This document provides an overview of infrared spectroscopy. It discusses the instrumentation used, including radiation sources, sample handling techniques for solids, liquids and gases, and various detectors. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is also introduced. Applications of infrared spectroscopy discussed include qualitative analysis for structure elucidation of organic compounds, and quantitative analysis using calibration curves and standard addition methods. Limitations and advantages of quantitative infrared methods are outlined.
The document describes the components and working of infrared (IR) spectrometers and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers. It discusses various IR sources like the Nernst glower, Globar, and tungsten filament lamp. It also describes optical components like entrance and exit slits, and detectors like thermal detectors and quantum detectors. The key advantages of FTIR spectrometers are provided, including higher resolution and throughput compared to dispersive instruments. Applications of IR and Raman spectroscopy in areas like drug analysis, fiber analysis, and biological analysis are also mentioned.
Seminar on Uv Visible spectroscopy by Amogh G VAmoghGV
PPT of seminar on UV Visible spectroscopy, electronic transitions, Instrumentation of Double beam spectrophotometers, Advantages of Double beam over single beam, Beer Lamberts law derivation
Initial irradiation studies of four types of silicon sensors for use in an ILC calorimeter found:
1) Sensors were irradiated with electrons of 3.5-10.6 GeV energy showering in tungsten, producing hadronic species similar to those in an electromagnetic calorimeter shower.
2) P-type and n-type sensors from different manufacturers were tested, receiving doses up to 220 MRad.
3) Depending on the sensor type, efficient charge collection was observed for doses as high as 220 MRad, indicating some sensor technologies may be suitable for use in the highly irradiated ILC calorimeter.
Measurement of energy loss of light ions using silicon surface barrier detectoreSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
This document provides information about the components of a CT scan system. It describes the console room, examination room, and control room. The console room contains graphic monitors, keyboards, mice, and computers. The examination room houses the patient table and gantry, which contains the x-ray tube, generators, detector array, and data acquisition system. The control room includes AC plants and UPS to provide backup power. The document then discusses the components in more detail, including monitors, computers, the patient table, gantry, x-ray tube, collimators, detectors, generators, slip rings, and data acquisition system.
This document discusses concepts and instruments used in dosimetry. It defines key terms like absorbed dose, exposure, and kerma. It explains dosimetry protocols like TG-51 and TRS-398 which provide standards for calibrating dosimeters. Common dosimeters discussed include ionization chambers like thimble chambers and parallel-plate chambers, as well as Geiger-Muller counters. Calibration of dosimeters involves various correction factors to account for influences like temperature, pressure and polarity.
Flame photometry is a technique used to analyze sodium and potassium levels. It works by atomizing a sample in a flame and measuring the intensity of light emitted at characteristic wavelengths. The intensity is proportional to concentration. It has applications in clinical analysis and industry. The key components are a burner, filters/monochromator, and detector. Quantitative analysis can be done using direct comparison, calibration curves, standard addition, or internal standard methods to determine unknown concentrations in samples.
Similar to L10 datta lecture on industrial radiation sources (20)
#1 guidelines for expression of stable isotope ratio resultsMahbubul Hassan
This document provides guidelines for expressing stable isotope measurement results in a clear and consistent manner. It aims to clarify terminology related to isotope ratios and relative differences in isotope ratios. Key recommendations include using the delta (δ) notation to express relative differences compared to a standard, specifying the isotope when using terms like "depleted" or "enriched", and following International System of Units guidelines for formatting numbers, units, and uncertainty values. The guidelines are intended to improve communication of isotopic data across scientific disciplines.
This document provides a guide for isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS). It describes the key components and functioning of elemental analyzer IRMS (EA-IRMS) and thermal conversion EA-IRMS systems. These systems involve converting samples to simple gases like CO2, N2, CO, and H2 using an elemental analyzer, then introducing the gases into a mass spectrometer for isotope ratio analysis. The guide outlines instrument setup, calibration, making measurements, data handling procedures, quality assurance, and troubleshooting topics to help users reliably obtain isotope ratio data.
This document provides guidelines for expressing stable isotope measurement results in a clear and consistent manner. It aims to clarify terminology related to isotope ratios and relative differences in isotope ratios. Key recommendations include using the delta (δ) notation to express relative differences compared to a reference standard, and specifying the isotope when using terms like "depleted" or "enriched". Measurement results should include associated uncertainties and be reported in a way consistent with international standards for quantities and units. The guidelines are intended to improve communication in scientific fields involving stable isotope measurements.
This document discusses stable isotope deltas, which are tiny yet robust signatures that can be measured in nature. It explains that two fundamental processes, isotopic fractionation and isotope mixing, are responsible for most stable isotope variations seen in terrestrial systems. Isotopic fractionation occurs through equilibrium or kinetic processes that fractionate isotopes due to small differences in their physical or chemical properties. Isotope mixing models can provide information about processes like 14C abundances in the atmosphere and past ocean isotopic compositions. The document also proposes a new unit called the "urey" to describe isotope deltas in a way that overcomes limitations of traditional units.
#2 determination of o 18 of water and c-13 of dic using simple modification o...Mahbubul Hassan
This document describes a method for determining the stable isotope ratios (d18O and d13C) of water and dissolved inorganic carbon using an elemental analyzer coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Small amounts of water sample are equilibrated with CO2 gas in sealed vials. The headspace CO2 is then injected into the elemental analyzer for analysis. The method requires only a simple modification to the elemental analyzer and provides precise results without extensive offline sample preparation. Reproducible results with a precision of better than 0.2% can be obtained for both water isotope and dissolved inorganic carbon ratios using this coupled approach.
13 c analyses of calcium carbonate comparison between gb and eaMahbubul Hassan
This document compares the GasBench and elemental analyzer techniques for analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition (d13C) of calcium carbonate samples. It analyzed the d13C of two in-house carbonate standards and ten paleosol samples using both techniques. The results found that for pure calcium carbonate samples, both techniques produced similar d13C values with comparable precision of better than 0.08%. However, the GasBench technique generally had slightly better precision, especially for samples with less than 85% calcium carbonate content. The study suggests the elemental analyzer technique can also be used to analyze the d13C of pure calcium carbonate samples.
Samples are prepared for 13C analysis of dissolved organic carbon by adding phosphoric acid and potassium persulfate to water samples to expel inorganic carbon and digest organic carbon. Samples are then flushed with helium and microwaved to completely release carbon dioxide. Samples are analyzed using continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometry where a sample aliquot is injected and analyzed by comparing isotopic ratios to a reference gas. Three internal carbon standards are prepared and analyzed under the same conditions as samples to calibrate results reported against an international reference material.
This document reviews normalization procedures and reference material selection for stable isotope analyses. It discusses that normalization methods using linear regression based on two or more reference standards are preferred over single-point normalization or normalization to a working gas. Using multiple reference standards that span the expected range of sample δ values and performing replicate measurements can reduce uncertainty by 50%. While chemical matching between reference materials and samples is important for some materials and techniques, like δ18O of nitrate or δ2H of hair, it is not always necessary. To ensure comparability, laboratories should report details of their normalization procedures and reference materials.
2016 new organic reference materials for h, c, n measurements supporting in...Mahbubul Hassan
This document describes 19 new organic reference materials developed for hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen stable isotope ratio measurements, in addition to analyzing 3 pre-existing reference materials. The new reference materials span a wide range of isotope values and include materials like caffeines, n-alkanes, fatty acid methyl esters, glycines, L-valines, polyethylenes, and oils. Eleven laboratories from 7 countries performed isotope ratio measurements of the materials using multiple analytical techniques. Bayesian statistical analysis was used to determine the mean isotope values for each material. The new reference materials will enable normalization of sample measurements to international isotope scales.
Absolute isotopic scale for deuterium analysis of natural watersMahbubul Hassan
This document defines an absolute isotopic scale for deuterium analysis of natural waters based on measurements of two reference standards - Standard Mean Ocean Water (SMOW) and Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation (SLAP). The absolute D/H ratios were measured through mass spectrometric comparison with calibration mixtures prepared in the laboratory. The results obtained are:
1) The absolute D/H ratio of SMOW is 155.76 ± 0.05 x 10-6.
2) The absolute D/H ratio of SLAP is 89.02 ± 0.05 x 10-6.
3) The δD value of SLAP relative to SMOW is -428.50 ±
Acid fumigation preparing c-13 solid samples for organic analysisMahbubul Hassan
1) The document provides tips for preparing difficult soil, sediment, filter, wood, and carbonate samples for 13C and 15N analysis, including removing inorganic carbonates from calcareous samples.
2) It recommends weighing samples into silver capsules, placing them in an acid desiccator to release carbon dioxide from carbonates over 6-8 hours, then drying and re-encapsulating samples in tin capsules for combustion.
3) The additional tin capsule acts as an important combustion catalyst and prevents leaks that could lose sample material during crimping.
Acid fumigation of soils to remove co3 prior to c 13 isotopic analysisMahbubul Hassan
This document describes a method for removing carbonates from soil samples prior to isotopic analysis of total organic carbon or carbon-13. It compares the effectiveness of acid fumigation using hydrochloric acid vapor versus acid washing. The key findings are:
1) Hydrochloric acid fumigation is highly effective at removing carbonates from soils, does not remove water-soluble organic carbon, and does not alter the carbon-13 signature of the residual soil organic matter.
2) Acid washing soils with hydrochloric acid, while removing carbonates, results in significant losses of total soil carbon and nitrogen as well as changes to the carbon-13 signature.
3) Hydrochloric acid f
Carbonate removal by acid fumigation for measuring 13 cMahbubul Hassan
This study evaluated a method of removing carbonates from soil samples using acid fumigation to allow for accurate measurement of soil organic carbon concentrations and isotopic signatures. Soil samples from two depths were exposed to hydrochloric acid vapors for varying time periods. Analysis found that a minimum of 30 hours of exposure was needed to remove all carbonates from surface soil samples containing 0.80% inorganic carbon, while 56 hours was required for subsurface samples containing 1.94% inorganic carbon. The rate of inorganic carbon removal was similar to previous studies. A correction factor was also used to account for mass changes during fumigation to allow accurate determination of soil organic carbon concentrations.
Carbonate removal from coastal sediments for the determination of organic c a...Mahbubul Hassan
The document compares two methods for removing inorganic carbon from samples to isolate organic carbon for analysis: the aqueous method using hydrochloric acid (HClaq) and the vaporous method using hydrochloric acid vapor (HClvap). It evaluates the methods based on their ability to have low blank levels, efficiently remove dolomite, yield accurate measurements of organic carbon percentage and isotopic signatures (δ13C and Δ14C). The vaporous method met all criteria if samples were not overexposed to acid. The aqueous method gave similar results but was less reliable and consistently underestimated organic carbon percentage. Optimal acid exposure times need to be determined for each sample type to obtain the most accurate isotopic measurements.
This document provides an overview of stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) and its forensic applications. IRMS is a technique that can help distinguish between sources of the same substance. It does this by measuring the natural variations in isotope ratios present due to fractionation effects during chemical and physical processes. The document reviews how IRMS has been used to individualize samples in cases involving explosives, ignitable liquids, and illicit drugs. It also discusses the delta notation and standards used to report isotope ratio data and the kinetic and thermodynamic fractionation effects that create characteristic isotope ratio signatures.
Improved method for analysis of dic in natural water samplesMahbubul Hassan
This improved method allows for the isotopic and quantitative analysis of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in natural water samples. It involves injecting an aliquot of water into a glass tube containing phosphoric acid, which converts the DIC into gaseous and aqueous carbon dioxide. After 15-24 hours of equilibration, a portion of the headspace gas, mainly carbon dioxide, is introduced into a gas chromatograph coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer to measure the carbon isotope ratio and determine the δ13C value of DIC. Standard solutions are used to calibrate the method and account for carbon isotope fractionation between gaseous and aqueous carbon dioxide phases. The method can analyze around 50 samples per day and
This document provides an introduction to isotopic calculations, including:
- Methods for expressing isotopic abundances using terms like atom percent and fractional abundance.
- Isotopic mass balance calculations for combinations of materials and isotope dilution analyses.
- The delta notation used to express differences in isotopic composition between samples.
- How fractionations between isotopes can provide information about isotope effects and processes samples have undergone.
- How the reversibility of reactions and whether systems are open or closed impact isotopic distributions between reactants and products at equilibrium.
Isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) is a technique that determines the relative abundances of isotopes in a sample to find its geographic, chemical, and biological origins. Variations in isotope ratios of elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen occur through kinetic and thermodynamic processes and can differentiate between chemically identical samples. IRMS instruments precisely measure subtle differences in natural isotope abundances to provide information in many fields. Sample introduction is usually through elemental analyzers, gas chromatography, or liquid chromatography interfaced with an IRMS instrument.
Measurement of slap2 and gisp 17 o and proposed vsmow slap normalizationMahbubul Hassan
The document presents new measurements of the δ17O values of SLAP2 and GISP ice core water samples. It aims to establish a standardized δ17O value for SLAP to improve normalization and reduce discrepancies in reported δ17O and 17Oexcess values between laboratories. The authors measured the samples on a mass spectrometer and recommend defining SLAP to have δ18O = -55.5‰ and 17Oexcess = 0, yielding an approximate δ17O value of -29.6968‰. Using this normalization, their measured values of GISP were δ17O = -13.16 ± 0.05‰ and 17Oexcess = 22 ± 11 per meg. They conclude
Method of sampling and analysis of 13 c dic in groundwatersMahbubul Hassan
This document describes a new method for analyzing the stable carbon isotopic composition (δ13C) of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in groundwater samples. The method uses a gas evolution technique where water samples are injected into vials containing phosphoric acid, which causes the DIC to evolve as CO2 gas. The vials are then analyzed using an automated continuous-flow gas preparation system coupled to an isotope ratio mass spectrometer. This allows for fast (10 minute) analysis of DIC δ13C with high precision (0.1‰) and accuracy. The method is robust, requires minimal field handling, and is well-suited for large sample batches analyzed using an autosampler.
UN WOD 2024 will take us on a journey of discovery through the ocean's vastness, tapping into the wisdom and expertise of global policy-makers, scientists, managers, thought leaders, and artists to awaken new depths of understanding, compassion, collaboration and commitment for the ocean and all it sustains. The program will expand our perspectives and appreciation for our blue planet, build new foundations for our relationship to the ocean, and ignite a wave of action toward necessary change.
Jennifer Schaus and Associates hosts a complimentary webinar series on The FAR in 2024. Join the webinars on Wednesdays and Fridays at noon, eastern.
Recordings are on YouTube and the company website.
https://www.youtube.com/@jenniferschaus/videos
Contributi dei parlamentari del PD - Contributi L. 3/2019Partito democratico
DI SEGUITO SONO PUBBLICATI, AI SENSI DELL'ART. 11 DELLA LEGGE N. 3/2019, GLI IMPORTI RICEVUTI DALL'ENTRATA IN VIGORE DELLA SUDDETTA NORMA (31/01/2019) E FINO AL MESE SOLARE ANTECEDENTE QUELLO DELLA PUBBLICAZIONE SUL PRESENTE SITO
This report explores the significance of border towns and spaces for strengthening responses to young people on the move. In particular it explores the linkages of young people to local service centres with the aim of further developing service, protection, and support strategies for migrant children in border areas across the region. The report is based on a small-scale fieldwork study in the border towns of Chipata and Katete in Zambia conducted in July 2023. Border towns and spaces provide a rich source of information about issues related to the informal or irregular movement of young people across borders, including smuggling and trafficking. They can help build a picture of the nature and scope of the type of movement young migrants undertake and also the forms of protection available to them. Border towns and spaces also provide a lens through which we can better understand the vulnerabilities of young people on the move and, critically, the strategies they use to navigate challenges and access support.
The findings in this report highlight some of the key factors shaping the experiences and vulnerabilities of young people on the move – particularly their proximity to border spaces and how this affects the risks that they face. The report describes strategies that young people on the move employ to remain below the radar of visibility to state and non-state actors due to fear of arrest, detention, and deportation while also trying to keep themselves safe and access support in border towns. These strategies of (in)visibility provide a way to protect themselves yet at the same time also heighten some of the risks young people face as their vulnerabilities are not always recognised by those who could offer support.
In this report we show that the realities and challenges of life and migration in this region and in Zambia need to be better understood for support to be strengthened and tuned to meet the specific needs of young people on the move. This includes understanding the role of state and non-state stakeholders, the impact of laws and policies and, critically, the experiences of the young people themselves. We provide recommendations for immediate action, recommendations for programming to support young people on the move in the two towns that would reduce risk for young people in this area, and recommendations for longer term policy advocacy.
karnataka housing board schemes . all schemesnarinav14
The Karnataka government, along with the central government’s Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), offers various housing schemes to cater to the diverse needs of citizens across the state. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the major housing schemes available in the Karnataka housing board for both urban and rural areas in 2024.
Food safety, prepare for the unexpected - So what can be done in order to be ready to address food safety, food Consumers, food producers and manufacturers, food transporters, food businesses, food retailers can ...
World Food Safety Day 2024- Communication-toolkit.
L10 datta lecture on industrial radiation sources
1. 1
5th BAERA Training Course on Radiation Protection for
Radiation Control Officers (RCOs) of Industrial Practices
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Regulatory Authority
Agargaon, Dhaka
06-09 November 2017
L10: Radiation Sources & Equipment used in NDT, Well-
Logging, Irradiator and Nucleonic Gauge Practices
1
4. 4
RADIATION: A form of energy.
What is
Ionization?
Nonionizing radiation
Laser radiation: includes
ultraviolet, visible, and
infrared light
Although ultraviolet light
produces ions, but it is
considered as
nonionizing radiation
Total energy, E = hf = h c/
Electric
waves
-ray is the radiation emitted by nuclei and x-ray refers to radiation originating in transitions of atomic electrons.
5. 5
RADIOACTIVITY: Radiation from an unstable atom.
Diameter of an atom~10-10 m
Diameter of a nucleus~10-14 m
Unstable nuclei emit radiation.
How can you determine stability?
6. 6
Nuclear Stability
If there are either too many or too few neutrons for a given number of protons, the
resulting nucleus is not stable and it undergoes radioactive decay.
The number of isotopes for each element varies from 3 to 29.
Of about 1800 different nuclides known, only about 20% are stable.
The stability of the nucleus depends on the ratio of neutrons to protons.
The number of protons for known nuclides is shown plotted against the number of neutrons in above
figure.
Pl. Notice: There are more neutrons than protons in nuclides with Z>20 (Ca)
Lacking in neutron:
+ decay, p is transformed into neutron
Excess in neutron:
- decay, n is transformed into proton
N
O 15
7
15
8
F
O 19
9
19
8
Zero rest mass
No electrical charge
Both forms of -decay, the emitted electrons
appear with a continuous energy spectrum
max
max
3
.
0
:
4
.
0
:
E
E
E
E
7. 7
Laws of radioactive
decay
N = number of radionuclide atoms
present at time t
A = activity
=decay constant
t1/2 = half-life (specific property)
t
t
o
t
t
o
t
t
o
t
o
e
A
A
a
from
e
N
N
t
t
e
e
N
N
a
e
N
N
N
dt
dN
N
dt
dN
A
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
693
.
0
693
.
0
2
1
2
1
0
]
_
[
693
.
0
2
ln
2
1
2
]
[
8. Einstein’s theory of relativity
• Einstein’s 1905 theory of relativity states that energy and matter
are equivalent, being different manifestations (appearance) of the
same thing.
• Their equivalence is given by: E = mc2
E = energy (joule)
m = mass of matter (kg)
c = velocity of light (3x108 m/s)
• For a proton or a neutron, the energy equivalence of its mass is
E (1 amu) = (1.67x10-27 kg) x (3x108 m/s)2
= 1.5x10-10 joule
= 931x106 eV (1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joules)
= 931 MeV
• Similarly, for an electron, E (me) = 0.51 MeV
13. 13
NDT
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
X RAY RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT
ACCELERATORS
PIPE CRAWLER EQUIPMENT
REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY
NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
13
14. 14
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
Reference Books: 10 CFR PART 34--LICENSES FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY AND
RADIATION SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHIC OPERATIONS
14
15. 15
NDT
Industrial radiography is the process
of using radiation to “see” inside
manufactured products such as
metal castings or welded pipelines to
find out whether the products contain
flaws.
It is not to be confused with the use
of ionizing radiation to change or
modify objects; radiography's
purpose is strictly viewing.
Industrial radiography has grown out
of engineering, and is a major
element of nondestructive testing. It
is a method of inspecting materials
for hidden flaws by using the ability
of short X-rays and Gamma rays to
penetrate various materials.
15
In February 1896, a
French scientist,
Henri Becquerel,
discovered radiation
coming from a
uranium bearing
mineral.
In December 1895,
a German scientist.
Wilhelm Roentgen,
discovered x-rays.
In 1898, Pierre
(French) and Marie
Curie (Polish)
discovered radiation
coming from radium.
The curie is a non-SI unit defined as that amount of
radioactivity which has the same disintegration rate as
1 gram of Ra-226 (3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second,
or 37 GBq)
16. 16
Iridium-192 is ideal for radiography, but other radionuclides can be used, depending
on the characteristics of the test object material.
A sealed radiography source will not make other things radioactive unless the source
is leaking.
16
The decay of iridium-192. It takes 75 days for
half of the iridium-192 to decay away. After
75 days an iridium-192 source has lost half
of its radioactivity.
Remember: A 1-cuire iridium source does not give the same
radiation dose as a 1-cuire cobalt source, why?
The iridium source and the cobalt source both have exactly
the same number of disintegrations per second, and a
disintegration of each produces about 2 gamma rays. But the
average energy of a gamma rays from cobalt is about twice
as great as the average energy of gamma rays from iridium.
So, the dose rate around the cobalt source will be greater
than the dose around the iridium source.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
17. 17
Example:
Cobalt-60 has a half life of just over 5 years. If we start with 100 curies, how
much will we have in 20 years?
Answer: Twenty years is equal to 4 half-lives. Therefore, the activity will be
100x1/2x1/2x1/2x1/2 = 6 ¼ curies.
17
D = D0
r0
r
æ
è
ç
ö
ø
÷
2
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
18. 18
Example
For a 100-curie iridium source, at what distance will the dose rate be 100
mR/hr ? [dose rate at 1 foot from a 1-cuire Iridium-192 source is 5.2 R/hr or
about 5 R/hr and for a 1-cuire Cobalt-60 source is 14.0 R/hr]
By using the inverse square law,
18
D = D0
r0
r
æ
è
ç
ö
ø
÷
2
Þ100mR / hr=100Ci´5R / hr / Ci
1ft
r
æ
è
ç
ö
ø
÷
2
Þr@70 ft....... Ans.
[ ]
If Maximum permissible doses (MPDs) = 5 rems/year = 50 mSv/year = 5
R/year, then calculate the safe distance. [1 year = 50 week x 5 days x 8 hours]
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
19. 19
Must follow this guidelines:
19
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
20. 20
20
Class P: Portable exposure container, designed to be carried by one or
more persons. The mass of a Class P container does not exceed 50 kg.
Class M: Mobile, but not portable, exposure container designed to be
moved easily by a suitable means provided for the purpose, for example
a trolley.
Class F: Fixed, installed exposure container or one with mobility
restricted to the confines of a defined working location, such as a
shielded enclosure.
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
21. 21
Each exposure container or a metallic plate fixed to the container is to be permanently and
indelibly marked by engraving, stamping or other means with approved details including:
(a) the basic ionizing radiation symbol complying with the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO 361);
(b) the word RADIOACTIVE in letters not less than 10 mm in height;
(c) the maximum rating of the exposure container for the intended radionuclides in (Bq);
(d) ISO 3999 [10] or equivalent standard and edition which the exposure container and its
accessories conform to;
(e) the exposure container manufacturer’s name, the model number and serial number of the
device;
(f) the class, category and total mass of the exposure container;
(g) the mass of depleted uranium shielding, if applicable, or the indication ‘Contains depleted
uranium.’
In addition, the exposure container displays a durable fireproof label or tag bearing information
about the radioactive source contained in the exposure device, including:
(a) the chemical symbol and mass number of the radionuclide;
(b) the activity and date on which it was measured in Bq (or Ci);
(c) the identification number of the sealed source; and
(d) the identity of the source manufacturer.
21
GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES AND CONTAINERS
22. 22
X RAY RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT
Two types of portable X ray tube assemblies (also called tubeheads) are common for
performing panoramic (radial beam) and directional exposures.
The tube assembly is connected by cable to the control panel.
The dose to the radiographer is affected by the
cable length, X ray tube parameters and the tube assembly.
Where radiography cannot be carried out in a shielded enclosure, cable lengths
typically are no less than 20 m for X ray generators up to 300 kV and longer for
equipment with higher tube potentials.
Cables are laid out as straight as possible to maximize the benefit of distance
between radiographer and tube assembly.
22
23. 23
The following features of the X ray assembly are necessary:
Leakage radiation penetrates the wall of the X ray tube assembly to produce dose
rates other than those in the main beam. The penetrating power of leakage radiation
depends on the tube voltage and is particularly important when X ray tubes are
operated at more than 500 kV.
Data on the maximum dose rates due to leakage radiation at the assembly’s surface
and at 1 m from the tube target are documented by the manufacturer and are
available for review by the Regulatory Authority. Typical maximum dose rate values
of leakage radiation from commercial assemblies are up to 100 μSv·h-1 at 1 m from
the target.
The X ray tube assembly has a support that maintains the tube position without
tipping, slipping or vibrating during the operation of the machine.
23
X RAY RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT
24. 24
ACCELERATORS
Accelerators can be used to generate high energy X rays (typically, 5 MeV) for radiographic
examinations requiring highly penetrating radiation.
If the object to be radiographed will fit into an enclosure, then the X rays can be generated by a
large accelerator. This can be a linear accelerator housed in a shielded room adjacent to the
shielded radiography enclosure.
Radiographic examinations of large structures such as bridges are done on site, and accelerators
for this type of work are smaller, usually cyclotrons.
A mobile accelerator may be mounted on a large vehicle (e.g. truck) with the accelerator head
being mounted on a gantry to enable positioning of the radiation beam.
A portable accelerator (Fig. 9) can be transported in a small vehicle (e.g. car) and carried into
position by the radiographers. The portable accelerator weighs approximately 100 kg, with the
ancillary equipment (e.g. controller, control panel, warning signals) being of similar weight.
24
25. 25
PIPE CRAWLER EQUIPMENT
Pipe crawler equipment is used to radiograph welds on pipelines.
The machines carry either an X ray tube assembly or a gamma source on a mobile
carriage which crawls along the inside of the pipe.
They are powered either by batteries on the carriage, an internal combustion engine
or trailing cables from a generator.
The crawler is activated and controlled by the radiographer from outside the pipe by
using a control source which normally consists of a low activity (137Cs) sealed
source mounted in a hand-held device and collimated.
Radiation from the control source is received by a detector on the crawler. Typically,
the control source is moved along the outside of the pipe to initiate the crawler to
move in the desired forward or reverse direction.
The control source is held against the outside of the pipe to make the crawler stop
and wait, and an exposure begins automatically about 10 s after the control source is
abruptly removed from the pipe’s surface. Some X ray crawlers are fitted with a low
activity ‘tell-tale’ radioactive source to help to identify the crawler’s position in the
pipeline.
The pipe crawler and the control source are to be prepared and transported in
accordance with the requirements of IAEA Safety Standards Series No. ST-1 [7]. A
gamma pipeliner crawler is shown in Fig. 10, and Fig. 11 shows the general
construction.
25
27. 27
REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY
A variety of exposure devices are in use or under development for special applications.
In order to keep pace with faster welding techniques and commercial production needs, real time
radiography, which is also called fluoroscopic imaging, uses digitally processed images displayed
on a high resolution monitor instead of on conventional X ray film.
The X ray tubehead or exposure container is mounted diametrically opposite a radiation detector.
The objects to be radiographed are brought in front of the exposed source by using a conveyor
system, or the source and the detector are rotated around the object by a computer controlled
motor. Both methods produce a digitized image on a screen.
The person interpreting the radiographic image views the meter on several monitors and must
decide to accept or reject each image before the system proceeds to the next frame.
A real time system allows radiography of large cast housings, as shown in Fig. 12.
27
28. 28
NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY
Although still in its infancy, neutron radiography is being steadily developed.
The range of applications includes the use of steady state and pulsed
beams of neutrons over a range of energies: subthermal, thermal,
epithermal and fast.
In contrast to X and gamma rays, neutrons more easily penetrate heavy
metals such as steel, lead and uranium but neutrons are absorbed or
scattered in low density hydrogenous substances and certain materials
such as hydrides, boron, plastics, cadmium and gadolinium.
Neutron sources include both radioisotopes and accelerators.
28
31. 31
Well Logging
Well logging sources and devices are generally found in areas where
exploration for minerals is occurring, such as searching for coal, oil, natural
gas, or similar uses.
The sources are usually contained in long (1–2 m, typically) but thin (<10
cm in diameter) devices which also contain detectors and various electronic
components.
The actual size of the sources inside the devices is generally small. The
devices are heavy, due to the ruggedness needed for the environments in
which they are to be used.
The activity of such sources usually ranges from several tens to several
hundreds of GBq. The most commonly used nuclides for gamma sources
are Cs-137 and Co-60 while Am-Be, Cf, and Ra-Be are used as neutron
sources.
31
33. 33
33
Well Logging
The source usually consists of a chemical compound of the radionuclide (e.g. americium oxide,
radium sulphate, radium bromide, polonium oxide) mixed with the light element powder (e.g.
beryllium, boron, calcium fluoride, lithium hydroxide).
The sources contain a significant amount of actinide activity and its mixture with light material
makes leakage a serious radiological hazard.
Actual logging probes are more complicated and include secondary radiation detection equipment
as well as the power supply and electronic systems associated with radiation detection data
processing and control.
When dealing with such equipment as waste, design data and associated diagrams, as well as
source removal/replacement procedures, should be available.
Such sources are regularly transported in Type A or B neutron shielded containers between
facilities, and present no significant transport difficulties.
Although seen as Category 2 [2], oil well logging sources emit neutrons which cannot be
measured with normal GM tube type detectors. This implies that these sources, when lost, may be
overlooked as dangerous whereas neutrons are many times more biologically damaging than
beta/gamma radiation.
Furthermore, neutron interaction with matter is strongly dependent on the neutron energy. This
should be observed when dealing with such sources especially for shielding design.
34. 34
There are four common nuclear logging techniques:
(1) The first, sometimes called the gamma measurement technique (different logging companies may
use brand names), simply measures and identifies the gamma rays emitted by naturally occurring
radionuclides in rocks to help distinguish the shale content of sedimentary rocks and aid
lithological identification. The log records the uranium, thorium and potassium content of the
rocks.
(2) The second technique, which provides a neutron–neutron or compensated neutron log,
demands a radioactive source of up to several hundred gigabecquerels of 241Am–Be or Pu–Be in
the tool to emit 4–5 MeV neutrons. An elongated skid hydraulically presses the tool against the
wall of the well and two radiation detectors, located at different distances from the source in the
tool, measure the neutrons backscattered by the rock formation. The relationship between the two
readings provides a porosity index for the rock. This indicates how porous the rock is and whether
it is likely to contain hydrocarbons or water.
34
Well Logging
35. 35
(3) The third technique uses a tool, the gamma–gamma or density tool, which contains
two detectors and a 137Cs source, usually of up to 75 GBq. The amount of gamma
backscatter from the formation provides the density log that, together with the porosity
log, is a valuable indicator of the presence of gas. A brand name may refer to this
technique.
(4) The fourth technique, termed neutron–gamma logging, employs a tool that houses
a miniature linear accelerator. It contains up to several hundred gigabecquerels of tritium
(3H), a very low energy beta particle emitter. When a high voltage (typically 80 kV) is
applied to the device, it accelerates deuterium atoms (2H) that bombard the tritium target
and generate a large number of very high energy (14–15 MeV) neutrons in pulses lasting
a few microseconds. Certain nuclides become radioactive when hit by this neutron flux,
and their subsequent radioactive decay within the next few milliseconds can be
monitored when the process is repeated a great number of times per second. Either the
gamma radiation emitted as the activated atoms decay or the thermal neutron decay
characteristics are measured to identify the activated species of atoms [14]. The chlorine
or salt water content of the rocks is of particular interest. A brand name may refer to this
technique.
35
Well Logging
38. 38
Irradiator
Ionizing radiation can modify physical, chemical and biological properties of the
irradiated materials. At present, the principal industrial applications of radiation are
sterilization of health care products including pharmaceuticals, irradiation of food and
agriculture products (for various end objectives, such as disinfestation, shelf life
extension, sprout inhibition, pest control and sterilization), and materials modification
(such as polymerization, polymer crosslinking and gemstone colourization).
38
39. 39
A significant impetus was given to the radiation processing industry with the advent of
nuclear reactors, which have the capability to produce radioisotopes. Gamma ray
emitters like cobalt-60 became popular radiation sources for medical and industrial
applications. Many gamma ray irradiators have been built and it is estimated that
about 200 are currently in operation in Member States of the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA). In recent times, the use of electron accelerators as a
radiation source (and sometimes equipped with X ray converter) is increasing.
39
Irradiator
40. 40
In a radiation process, a product or material is intentionally irradiated to preserve,
modify or improve its characteristics. This process is carried out by placing the
product in the vicinity of a radiation source (such as cobalt-60) for a fixed time interval
whereby the product is exposed to radiation emanating from the source. A fraction of
the radiation energy that reaches the product is absorbed by the product; the amount
depending on its mass and composition, and time of exposure. For each type of
product, a certain amount of radiation energy is needed to realize the desired effect in
the product; the exact value is determined through research.
Radioactive material, such as a cobalt-60 source, emits radiation. However, the
product that is irradiated with gamma rays does not become radioactive, and thus it
can be handled normally. This is similar to X ray examination in a hospital for
diagnostic purposes; the patient is exposed to radiation (X rays) but he/she does not
become radioactive.
40
Irradiator
41. 41
The radionuclide cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co27) is the most commonly used source of
gamma radiation for radiation technology, both for industrial and medical purposes.
Production of radioactive cobalt starts with natural cobalt (metal), which is an element
with 100% abundance of the stable isotope cobalt-59. Cobalt-rich ore is rare and this
metal makes up only about 0.001% of the earth’s crust. Slugs (small cylinders) or
pellets made out of 99.9% pure cobalt sintered powder and generally welded in
Zircaloy capsules are placed in a nuclear power reactor, where they stay for a limited
period (about 18–24 months) depending on the neutron flux at the location.
While in the reactor, a cobalt-59 atom absorbs a neutron and is converted into a
cobalt-60 atom. During the two years in the reactor, a small percentage of the atoms
in the cobalt slug are converted into cobalt-60 atoms.
Specific activity is usually limited to about 120 Ci/g of cobalt (about 4 °— 1012
Bq/g). After irradiation, the capsules containing the cobalt slugs are further
encapsulated in corrosion resistant stainless steel to finally produce the finished
source pencils in a form such that gamma radiation can come through but not the
radioactive material (cobalt-60) itself (see Fig. 3).
The required source geometry is obtained by loading these source pencils into
predetermined positions in source modules, and distributing these modules over the
source rack of the industrial irradiator (see Fig. 4).
41
Irradiator
42. 42
Irradiator
Cobalt-60 (60Co27) decays (disintegrates) into a stable (non-radioactive) nickel
isotope (60Ni28) principally emitting one negative beta particle (of maximum energy
0.313 MeV) with a half-life of about 5.27 years (see Fig. 5).
Nickel-60 thus produced is in an excited state, and it immediately emits two photons
of energy 1.17 and 1.33 MeV in succession to reach its stable state. These two
gamma ray photons are responsible for radiation processing in the cobalt-60
gamma irradiators.
With the decay of every cobalt-60 atom, the strength or the radioactivity level of the
cobalt source is decreasing, such that the decrease amounts to 50% in about 5.27
years, or about 12% in one year. Additional pencils of cobalt-60 are added
periodically to the source rack to maintain the required capacity of the irradiator.
Cobalt-60 pencils are eventually removed from the irradiator at the end of their useful
life, which is typically 20 years.
42
43. 43
Generally they are returned to the supplier for re-use, recycling or disposal. In about
50 years, 99.9% of cobalt-60 would decay into non-radioactive nickel.
The current inventory of cobalt-60 in all the irradiation facilities around the world
would amount to more than 250 million curies [6]. Thus, it is important to realize the
vital role the nuclear power reactors play in bringing countless benefits to our lives
through use of cobalt in medical as well as industrial radiation applications.
43
Irradiator
44. 44
Table A.I shows different levels of radiation dose that are relevant for various major
radiation applications. The commercial industrial applications are generally referred to
as ‘radiation processing’ and the relevant dose range may be referred to as ‘radiation
processing dose’ or ‘high dose’.
Dose rate is the dose given in unit time and is determined by the activity of the
radiation source and the irradiation geometry. It is measured in, for example kGy/h or
Gy/s. Dose rate in a research irradiator can be up to 20 kGy/h. In an industrial facility
(for example, with 3 MCi of cobalt-60), it can be as high as 100 kGy/h near the
source, but on the average it is around 10 kGy/h.
44
Irradiator
47. 47
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
There are several hundred thousand nucleonic control systems (NCS) or nucleonic gauges
installed in industry all over the world. They have been widely used by various industries to
improve the quality of product, optimize processes, save energy and materials. The economic
benefits have been amply demonstrated and recognized by industry. Looking at trends in the
industrialization process of developing countries, there is evidence that NCS technology will
continue to play an important role in industry for many years to come.
Nucleonic control systems (NCS) are defined here as: “Control by instrumental measurement
and analysis as based on the interaction between ionizing radiation and matter”. There are several
ways of applying the NCS, among them:
On-line (process),
Off-line (process),
In situ (well logging),
Used in laboratory (on samples), and
Portable, for site measurements.
Simple nucleonic gauges first began to be used in industry over forty years ago. Since then, there
has been a continuous expansion in their usage. The competition from alternative methods shows
that NCS have survived and prospered in the past because of their superiority in certain areas to
conventional methods. The success of NCS is due primarily to the ability, conferred by their
unique properties, to collect data, which cannot be obtained by other investigative techniques.
47
48. 48
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
PRINCIPLES OF NUCLEONIC GAUGES
A nucleonic gauge consists of a suitable source (or a number of sources) of alpha, beta, gamma,
neutron or X ray radiation arranged in a fixed geometrical relationship with one or more radiation
detectors. Most of nucleonic gauges are based on a few most common nuclear techniques.
Natural gamma-ray technique
NCS based on natural gamma-ray technique utilize the correlation between natural gamma-ray
intensity measured in one or more pre-selected energy windows and the concentration of
particular elements (e.g. U, Th, K) or the value of a given parameter of interest (e.g. ash in coal).
Transmission
In the basic configuration of a transmission gauge the media to be measured is placed between
the radioactive source and the detector so that the radiation beam can be transmitted through it
(Fig.1). The media attenuates the emitted radiation (beta particles or photons) before reaching the
sensible volume of the detector. Both source and detector can be collimated. The radiation
intensity in the detector is a function of several parameter characteristics of the material.
48
49. 49
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
49
The beta source
activities usually range
from 40 MBq to
40 GBq while gamma
sources usually contain
between 0.4
and 40 GBq.
50. 50
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
Dual energy gamma-ray transmission (DUET)
This technique is probably the most common nucleonic method for on-the-belt
determination of ash content in coal. Ash content is determined by measuring the
transmission through coal of narrow beams of low and high-energy gamma rays (Fig.
2). The absorption of the lower energy gamma rays depends on ash content, due to
its higher average atomic number than that of coal matter, and on the mass per unit
area of coal. The absorption of the higher energy gamma rays depends almost
entirely on the mass per unit area of coal in the beam. Ash content is determined by
combining measurements of the two beams. The determination is independent of
both the bed thickness and the mass of the coal. The technique is also applicable to
the analysis of complex fluid flow where multiple energy beams are usefully applied.
50
51. 51
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
Backscattering
Whenever a radiation beam interacts with matter a fraction of it is transmitted, a
fraction absorbed and a fraction is scattered from its original path (Fig. 3). If the
scattering angle is greater than 90o some photons or particles will come back
towards the original emission point; the measurement of this radiation is the basis of
the backscattering method.
51
52. 52
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
Gamma-ray backscatter
Measurement of radiation emitted by a stationary gamma-ray source placed in the
nucleonic gauge and back-scattered from atoms of investigated matter enables some
properties of this matter to be determined. The gamma-rays interact with atomic
electrons resulting in scattering and absorption. Some of these gamma-rays emerge
back from the investigated mater with degraded energy and intensity (count rate)
characterizing the bulk density and the average chemical composition of the matter.
Neutron scattering (moderating)
Fast neutrons of high energies emitted from the neutron source collide with nuclei of
investigated matter reducing their energy. In general, neutrons lose more energy on
collision with light nuclei than with heavy nuclei. Due to its light nucleus hydrogen is
most effective in moderating neutrons from the source. As hydrogen is major
constituent of most liquids detection of the liquid through container walls is possible,
as well as measurement of the moisture (hydrogen density) of soils, coke or other
materials.
52
54. 54
Nucleonic Gauge Practices
Reactive Gauges
Certain low energy gamma and X rays can ionize specific atoms, causing them to
emit fluorescent X rays of characteristic energy. The detector measurement of the
fluorescent X rays indicates not only the presence of the specific atoms but also the
amount in the material. This principle is used by gauges which analyse the
constituents of materials such as ores and alloys and by gauges that measure the
thickness of coatings on substrates of dissimilar materials.
Electrically operated high energy neutron generators can be used to induce non-
radioactive substances to become radioactive. The radionuclides formed emit
characteristic gamma rays which can be identified by their energy. These gauges or
logging tools are used to prospect for oil.
54
The source
activities
used range
from about
200 MBq to
40 GBq.