This document summarizes a study that evaluated Thorstein Veblen's theory of "invidious comparison" and how it applies to class and status differences in leisure interests from 1929-1960. The study analyzed how economic factors like employment, costs, and time affect the relationship between social class and leisure activities. It hypothesized that upper classes would show more interest in leisure during economic downturns when resources are scarce, while lower middle classes would be more interested in leisure during favorable economic periods. The document outlines the variables and data sources used to test these hypotheses regarding how shifting economic conditions structure class leisure interests over time.
This document provides an introduction and preface to the book "Family in Society" by Floyd M. Martinson. It discusses the sociological perspective taken in the book to analyze the American family as a social system within society and how it is impacted by cultural and social forces. The preface explains that the book will focus on examining the American family within one society, rather than making comparisons between many different societies, in order to avoid oversimplification. It also discusses how studying the American family over its long history provides insights from various "natural experiments" like changes from rural to urban life that impact family structures and functions.
This document discusses the relevance of social class and socioeconomic status to the field of public administration. It notes that social equity and issues of social class have been marginalized in public administration programs and journals. The economic downturn and rising inequality have implications for public services. Strategies are proposed for incorporating issues of social class into MPA/MPP programs through expanded admissions criteria, research on social class, and inclusion in core courses.
Social Strategy Shift: Avoiding Globalization ThreatsPavel Luksha
The document discusses threats posed by globalization and how societies have employed different meta-strategies throughout history to cope with these threats, including genetic suppression, warfare, and economic suppression. It argues that societies are currently shifting from an economic suppression strategy towards a cultural dissemination strategy, as seen in developed countries. This strategic shift presents both opportunities to resolve global crises caused by globalization but also uncertainties that must be addressed for a sustainable transition to a new social system.
This document summarizes theories of marginalization and applies them to analyze homelessness in America. It defines the underclass as those furthest from social integration due to unemployment and poverty. The American Dream ideology equates social worth with employment and wealth, marginalizing the homeless. Theories discussed view marginalization as unwanted exclusion from social participation. The homeless experience both chronic (long-term due to disabilities) and short-term homelessness, but both subgroups are seen as the underclass. Marginalization results from an individual's incomplete participation in social norms and practices due to poverty and unemployment.
Race, Class, and Law in a Capitalist Democracy: A Poster Flowchartelegantbrain
A "poster flowchart" that explains the relationship between race, class, and law in capitalist democracies--such as the United States. Includes a timeline of the racialization of United States from the colonial period to the present, and a chart of the United States military industrial complex.
Dilemmas In A General Theory of PlanningMarc Danziger
This document discusses the differences between "tame" problems that scientists deal with versus "wicked" problems faced in policy and planning. It argues that policy problems cannot be definitively described, have no objective public good or definition of equity, and have no truly correct or optimal solutions. Even determining goals and defining problems in social systems is very difficult due to complex interactions and unintended consequences. The nature of these wicked problems means that the classical scientific approaches used by professionals are not applicable to social issues.
Willow Smith's album Ardipithecus critiques modern society's level of consciousness and calls for a return to spiritual values through songs discussing topics like ancient civilizations, mysticism, and higher states of awareness. The album is an ideological critique of capitalism and classism, arguing they preserve social hierarchies that oppress non-dominant groups. Specifically, her song "Organization and Classification" criticizes how social constructs of class and race limit perception and divide society. It asserts these systems strategically benefit those in power by exploiting others.
This document provides an introduction and preface to the book "Family in Society" by Floyd M. Martinson. It discusses the sociological perspective taken in the book to analyze the American family as a social system within society and how it is impacted by cultural and social forces. The preface explains that the book will focus on examining the American family within one society, rather than making comparisons between many different societies, in order to avoid oversimplification. It also discusses how studying the American family over its long history provides insights from various "natural experiments" like changes from rural to urban life that impact family structures and functions.
This document discusses the relevance of social class and socioeconomic status to the field of public administration. It notes that social equity and issues of social class have been marginalized in public administration programs and journals. The economic downturn and rising inequality have implications for public services. Strategies are proposed for incorporating issues of social class into MPA/MPP programs through expanded admissions criteria, research on social class, and inclusion in core courses.
Social Strategy Shift: Avoiding Globalization ThreatsPavel Luksha
The document discusses threats posed by globalization and how societies have employed different meta-strategies throughout history to cope with these threats, including genetic suppression, warfare, and economic suppression. It argues that societies are currently shifting from an economic suppression strategy towards a cultural dissemination strategy, as seen in developed countries. This strategic shift presents both opportunities to resolve global crises caused by globalization but also uncertainties that must be addressed for a sustainable transition to a new social system.
This document summarizes theories of marginalization and applies them to analyze homelessness in America. It defines the underclass as those furthest from social integration due to unemployment and poverty. The American Dream ideology equates social worth with employment and wealth, marginalizing the homeless. Theories discussed view marginalization as unwanted exclusion from social participation. The homeless experience both chronic (long-term due to disabilities) and short-term homelessness, but both subgroups are seen as the underclass. Marginalization results from an individual's incomplete participation in social norms and practices due to poverty and unemployment.
Race, Class, and Law in a Capitalist Democracy: A Poster Flowchartelegantbrain
A "poster flowchart" that explains the relationship between race, class, and law in capitalist democracies--such as the United States. Includes a timeline of the racialization of United States from the colonial period to the present, and a chart of the United States military industrial complex.
Dilemmas In A General Theory of PlanningMarc Danziger
This document discusses the differences between "tame" problems that scientists deal with versus "wicked" problems faced in policy and planning. It argues that policy problems cannot be definitively described, have no objective public good or definition of equity, and have no truly correct or optimal solutions. Even determining goals and defining problems in social systems is very difficult due to complex interactions and unintended consequences. The nature of these wicked problems means that the classical scientific approaches used by professionals are not applicable to social issues.
Willow Smith's album Ardipithecus critiques modern society's level of consciousness and calls for a return to spiritual values through songs discussing topics like ancient civilizations, mysticism, and higher states of awareness. The album is an ideological critique of capitalism and classism, arguing they preserve social hierarchies that oppress non-dominant groups. Specifically, her song "Organization and Classification" criticizes how social constructs of class and race limit perception and divide society. It asserts these systems strategically benefit those in power by exploiting others.
Sociological review annual lecture: Dr Imogen Tyler Alex Dunedin
shared via the Ragged University after getting permission from the journal and the speaker.
The content of the talk is to unpack the problems surround the portrayal of poverty and disembodiment of the term class from discourse. Starting with an analysis of popularly dubbed 'poverty porn' she then spends time rooting down into what language is used in reportage and what concepts are helpful to deconstruct the Neoliberal cultural shifts we are seeing today.
Mass society, mass culture and mass communication steps towards defining the ...Alexander Decker
This academic article discusses the concepts of mass society, mass culture, and mass communication. It provides an overview of how French, German, and American sociologists viewed and defined the concept of "mass" in the early to mid-1930s. The article then examines in depth the work of prominent scholars like Tarde, Park, Simmel, Tonnies, Wallas, and Lippman and how they analyzed mass society and the role of public opinion. It explores ideas around crowds, collective behavior, propaganda, and stereotypes. The conclusion reiterates that the effects of mass communication on masses can influence behaviors and limit independent thinking.
Women, Work, And Poverty: Gender Norms And The Intersectionality Of Biasmaxbury
This document provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several sources that examine the intersection of gender, labor, and poverty. The sources discuss how social norms have historically constrained women's roles and wages. They also analyze the complex experiences and challenges faced by groups like single mothers, minority women, and women factory workers in developing countries. The overall purpose is to provide a collective understanding of the hardships women face in the global economy.
Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Leslie White, Allen Johnson and Timothy Earle, and Stephen Sanderson all produced linear theories of history, social change and cultural evolution but their theories have a common deficiency. None of them provide an ultimate explanation for social cultural and historical change. This failure was rectified by J. S. Mill who suggested increasing human knowledge was the ultimate cause of social, cultural and historical change. However even Mill did not ask what caused the increasing human knowledge and why the knowledge had to be acquired in a particular order and how this could affect human history.
This document provides an overview of key topics in gender studies, including definitions of sex, gender, and sexual orientation. It discusses both biological and social constructionist perspectives on gender, as well as different feminist theories regarding gender inequality, including liberal, socialist/Marxist, and radical feminism. The core ideas of these feminist theories are outlined, such as their views on patriarchy, capitalism, and the role of the family in perpetuating women's subordination.
Social Inequality in Industrial SocietiesM.A Haque
This document provides an outline for a presentation on the expansion of social inequality in industrial societies. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of inequality, Karl Marx's view that industrial societies can be divided into bourgeoisie owners and proletariat workers, and the forms inequality takes in areas like income, wealth, occupation, and education. Life styles vary between social classes in industrial societies. Social inequality exists within a system and influences patterns at both the national and global levels.
This document provides an introduction and background for an ethnographic study of the rise of female organizers of color as leaders within the Los Angeles labor movement. It discusses how women of color have historically faced marginalization within male-dominated unions. However, it notes that women now make up half the unionized workforce. The study will explore through participatory observation how female organizers of color have implemented strategies to gain leadership positions during a time of restructuring in the labor movement. It will examine their strategies and whether they have achieved real authority within systems that have historically devalued them.
Mills argues that to understand society, one needs a "sociological imagination" that allows them to see how individual experiences are shaped by broader social and historical forces. He distinguishes between "personal troubles" which are private issues affecting individuals, and "public issues" which transcend individuals and have to do with problems in social structures and institutions. Personal troubles can only be addressed within an individual's immediate context, while public issues require examining how social groups and historical periods influence many individuals. Having a sociological imagination means being able to connect private troubles to their public and structural context.
This document summarizes the key differences between cultural studies and political economy approaches in media studies. Cultural studies focuses on how audiences interpret and make meaning from media, while political economy examines the political and economic forces that influence media production and content. Both seek to understand power dynamics but cultural studies emphasizes how media allows for oppositional views, while political economy views media as promoting ruling ideologies. The document traces the historical relationship between the two approaches and argues they can be integrated to provide a more comprehensive analysis.
Este documento presenta una lista de ofertas de tartas y postres a la venta. Incluye información sobre diferentes tipos de tartas como tarta de queso, tiramisu y zanahoria y plátano, indicando los ingredientes, tamaños, precios por plancha y por porción. También incluye opciones individuales como tiramisu individual, tarta de queso individual y banoffee individual, con precios por unidad. Por último, presenta opciones de mini tartas temáticas por docena.
Mogie Ramsamy has over 20 years of experience in customer service, administration, and accounting roles. She has worked primarily for UTi Sun Couriers in various permanent and temporary positions, including customer service representative, key account representative, quality assessor/trainer, and claims coordinator. Her roles have involved tasks like data entry, bookkeeping, customer service, training, quality assessment, and claims processing. She has skills in Microsoft Office, various industry-specific software, and customer service. References are provided from former managers at UTi Sun Couriers.
A educação à luz do digital: o olhar da economia da educação - Hugo ReisJosé Moura Carvalho
Apresentação eletrónica utilizada pelo Prof. Doutor Hugo Reis, Banco de Portugal e Universidade Católica Portuguesa, durante a sua intervenção no painel "A Educação à luz do digital: o olhar da economia da educação", que teve lugar nas instalações da Fundação Portuguesa das Comunicações, no dia 28 de janeiro de 2016.
Introduction de base sur le RESEAU LOCAL INDUSTRIEL CAN et AS-I Réalisé par: MOUSSIDENE Abdelkader
j'ai brièvement expliquer la différence entre le système de communication industriel As-I et CAN
I think teachers and students share some of the same benefits of CyberLearning. The knowledge base is nearly limitless and opportunities for collaboration abound. While teachers do save quite a bit of time in having access to materials and information, the vast wealth of that information can be overwhelming too! And while having such access can present some ethical and legal temptations, it is an opportunity to clearly and explicitly teach the moral and societal implications and duties of ethical behavior on the Web -- Web 2.0.
Brent Wieland took the Focus career assessment which identified his top five career matches: construction manager, athlete's business manager, benefits manager, business professor, and casino manager. These careers all involve aspects of management and business administration, which align with Wieland's goal of becoming an entrepreneur and owning his own business.
Wieland's areas of study, landscape studies, agricultural sciences, and general business, also relate to his career interests in business administration and management. The assessment further categorized Wieland's work interests as enterprising, realistic, and artistic. These indicate a preference for leadership, physical activity, and creativity.
Taking the Focus Assessment helped Wieland understand his suitability for careers in
2016 elections: what it means for business, jobs and you!www.andrewbusch.com
This document discusses the 2016 US elections and various tax plans proposed by Republican and Democratic candidates. It summarizes the key points of tax plans from Trump, Cruz, Rubio, Clinton, and Sanders. It then analyzes which industries or sectors may benefit or be hurt by the different plans. The document concludes by discussing international tax reform, energy policy, and free trade agreements as areas Congress may address before the 2016 elections.
Outline report on membrane structure and functionRonald Sato
The document provides an overview of membrane structure and function. It discusses how the phospholipid bilayer is arranged, with hydrophilic portions facing the inner and outer aqueous environments and hydrophobic portions interacting in the middle. It also describes how transmembrane proteins can change shape upon binding molecules, and how the shape of viral surface proteins allows binding to host cell receptors. Finally, it explains how solutes can move through cell membranes against concentration gradients using cotransporters that harness ion gradients.
Sociological review annual lecture: Dr Imogen Tyler Alex Dunedin
shared via the Ragged University after getting permission from the journal and the speaker.
The content of the talk is to unpack the problems surround the portrayal of poverty and disembodiment of the term class from discourse. Starting with an analysis of popularly dubbed 'poverty porn' she then spends time rooting down into what language is used in reportage and what concepts are helpful to deconstruct the Neoliberal cultural shifts we are seeing today.
Mass society, mass culture and mass communication steps towards defining the ...Alexander Decker
This academic article discusses the concepts of mass society, mass culture, and mass communication. It provides an overview of how French, German, and American sociologists viewed and defined the concept of "mass" in the early to mid-1930s. The article then examines in depth the work of prominent scholars like Tarde, Park, Simmel, Tonnies, Wallas, and Lippman and how they analyzed mass society and the role of public opinion. It explores ideas around crowds, collective behavior, propaganda, and stereotypes. The conclusion reiterates that the effects of mass communication on masses can influence behaviors and limit independent thinking.
Women, Work, And Poverty: Gender Norms And The Intersectionality Of Biasmaxbury
This document provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several sources that examine the intersection of gender, labor, and poverty. The sources discuss how social norms have historically constrained women's roles and wages. They also analyze the complex experiences and challenges faced by groups like single mothers, minority women, and women factory workers in developing countries. The overall purpose is to provide a collective understanding of the hardships women face in the global economy.
Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Leslie White, Allen Johnson and Timothy Earle, and Stephen Sanderson all produced linear theories of history, social change and cultural evolution but their theories have a common deficiency. None of them provide an ultimate explanation for social cultural and historical change. This failure was rectified by J. S. Mill who suggested increasing human knowledge was the ultimate cause of social, cultural and historical change. However even Mill did not ask what caused the increasing human knowledge and why the knowledge had to be acquired in a particular order and how this could affect human history.
This document provides an overview of key topics in gender studies, including definitions of sex, gender, and sexual orientation. It discusses both biological and social constructionist perspectives on gender, as well as different feminist theories regarding gender inequality, including liberal, socialist/Marxist, and radical feminism. The core ideas of these feminist theories are outlined, such as their views on patriarchy, capitalism, and the role of the family in perpetuating women's subordination.
Social Inequality in Industrial SocietiesM.A Haque
This document provides an outline for a presentation on the expansion of social inequality in industrial societies. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of inequality, Karl Marx's view that industrial societies can be divided into bourgeoisie owners and proletariat workers, and the forms inequality takes in areas like income, wealth, occupation, and education. Life styles vary between social classes in industrial societies. Social inequality exists within a system and influences patterns at both the national and global levels.
This document provides an introduction and background for an ethnographic study of the rise of female organizers of color as leaders within the Los Angeles labor movement. It discusses how women of color have historically faced marginalization within male-dominated unions. However, it notes that women now make up half the unionized workforce. The study will explore through participatory observation how female organizers of color have implemented strategies to gain leadership positions during a time of restructuring in the labor movement. It will examine their strategies and whether they have achieved real authority within systems that have historically devalued them.
Mills argues that to understand society, one needs a "sociological imagination" that allows them to see how individual experiences are shaped by broader social and historical forces. He distinguishes between "personal troubles" which are private issues affecting individuals, and "public issues" which transcend individuals and have to do with problems in social structures and institutions. Personal troubles can only be addressed within an individual's immediate context, while public issues require examining how social groups and historical periods influence many individuals. Having a sociological imagination means being able to connect private troubles to their public and structural context.
This document summarizes the key differences between cultural studies and political economy approaches in media studies. Cultural studies focuses on how audiences interpret and make meaning from media, while political economy examines the political and economic forces that influence media production and content. Both seek to understand power dynamics but cultural studies emphasizes how media allows for oppositional views, while political economy views media as promoting ruling ideologies. The document traces the historical relationship between the two approaches and argues they can be integrated to provide a more comprehensive analysis.
Este documento presenta una lista de ofertas de tartas y postres a la venta. Incluye información sobre diferentes tipos de tartas como tarta de queso, tiramisu y zanahoria y plátano, indicando los ingredientes, tamaños, precios por plancha y por porción. También incluye opciones individuales como tiramisu individual, tarta de queso individual y banoffee individual, con precios por unidad. Por último, presenta opciones de mini tartas temáticas por docena.
Mogie Ramsamy has over 20 years of experience in customer service, administration, and accounting roles. She has worked primarily for UTi Sun Couriers in various permanent and temporary positions, including customer service representative, key account representative, quality assessor/trainer, and claims coordinator. Her roles have involved tasks like data entry, bookkeeping, customer service, training, quality assessment, and claims processing. She has skills in Microsoft Office, various industry-specific software, and customer service. References are provided from former managers at UTi Sun Couriers.
A educação à luz do digital: o olhar da economia da educação - Hugo ReisJosé Moura Carvalho
Apresentação eletrónica utilizada pelo Prof. Doutor Hugo Reis, Banco de Portugal e Universidade Católica Portuguesa, durante a sua intervenção no painel "A Educação à luz do digital: o olhar da economia da educação", que teve lugar nas instalações da Fundação Portuguesa das Comunicações, no dia 28 de janeiro de 2016.
Introduction de base sur le RESEAU LOCAL INDUSTRIEL CAN et AS-I Réalisé par: MOUSSIDENE Abdelkader
j'ai brièvement expliquer la différence entre le système de communication industriel As-I et CAN
I think teachers and students share some of the same benefits of CyberLearning. The knowledge base is nearly limitless and opportunities for collaboration abound. While teachers do save quite a bit of time in having access to materials and information, the vast wealth of that information can be overwhelming too! And while having such access can present some ethical and legal temptations, it is an opportunity to clearly and explicitly teach the moral and societal implications and duties of ethical behavior on the Web -- Web 2.0.
Brent Wieland took the Focus career assessment which identified his top five career matches: construction manager, athlete's business manager, benefits manager, business professor, and casino manager. These careers all involve aspects of management and business administration, which align with Wieland's goal of becoming an entrepreneur and owning his own business.
Wieland's areas of study, landscape studies, agricultural sciences, and general business, also relate to his career interests in business administration and management. The assessment further categorized Wieland's work interests as enterprising, realistic, and artistic. These indicate a preference for leadership, physical activity, and creativity.
Taking the Focus Assessment helped Wieland understand his suitability for careers in
2016 elections: what it means for business, jobs and you!www.andrewbusch.com
This document discusses the 2016 US elections and various tax plans proposed by Republican and Democratic candidates. It summarizes the key points of tax plans from Trump, Cruz, Rubio, Clinton, and Sanders. It then analyzes which industries or sectors may benefit or be hurt by the different plans. The document concludes by discussing international tax reform, energy policy, and free trade agreements as areas Congress may address before the 2016 elections.
Outline report on membrane structure and functionRonald Sato
The document provides an overview of membrane structure and function. It discusses how the phospholipid bilayer is arranged, with hydrophilic portions facing the inner and outer aqueous environments and hydrophobic portions interacting in the middle. It also describes how transmembrane proteins can change shape upon binding molecules, and how the shape of viral surface proteins allows binding to host cell receptors. Finally, it explains how solutes can move through cell membranes against concentration gradients using cotransporters that harness ion gradients.
Chapter 12Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge .docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 12
Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge Chapter Overview Chapter 12 begins by defining the differences be- tween two similar concepts: equity and equality. It then reviews the history of efforts to address educational equity since the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Current social inequalities are explained, including such political–economic dimensions as income, employment, housing, and political power differences among different ethnic and gender groups. The chapter then turns from social inequalities to educational inequalities among various so- cial groups. The social construction of different ethnic, gender, and economic groups’ status in schools is considered. While particular attention is paid to African Americans and Latinos, Asian Americans and students with disabilities are also considered. The Primary Source reading points out specifics regarding socio-economic, ethnic and racial dimensions of the “achievement gap. Educational Aims in Contemporary Society Analytic Framework Diversity and Equity Today IIdeollogy Equal opportunity Meritocracy Genetic deficit theory Cultural deficit theory Racism Sexism Class bias Disability bias Social construction of which human differences matter Political Economy Social inequalities: Racial and ethnic Gender Economic class Diversity across and within groups Inequalities in employment Effects of poverty and racism on families Income versus wealth differences Education for All Handicapped Children Act Schooling Inequalities in educational resources Inequalities in educational expectations Standardized achievement test differences Educational attainment differences Language differences and school achievement Inclusion of students with disabilities in “mainstream” classrooms Gender and learning differences No Child Left Behind Introduction: Inequity and Inequality From its very origins American society has struggled with questions of equity and equality. Although these terms derive from the same linguistic stem, they carry sub- stantially different meanings. Equality denotes “equal”; equity, “fair.” Even as an ideal, democracy does not call for an identical existence for each citizen or promise to equalize outcomes. In theory, democratic ideals of freedom marry well with ideals of economic freedom. Robert N. Carson wrote the original draft of this chapter. Those who have the most skill and talent, work hard- est, and have the best luck are expected to prosper in a free market economy. The free market is supposed to structure a system of rewards that bring out the produc- tive best in people. In practice, however, this theory is questionable. It assumes that the starting conditions for everyone allow for fair competition or, at the very least, that social institutions treat everyone fairly. British economic historian R. H. Tawney draws the distinction in this manner: [To] criticize inequality and to desire equality is not, as is sometime.
This document summarizes and compares two theories on the causes of poverty: Oscar Lewis's "culture of poverty" theory from 1966 and Karen Seccombe's 2000 structural theory. Lewis argued that a subculture forms among the poor, characterized by things like dependency, lack of paternal authority, and hostility towards authorities, that perpetuates poverty. However, Seccombe contends that structural factors in the US economy and government are more to blame, such as declining manufacturing jobs and welfare cuts. While Lewis only studied a small sample, Seccombe analyzed large-scale national data. Ultimately, the document concludes that poverty has multiple interconnected causes, both cultural aspects within poor communities and deficiencies in societal institutions.
Whether you are using the works of Lenski, Svalastoga, Sorokin, .docxhelzerpatrina
Whether you are using the works of Lenski, Svalastoga, Sorokin, or the data using Brazil as an example, please use the passage to support your own interpretation of how social stratification manifests itself in American society, and how it may work to the benefit or detriment of society as a whole.
Societal Stratification
ARCHIBALD O. HALLER
Encyclopedia of Sociology. Vol. 4. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. p2864-2874.
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2001 Macmillan Reference USA, COPYRIGHT 2006 Gale, COPYRIGHT 2007 Gale, Cengage Learning
Listen
Page 2864
SOCIETAL STRATIFICATION
Societal stratification phenomena are the relatively enduring, hierarchically ordered relationships of power among the units of which society is composed. The smallest units are adults, gainfully employed men and/or women, nuclear families, or sometimes extended families or households. Such units are ordered from highest to lowest in terms of power: political power, acquisitional power, the power of prestige, and the power of informational standing. Everybody experiences stratification every day, although a person often notices it only in the sense that some people seem better or worse off than he or she is. Social thinkers, powerful people, and revolutionaries have always been especially concerned with stratification.
Page 2865 | Top of Article
Secure knowledge of the varying forms stratification structures may take is important because of the effects those structures have on many aspects of human experience, such as people's dreams of a better life, efforts to improve their situations, strivings for success, fear of failure, sympathy for the less fortunate, envy of others' good fortune, and even feelings about revolution.
A complete understanding of stratification requires several kinds of knowledge: first, what stratification structures consist of and how they vary; second, the individual and collective consequences of the different states of those structures; and third, the factors that make stratification structures change. This article reviews current thinking on the first of these elements.
HISTORY: CLASSICAL THEORY
Two different lines of thought inform modern theory on societal stratification. One is classical theory; concerned with political power and privilege, it employs historical evidence. The other is the empirical tradition, which deals with systematic data on stratification as it exists contemporarily. Present-day theory of the behavior of stratification phenomena can be traced to Karl Marx's challenge to the manufacturing and financial elites of his day. Behind his concerns and those of the working class for which he was Europe's chief spokesman for many years lay the great economic and political upheavals of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
The American and French revolutions and their aftermath culminated in legislation that made adults in many countries equal before the law. The related wave of emancipation of slaves and serf ...
Thorstein Veblen was a pioneering American economist and sociologist who developed an evolutionary approach to economics. He was the primary mentor of institutional economics and opposed neoclassical economics. Veblen saw economic behavior and organization as socially and individually determined processes that evolved over time, driven by human instincts. His best-known work was The Theory of the Leisure Class, where he discussed how instincts of emulation and predation lead to conspicuous consumption and waste as ways to signal status.
The document summarizes a theory that revolutions are most likely to occur when a period of social and economic progress is followed by a short period of sharp reversal. This creates expectations of continued progress among the populace that are frustrated when conditions deteriorate. Three examples are discussed in more detail: Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island in 1842, the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. All are said to fit a pattern where a period of gains is followed by threats to those gains, fueling a revolutionary mood. The goal is to understand the conditions that lead to revolution or prevent its occurrence.
This document discusses the rise and development of sociology. It begins by explaining how sociology emerged in post-16th century Western Europe in response to major political, economic, and cultural transformations including the rise of capitalism and industrialization. It then discusses how sociology specialized and developed further in the 19th century to study and explain aspects of the new, modernizing society. The document focuses particularly on the early contributions of sociological thinkers like Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber in conceptualizing this new modern society and establishing sociology as an academic discipline. It traces the institutionalization of sociology within universities and discusses some of the dominant theoretical perspectives in subsequent periods including functionalism in the postwar United States.
The Mayflower Compact Essay Example - PHDessay.com. The Mayflower Compact Worksheet Answers. Mayflower compact essay - bibliographysetup.x.fc2.com. 13 Mayflower Compact Primary Source. Museum of American History on emaze. PPT - Civics PowerPoint Presentation, free download - ID:2789884. Importance Of The Mayflower Compact Free Essay Example. Mayflower Compact - Original Document. The Mayflower Compact | campconstitution.net. The Mayflower Compact (1620) - Free Printable Version | Mayflower .... Mayflower Compact American Document Analysis Activity U.S. Settlement .... True Source of Political Authority - Oak Brook College of Law. Mayflower Compact Essay.
Barrera, Chapter 1 “Introduction” (1-3 only)
1. Present the three theories of racial inequality introduced by Barrera in this chapter.
Barrera, Chapter 2 “The Nineteenth Century, Part I: Conquest and Dispossession”
1. According to Barrera, what were the three key developments influencing the social, political and economic status of Chicanos in the Southwest during the Nineteenth Century?
2. Barrera presents six explanations for U.S. expansion into the Southwest and for the Mexican American War. How many different explanations did you find in this chapter?
a. What reasons do each of these 6 explanations offer for U.S. expansion?
b. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of these explanations?
3. Compare the various means by which land was transferred in California to how it was transferred in New Mexico and Texas. In other words, in what different ways were Chicanos displaced from the land?
4. When did Mexico win its independence from Spain?
Race and Class
in the Southwest
A Theory of Racial Inequality
Mario Barrera
UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME PRESS
NOTRE DAME - LoNDON
-.
•
CHAPTER I
Introduction
AT THE CONCLUSION of the Mexican American War in 1848, the United
States added a vast and potentially rich territory to its possessions. This
territory, while by no means densely settled, was certainly not unpopulated.
In addition to numerous Native American groups, the area that is now called
the Southwest contained a number of former Mexican citizens who, in terms
of their origin, were part Indian, part Spanish, and part African. Separated by
vast reaches of terrain and internally divided. by class distinctions, this
Spanish-speaking population nevertheless had a certain common identity
which has persisted up to the present day. This group has responded at
different times and in different places to various designations. Mexican
American, Mexican, Latin American, Hispano, and Latino are some of the
more common variations, Chicano being the most recent. Neither the variety
of labels, however, nor the undeniable heterogeneity of this group should
conceal the very real sense of a common origin and a common fate. The
concept of ''La Raza,'' probably the most generally accepted self-designation
(and properly understood as "the people" rather than "the race") best ex-
presses this feeling of unity.
While one major source of this group identity is a cultural heritage with
certain core common elements, another and very important source has been
the collective perception of injustice based on a fundamental and persistent
condition of group inequality with respect to the "Anglos" in American
society (the term "Anglos" as used by Chicanos refers to all Americans not
members of a racial minority, and not just to those who trace their origin to the
British Isles). The perception of injustice has been the motive for innumerable
planned as well as spontaneous political activi ...
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Three grand sociological theoriesWhich of the three grand so.docxjuliennehar
This document provides an overview of structural functionalism, one of the three main theoretical perspectives in sociology for analyzing the relationship between individuals and society. Structural functionalism, as developed by Talcott Parsons, views society as composed of institutions called subsystems that function to meet society's needs and maintain stability. These subsystems include the economy, education, family, government, and religion. The document also outlines Parsons' hierarchy of four interacting systems - biological organism, personality, social system, and cultural system - to explain human behavior and interaction from individual to societal levels.
This document discusses social stratification and social mobility in the United States. It defines stratification as a system that ranks social groups and perpetuates unequal rewards and power. It examines different stratification systems throughout history such as slavery, castes, estates, and social classes. It discusses sociological perspectives on stratification from functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists. It also discusses how stratification is measured objectively based on factors like occupation, education, income and how this determines one's social class.
The document discusses factors related to assessing an individual's social class position, including objective measures used by the government and subjective self-identification. It also examines how perceptions of the working class in the UK have changed over time, with more viewing it negatively and associating it with terms like "chav" that carry stigma, though some argue this demonization in the media has undermined traditional working class identity and pride.
International Advances in Engineering and Technology (IAET) .docxnormanibarber20063
International Advances in Engineering and Technology (IAET)
ISSN: 2305-8285 Vol.13 January 2013
www.scholarism.net International Scientific Researchers (ISR)
58
Gender Differences in Religious Practice and Significance
Linda Woodhead
For reasons which merit separate analysis, the Sociology of Religion has lagged
behind many other fields in taking gender seriously. Whilst small-scale, ethnographic
studies have been most likely to recognise the significance of gender, dominant
theoretical frameworks within the Sociology of Religion often remain gender-blind.
Although there has been some debate about why women, in the West at least, are
more religious than men,
1
this has largely taken place in isolation from what are still
considered to be the „big‟ issues in the sociological analysis of religion, most notably
issues concerning the growth and decline of religion in modern societies.
This inattention to gender contrasts with the liveliness of gender studies within the
academy in recent decades. There have been a number of significant advances in
theorising gender, most notably in three related areas. First, the idea that a distinction
can be drawn between a biologically-given „sex‟ and a socially-constructed „gender‟
has been widely discredited. Historical studies like Laqueur (1990) demonstrate that
sex is historically and culturally variable, with the modern idea of two separate sexes
representing a shift away from the longer-established western view that there is a
single male sex, of which the female is an inferior manifestation. The „sex and
gender‟ model has also been undermined by a model of sex/gender as produced in and
by social processes and performances (Butler, 1999), or as a form of „social
embodiment‟ (Connell, 2002). The latter view stresses the mutual constitution of
bodies and social processes, such that it is impossible to prise them apart, whilst the
former tends to reduce the bodily to the social. Second, rejection of the „sex and
gender‟ model is bound up with a rejection of the idea that there are „two spheres‟ of
masculinity and femininity or male and female. Psychological research on sex
difference has failed to find any large or universal differences between men and
women (for a summary see Kimmel, 2000), and there is a growing awareness that in
different cultural contexts gender can be viewed as one or as many, rather than as
binary. Finally, these developments have rendered talk about „sex roles‟ – a term
which implies a sex and gender model – problematic. The idea that individuals are
socialised into sex roles in childhood has been supplemented by the idea that
sex/gender differences are continually negotiated throughout the life-course, in a
process which is active as well as passive. Thus investigation into „femininities‟ and
„masculinities‟ is replacing study of „sex roles‟, on.
Social inequality refers to unequal distribution of resources, power, and status within societies. The document discusses how Bourdieu analyzed social inequality, particularly gender inequality, using the concepts of cultural and economic capital. Bourdieu argued these forms of capital help determine individuals' opportunities and reinforce the inheritance of social privileges. Addressing social inequality, including gender inequality, is important for both individuals and society.
Learning ResourcesLinksFROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 ht.docxcroysierkathey
Learning Resources/Links
FROM THIS LINK CHAPTERS 1, 2, 3, &4 http://www.aupress.ca/index.php/books/120219
This reading discusses how social scientists analyze religion in terms of what it does for the individual, community, or society.http://www.sociologyguide.com/religion/social-functions-and-dysfunctions-of-religion.php
This article talks about the allegation that some clergy are suspected of helping those causing unrest in the Ukraine. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/07/world/europe/evidence-grows-of-russian-orthodox-clergys-aiding-ukraine-rebels.html?_r=0
This article discusses the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its history and ethnic relations, architecture, food, economy, and political life. Pay particular attention to the section gender roles and statuses. http://www.everyculture.com/Sa-Th/Saudi-Arabia.html
A report that presents labor market and economic opportunities for both men and women. The report touches on significant progress towards gender equality in education around the world, but notes persistent inequalities in pay.http://www.oecd.org/social/50423364.pdf
An interactive timeline on the Middle East protests of 2011.
http://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2011/mar/22/middle-east-protest-interactive-timeline
This article discusses the political unrest North Africa, Syria, and Middle East and how has democracy fared against the support for Islam in these regions.
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138479/sheri-berman/the-promise-of-the-arab-spring
This article discusses the declining birth rate of women throughout most the world and the sociological and demographic implications.
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/05/opinion/sunday/bye-bye-baby.html?_r=0
A series of articles on the ranking of US students compared to the world, based on the PISA exam. The first two articles have opposing interpretations of US test scores. The third shows where the US compares to the world in education, and the last one shows how educational rankings relate to economic performance of nations.
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-12-07-us-students-international-ranking_N.htm
http://news.stanford.edu/news/2013/january/test-scores-ranking-011513.html
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/keyfindings/PISA-2012-results-snapshot-Volume-I-ENG.pdf
http://www.oecd.org/pisa/46643496.pdf
This article discusses how the US students lag around the average on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) test of science, math, and reading.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/us-students-lag-around-average-on-international-science-math-and-reading-test/2013/12/02/2e510f26-5b92-11e3-a49b-90a0e156254b_story.html
A podcast by Diane Rehm on a book by Amanda Ripley, The Smartest Kids In the World, where the author follows three American kids who study abroad.
http://thedianerehmshow.org/audio/#/shows/2013-08-19/amanda-ripley-smartest-kids-world/@00:00
In this module we explore the differences between philosophical and sociological approach ...
The document discusses the rise of the middle class in Brazil. It notes that Brazil first expanded its middle class in the 1960s through state jobs, but this led to economic instability and inequality. More recently, Brazil grew its middle class through private sector job growth, reduced inequality, and increased political stability as the middle class demanded more. The new middle class is delivering on promises of growth, stability, and equality in Brazil.
Social stratification involves the classification of people into hierarchical groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, occupation, education, and social status. It persists over generations and involves inequities in power, prestige, and property ownership between groups. While social stratification systems vary across cultures, they typically involve ranking social categories that influence life experiences and opportunities.
This document discusses Beatrice Potter Webb's views on sociological research methods and the causes of poverty. Webb believed sociologists should use an inductive approach, gathering data close to the social situation to understand it without biases. Her research on poverty led her away from thinking individual deficits caused it, and toward seeing social structures and capitalist competition as primary determinants. She argued sociologists should provide rigorous data to inform policies aimed at gradual, evolutionary social change through collective decision making rather than pure competition.
This document summarizes a research study investigating the roots of homelessness in Sheffield, England. The study uses qualitative interviews with homeless individuals to explore their life histories and pathways to homelessness. It aims to provide a more holistic understanding of homelessness by examining both structural factors like economic trends, as well as individual factors like personal value systems. The research finds that homelessness results from a combination of adverse structural conditions and breaks in supportive networks, exacerbated by an individual's sense of ideological security and direction in life. It concludes that homelessness is a complex societal issue rather than simply a housing problem.
Enhanced Enterprise Intelligence with your personal AI Data Copilot.pdfGetInData
Recently we have observed the rise of open-source Large Language Models (LLMs) that are community-driven or developed by the AI market leaders, such as Meta (Llama3), Databricks (DBRX) and Snowflake (Arctic). On the other hand, there is a growth in interest in specialized, carefully fine-tuned yet relatively small models that can efficiently assist programmers in day-to-day tasks. Finally, Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) architectures have gained a lot of traction as the preferred approach for LLMs context and prompt augmentation for building conversational SQL data copilots, code copilots and chatbots.
In this presentation, we will show how we built upon these three concepts a robust Data Copilot that can help to democratize access to company data assets and boost performance of everyone working with data platforms.
Why do we need yet another (open-source ) Copilot?
How can we build one?
Architecture and evaluation
Natural Language Processing (NLP), RAG and its applications .pptxfkyes25
1. In the realm of Natural Language Processing (NLP), knowledge-intensive tasks such as question answering, fact verification, and open-domain dialogue generation require the integration of vast and up-to-date information. Traditional neural models, though powerful, struggle with encoding all necessary knowledge within their parameters, leading to limitations in generalization and scalability. The paper "Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Knowledge-Intensive NLP Tasks" introduces RAG (Retrieval-Augmented Generation), a novel framework that synergizes retrieval mechanisms with generative models, enhancing performance by dynamically incorporating external knowledge during inference.
The Building Blocks of QuestDB, a Time Series Databasejavier ramirez
Talk Delivered at Valencia Codes Meetup 2024-06.
Traditionally, databases have treated timestamps just as another data type. However, when performing real-time analytics, timestamps should be first class citizens and we need rich time semantics to get the most out of our data. We also need to deal with ever growing datasets while keeping performant, which is as fun as it sounds.
It is no wonder time-series databases are now more popular than ever before. Join me in this session to learn about the internal architecture and building blocks of QuestDB, an open source time-series database designed for speed. We will also review a history of some of the changes we have gone over the past two years to deal with late and unordered data, non-blocking writes, read-replicas, or faster batch ingestion.
06-04-2024 - NYC Tech Week - Discussion on Vector Databases, Unstructured Data and AI
Discussion on Vector Databases, Unstructured Data and AI
https://www.meetup.com/unstructured-data-meetup-new-york/
This meetup is for people working in unstructured data. Speakers will come present about related topics such as vector databases, LLMs, and managing data at scale. The intended audience of this group includes roles like machine learning engineers, data scientists, data engineers, software engineers, and PMs.This meetup was formerly Milvus Meetup, and is sponsored by Zilliz maintainers of Milvus.
Global Situational Awareness of A.I. and where its headedvikram sood
You can see the future first in San Francisco.
Over the past year, the talk of the town has shifted from $10 billion compute clusters to $100 billion clusters to trillion-dollar clusters. Every six months another zero is added to the boardroom plans. Behind the scenes, there’s a fierce scramble to secure every power contract still available for the rest of the decade, every voltage transformer that can possibly be procured. American big business is gearing up to pour trillions of dollars into a long-unseen mobilization of American industrial might. By the end of the decade, American electricity production will have grown tens of percent; from the shale fields of Pennsylvania to the solar farms of Nevada, hundreds of millions of GPUs will hum.
The AGI race has begun. We are building machines that can think and reason. By 2025/26, these machines will outpace college graduates. By the end of the decade, they will be smarter than you or I; we will have superintelligence, in the true sense of the word. Along the way, national security forces not seen in half a century will be un-leashed, and before long, The Project will be on. If we’re lucky, we’ll be in an all-out race with the CCP; if we’re unlucky, an all-out war.
Everyone is now talking about AI, but few have the faintest glimmer of what is about to hit them. Nvidia analysts still think 2024 might be close to the peak. Mainstream pundits are stuck on the wilful blindness of “it’s just predicting the next word”. They see only hype and business-as-usual; at most they entertain another internet-scale technological change.
Before long, the world will wake up. But right now, there are perhaps a few hundred people, most of them in San Francisco and the AI labs, that have situational awareness. Through whatever peculiar forces of fate, I have found myself amongst them. A few years ago, these people were derided as crazy—but they trusted the trendlines, which allowed them to correctly predict the AI advances of the past few years. Whether these people are also right about the next few years remains to be seen. But these are very smart people—the smartest people I have ever met—and they are the ones building this technology. Perhaps they will be an odd footnote in history, or perhaps they will go down in history like Szilard and Oppenheimer and Teller. If they are seeing the future even close to correctly, we are in for a wild ride.
Let me tell you what we see.
End-to-end pipeline agility - Berlin Buzzwords 2024Lars Albertsson
We describe how we achieve high change agility in data engineering by eliminating the fear of breaking downstream data pipelines through end-to-end pipeline testing, and by using schema metaprogramming to safely eliminate boilerplate involved in changes that affect whole pipelines.
A quick poll on agility in changing pipelines from end to end indicated a huge span in capabilities. For the question "How long time does it take for all downstream pipelines to be adapted to an upstream change," the median response was 6 months, but some respondents could do it in less than a day. When quantitative data engineering differences between the best and worst are measured, the span is often 100x-1000x, sometimes even more.
A long time ago, we suffered at Spotify from fear of changing pipelines due to not knowing what the impact might be downstream. We made plans for a technical solution to test pipelines end-to-end to mitigate that fear, but the effort failed for cultural reasons. We eventually solved this challenge, but in a different context. In this presentation we will describe how we test full pipelines effectively by manipulating workflow orchestration, which enables us to make changes in pipelines without fear of breaking downstream.
Making schema changes that affect many jobs also involves a lot of toil and boilerplate. Using schema-on-read mitigates some of it, but has drawbacks since it makes it more difficult to detect errors early. We will describe how we have rejected this tradeoff by applying schema metaprogramming, eliminating boilerplate but keeping the protection of static typing, thereby further improving agility to quickly modify data pipelines without fear.
Analysis insight about a Flyball dog competition team's performanceroli9797
Insight of my analysis about a Flyball dog competition team's last year performance. Find more: https://github.com/rolandnagy-ds/flyball_race_analysis/tree/main
State of Artificial intelligence Report 2023kuntobimo2016
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a multidisciplinary field of science and engineering whose goal is to create intelligent machines.
We believe that AI will be a force multiplier on technological progress in our increasingly digital, data-driven world. This is because everything around us today, ranging from culture to consumer products, is a product of intelligence.
The State of AI Report is now in its sixth year. Consider this report as a compilation of the most interesting things we’ve seen with a goal of triggering an informed conversation about the state of AI and its implication for the future.
We consider the following key dimensions in our report:
Research: Technology breakthroughs and their capabilities.
Industry: Areas of commercial application for AI and its business impact.
Politics: Regulation of AI, its economic implications and the evolving geopolitics of AI.
Safety: Identifying and mitigating catastrophic risks that highly-capable future AI systems could pose to us.
Predictions: What we believe will happen in the next 12 months and a 2022 performance review to keep us honest.
ViewShift: Hassle-free Dynamic Policy Enforcement for Every Data LakeWalaa Eldin Moustafa
Dynamic policy enforcement is becoming an increasingly important topic in today’s world where data privacy and compliance is a top priority for companies, individuals, and regulators alike. In these slides, we discuss how LinkedIn implements a powerful dynamic policy enforcement engine, called ViewShift, and integrates it within its data lake. We show the query engine architecture and how catalog implementations can automatically route table resolutions to compliance-enforcing SQL views. Such views have a set of very interesting properties: (1) They are auto-generated from declarative data annotations. (2) They respect user-level consent and preferences (3) They are context-aware, encoding a different set of transformations for different use cases (4) They are portable; while the SQL logic is only implemented in one SQL dialect, it is accessible in all engines.
#SQL #Views #Privacy #Compliance #DataLake
1. An 'Invidious Comparison,'
Class and Status, 1929-60:
Effects of Employment, Cost and Time
on Veblen's Theory of Class*
By FRANOS P. NOE and KIRK W . ELIFSON
ABSTRACT. A consequent of Thorstein Veblen's theory of "invidious com-
parison' is investigated as it applies to class and status. This research
evaluates specifically shifting socioeconomic effects within the structure of
society that are often taken to be important causes for determining leisure
interests by dass. That time, employment, personal debt, and costs effect
leisure were hypothesized to be decisive factors in the class leisure outcome.
The relative and total predictive infiuence of the independent variables was
analyzed and found to predict differences of leisure interests between the
social classes. The findings lend support to Veblen's notion of the leisured
class and its acquisition of status.
THE PROCESS of social class differentiation has received much attention in
sociological theory but none with so "playful a tone" as that of Veblen's
theory of a leisure class. The idea of "invidious comparison' serves to con-
ceptualize personal perceptions of class inequality inflated by vindictive
emotions (1). But that was not unlike the rancorous inflection in Veblen's
writings which castigated "vested interests" and the "common man" alike.
Inequality was plainly personal effrontery experienced not as an distract
reality but firsthand through lack of wealth's symbols manifest in leisure.
If he were alive today the tone of his work might be different for "he could
not believe that many millions of people would have so much leisure and
so much money that they could not quite ga on spending than as earlier
leisure classes, small minorities, had taught them to do. This American
abundance has crushed beneath its weight not only Marx's vision of the
increasing misery of the proletariat, but also Vefolen's vision of the
pinched classes desperately sedang on small incomes to manifest pecuniary
respectability . . ." (2). Changes have occurred in the growth of leisure
in keeping witii the population and economy, but that for Veblea was not
* An eiriier draft of tliu paper iras pr««eiited at tlie Americaa Socidogical Astocia-
tion meetiag. New Yatk, 197J. Partul support for this raeardi came firon the U.S.
Department of Interior, Natkuial Park Service.
2. 382 American foutnd of Economics and Sociology
the issue (3). The problem was one of status and how leisure controlled
inequality between the classes.
I
PROBLEMS
THE SOCIAL PROCESS controlling a display of conspicuous consumption and
leisure had been specified by Veblen as developing from a primitive state of
personal indulgence to that of vicarious indulgence through others. The
indulgence of wealth requires a wastefid exhibition. The most presdgeful
waste is acquired through an indulgence of time. The property of time is
converted to nonproductive or pseudo productive pursuits as in leisure.
Prestige is then acquired by turning potentially productive time into free
time, and indulging excessively in its use. So few could apparently indulge
the luxury, according to Veblen, that they naturally became models of
emulation and stood at the head of the social structure in point of reputabil-
ity. Diffusion of influence down the social strata from a homophilious
position by the upper class was simply a result of that strata achieving a
"norm of reputability for the community." The root source of differentia-
tion for Veblen, leading to comparative inequality among strata, was based
on wealth and the control of wealth and as happened to Karl Marx, accusa-
tions were levied against Veblen of offering a monistic-simplistic explana-
tion on the basis of statements taken out of context (4).
There is equally no misjudging the purpose for which wealth was in-
tended. That "the basis of which good repute in any hi^ly organized
industrial community ultimately rests in pecuniary strength; and the means
of pecuniary strength, and so gaining or retaining a good name, are leisure
and a conspicuous consumption of goods" (5). Domination of style by
the upper leisure class is contrasted to the absence of that style in the
lower class. The resulting stratification of society is accomplished through
the percqjtion of conspicuous consumption where the upper class displays
lavish leisure symbols which cause the lower classes to make 'invidious
comparisons.' The leisured were to be envied and emulated since they both
wasted time and spent wealth to prove their position. Class distinction
meant for Vd:)len the personal experience of being denied a leisure-class
style. He did not recognize the possibility of distinct class styles resulting
from the struggle to cJjtain income, education, and a prestigious occupation.
Emphasis was rather placed upon the perception of wealth and its display.
Leisure was symbolically the turning point around which the perception
of class revolved. One gete the impression from reading VdDlan th^ the
3. Class and Status, 1929-1960 383
upper class, almost exclusively, possessed leisure while not much leisure
was available to the lower classes. Yet the haute decolletage leisure of the
elite, real for a time in the late 1800s when Veblen was writing, quickly
fell out of fashion and became disaedited (6). This historical fact does
not necessarily imply that leisure, too, was lost as an element of status dif-
ferentiation among the classes. Veblen could not be literally believed
since evidence has proved history wrong that distinct leisure styles emerged
for America's differential social classes (7). An objective definition of
class, based not upon perception of inequality but upon patterns of educa-
tion, occupation, and income that are unequally distributed throughout
American society, differentiates leisure styles. In either case, the role of
leisure continues to play a symbolic function in that some classes express
a greater preference for one kind of activitiy, and not for others. Rather
than just representing a dominant style as Veblen would have it, leisure
distinguishes among varied class strata. Numerous studies of an empirical
orientation have documented the class-leisure relationship (8), but these
studies, also like Veblen's, do not att^npt any determination of specific
economic changes which affect the availability of leisure. Most of these
inquiries began with a preconceived stratified system of wealth or income.
They rarely evaluated changes in economic conditions, changes affecting
how wealth is translated into leisure.
If we are to assume, like Veblen, that displays of leisure symbolize one's
status, under what economic conditions would a display of leisure accen-
tuate status gain ? Further, if we are to accept, unlike Veblen, the fact that
various classes are pattemed after particular leisure styles, under what
kinds of economic conditions would a social class evince greater interest
in leisure? An approach to both these questions can be made simulta-
neously from an understanding of basic status processes.
Leisure behavior allows for exclusivity and waste that can be used to
control status recognition. Permitting voluntaristic discretion and the
ability to be different is part of leisure behavior as is the possibility of
waste beyond necessity. Both waste and exclusivity in leisure should be
heightened during a downturn in economic conditions when r«ources are
made scarce. Recognition of leisure is heightened when resources are
scarce because fewer individuals have access to them, and those that do
become the exclusive. The wasting of resources on leisure is likewise
heightened when resources are scarce since many more of society's members
have to be intent on obtaining their necessities. While Veblen's argument
contains serious flaws, his belief that the upper class possesses a superior
4. 384 American Journal of Economics and Sociology
advantage in asserting a right to leisure may not be totally unreasonable.
In this respect, it may be very appropriate to hypothesize that the upper
classes will possess an interest in leisure when economic resources are
scarcest, (faerdsy increasing their status recognition. The lower middle
classes are hypothesized as taking leisure during favorable economic cycles
which make leisure more available, thereby reducing their possibility of
gaining status recognition.
Shifting economic changes within the structure of society affecting class
leisure interests must first be identified to test these hypotheses. The
availability of such records relevant to employment, cost and worktime
in the United States are limited and more likely available and accessible
beginning with the 1930s. Prior to that time, the reliability of economic
indicators is questionable when they are available on an annual basis. G)n-
sequently, the problem of testing the implications of Veblen's theory within
a longitudinal design requires a twofold solution: that of first devising a
reliable record of leisure in relation to class; and second, relating that rec-
ord to the economic structure in order tD determine possible effects of
worktime, employment and costs.
n
VARIABLES
Dependent. A measure of leisure interest during die years 1929-1960
was developed for each of two distinctive social strata by using the tech-
nique of content analysis. Information reflecting leisure interest was ob-
tained from four popular magazines, two of which consistently have been
read by the upper and middle classes and two of which have been read
by the lower middle class (9). These social class types are derived from
a model synthesized by G>leman and Neugarten, who reviewed the bulk
of empirical sociological studies focusing on social class from 1920 to
I960 (10).
In coding the content of the magazines. Max Kaplan's system of classi-
fication of four leisure types was utilized to represent leisure interest (11)
but modified to include the arts, both the "fine" and "popular" varieties;
sport, consisting of spectator and participatory kinds; mobility, designating
travel activities; immobility, denoting activities of restricted kinesic and
social inter^on of which reading and reclining are examples. Coding
began in 1929 and every issue of the four representative magazines was
aided throu^ I960. Leisure interest was operationalized by establishing
a standardized rate for articles appearing in any of the four types over
articles appearing in any other sdDJect category.
5. Class and Status, 1929-1960 385
Two additional categories of Kaplan, association and sociability, ap-
peared too infrequently to be of any use in calculating a rate of leisure
interest. Not because visiting, entertaining, and participation in voluntary
organizations are not done, but rather because they tend to make poor fare
for national magazines. Although other gatekeeping reasons are surely
operating, too few cases on associations and sociability are available to
justify giving them a place in the final analysis.
The activities of art, sport, mobility, and immobility indicative of leisure
interest provided the basis of a series covering a thirty-year span specifying
a rate for the middle class. The coding of magazine content was based
upon the commonly held assiimption that the media appeal to the interests
or preferences of a reader, that is, reinforces the status quo of the readership
audience. That coding is essential to the interpretation of the data (12).
The four types of leisure activities have been collapsed into a single depen-
dent variable in order to obtain a single measure of leisure interest by class.
Leisure activities cannot be treated separately because that would not reflect
a class's total rate of interest in leisure. Various reliability checks and
validity criteria were employed to assess the accuracy of the data (13).
The results were favorably measured so that a record of leisure interest by
class was generated for that period. The next step involved selecting in-
dependent variables of theoretical substance which were likely to have direct
or indirect effects on the class-leisure series.
Independent. The prc^lem of series availability was unavoidable. The
most applicable series from a theoretical standpoint were again either in-
complete, questionable, or totally lacking. Yet given this situation, eco-
nomic series were available that could be used in a predictive scheme.
Taken together, these variables were conceived as comprising economic
shifts in the direction of sodety which either expand or constrict leisure
opportunities by class. A body of research on leisure has continually ac-
knowledged the influence of woric and time on leisure (14), while eco-
nomic analyses have identified rost and expenditure influences (15). For
these reasons, time series were chosen to measure the work, time, and ex-
penditure influences. The indicators were also selected because they rep-
resented economic influences not directly applicable to members of any
particular class.
An indicator of labor force employment was chosen to represent worit
involvement. The series measures the rats of unemployment reflecting
either a positive ot negative labor climate (16). A second indicator mea-
sures the amount of hours worked in nonagricultural enterprises. Like
employment, v/hidx h iiMtfumental for acquiring status and wealth, work-
6. 386 American journd oj Economics and Sociology
time too produces the tangible effects of income ^hsxi coupled with wage
rate (17). While high employment rates and wages perhaps accelerate
opportunities for leisure participation, lengthy work hours and unemploy-
ment are likely to inhibit such growth.
Another set of factors, more directly involved in leisure opportunity
are cost and debt incursion. A leisure price index developed by Owen
(18) on the basis of expenditure or cost was adopted (19). Increasing
expenditures are frequently assumed to demonstrate growth in leisure
"which has grown more rapidly than the national economy in the 1900 to
1961 period" (20). The leisure expenditure series is thought to have a
positive impact upon leisure class opportunities relative to socioeconomic
status (21). Individual debt was chosen because middle income groups,
as opposed to lower or higher income groups, incur proportionately larger
liabilities, thereby demonstrating a favorable growth climate which might
reasonably be suited to a higher rate of leisure interest (22).
Indicators like educational enrollment could have been selected given
traditional class arguments, but they either lacked sufficient controls or
were simply unavailable annually for the time period covered. Measures
like Gross National Product, while available, are such gross indicators that
the risk of multicollinearity with other series is so great they were avoided.
Indicators were also selected because they represent economic influences
most directly pertinent for individual action. In any case, most economic
series will have some degree of intercorrelation, but that is simply un-
avoidable. Because intercorrelations are always possible, series have to be
chosen for their distinctiveness. No matter what the final selection may
be, some degree of intercorrelation will remain. Thus, the researcher must
sift down a potential set of indicators to at most one or two best predictors
of economic shifts. Those measures of time, employment, personal debt,
and cost actually adopted for inclusion were decidedly better in terms of
the above considerations. To determine the best predictors a multiple step-
wise regression model will be followed in the analysis.
HI
METHODS AND FINDINGS
TIME, EMPLOYMENT, personal debt, and cost series were hypothesized to
be central in the class-leisure outcome. But in order to measure the relative
effects of these series, a number of intermediate steps were necessary to
guarantee that the independent variables were not invalidated by violating
assumptions related to the least squares regression model.
To ensure that the independent variables incorporated in the respective
7. Class and Status, 1929-1960 387
models were free from the problems associated with multicollinearity, the
standard errore associated with the regression coefficients were closely ex-
amined and have been presented in Table 1 (23).
A second consideration, that associated with auto-regressive disturbances,
is crucial. Time series data, especially economic indices, invariably exhibit
positive serial correlatcm as a function of how they are generated. "Eco-
nomic growth and business cycles are the principle reason for this," Fox
says (24). Rather than measuring the singular effect of an independent
variable, it is quite likely that multiple effects are being generated by a
single series. This is especially true as concerns the typical business cycle
which lasts from three to five years.
A final problem, not unrelated to the business cycle, is making allowance
for "secular trend" which if not controlled creates unrealistlcaUy high cor-
relation coefficients as a result of lengthy time sequences. Elimination of
these corrupting influences which contribute to auto-correlation is possible
by transforming the original data. First differences, moving averages,
and parabola trend adjustments are commonly applied techniques (25).
In this analysis, a moving average approach was applied to the time series.
The unit of analysis thus became the absolute deviation from a five-year
moving average. While this method has worked adequately In the past,
there is no reason to assume that it will automatically reduce serial correla-
tion. As a way of checking, a Durban Watson test-statistic was applied
to the data (26). The test results as expected fell within an acceptable
range. Finally, the assumption of linearity was met in that no serious de-
viations occurred within the series.
The results of our findings were confined to five independent variables:
Per cent unemployment rate, real hourly wage rate, recreation price, indi-
vidual debt, and average hours woriced per week by private, nonagricul-
tural wage and salary workers in the United States. Variables that were
eliminated from consideration after testing also related to measures of em-
ployment, time, and cost, but theoretically and empirically were not un-
biased estimators (27). The relative and total predictive influence of
these five independent variables was analyzed and found to predict dif-
ferences of leisure interest betweKi the social classes.
When interpreting the findings in Table 1, one must always be conscious
of the fact that the focus is upon a cycle of perhaps no more than three
years, within of course, a thirty-year period. Within this perspective of
limited duration, cyclical fluctuations are able to be judged for their im-
mediate impact on leisure.
Table 1 indicates that hours worked per week exhibits a modest positive
8. 388 American Journal of Economics and Sociology
relationship with leisure rates for all classes. Although many leisure pro-
ponents argue that a reduction in hours woriced necrasajily leads to in-
creased leisure, the results belie their contentions and reveal that when
short-term fluctuations are considered a positive relationship emerges.
Further examination reveals that such a reUtionship is not unwarranted
when related to past research. The greatest reduction in hours wirked
occurred before 1930 and since that time the temporal gains have been
less in hours worked but greater in Hrtended weekends, holidays, reduced
work week, and vacation time (28). Hours worked are also related to
earned income whidi in turn offers greater purchasing potential for leisure
from surplus income (29). Moreover, the reduction of hours worked
ZEHO-OKDER CCnUtSLATlOtl WTRIM OF Tl'K PREDICTOR VARUBLES
KiO "MO DEPE^HDEtrr VARIABLIfS*
1.
2.
3.
4 .
5 .
G.
•7.
v»tlablc
Hours Uockeil Per Heck
Becreatiop Prieo
Bodl Haurly Hage Rate
Unemiiloyiaeiit Rate
.Indiviaual Debt
LoweI Middle C1BS3
Leisure Intaieat
UpEier and l^p^er Middle
CioSE leisure Interest
1
1.000
.-.ooe
-.349
-.460
.431
.228
.211
2
1,000
-.615
-.251
-.151
-.402
.589
3
l.UOO
. i l l
.344
.179
-.687
4
l.ogo
-.377
-.092
-.087
J'.ooo
,G!7
-.173
G
1.000
-.345
7
1.000
nie aatrix values »re baw^il on aonual dita for ths years ly29-19(10 with the exception ot tht
H«r y u r s (194a-1945) Hliii:ti wsre excluCted due to the extrunw fluctuations of the econoinic
ocE ducin3 this
does not seem to be motivated by a felt need for more leisure; rather the
influence of unionism, legislation, increased hourly wage rate, automation,
and faiigue, appear to be more incisive (30). Moonlighting is perhaps
increased where daily woric hours are reduced. (31). Finally, hours
worked may be just an artifact of how much discretion the employee has
over time so that duration becomes secondary in importance to leisure if
autonomy is present (32).
Another independent vari^le, unemployment rate, has virtually a neg-
ligible affect on the middle da^es in that increasing layoffs retrench leisure
possibilities. A number of issues may be discerned given unemployment
even though the correlation coefficients ate rather weak and hardly worth
reference except for the fact that the short span of the time q^es covers
some thirty years.
9. Class and Status, 1929-1960 389
The issue of unemployment was seriously raised by Slobodin (33) as
being synonymous with leisure under the condition that compensation
would take place for the lack of work, a situation now achieved for many
occupations within union and governmental workmen's compensation
guarantees. More traditionally, however, unemployment is termed "en-
forced leisure," and looked upon as having a neutralizing effect upon
leisure options (34). Beside the loss of income which results from un-
anployment, the abiiity to manipulate one's schedule is greatiy reduced.
"Full employment gives more people a chance to get around the schedules
by working at second jobs if the standard schedules are too short for them
or getting away with absenteeism if they are too long" (35 ). Curtailment
of autonomy, not only economically but also within the context of hours
woriced, results from unemployment which affects leisure opportunities.
The notion that only the worker is entitled to the reward of leisure for
labor is still very much prevalent in American society.
Recreational price, individual ddst, and real hourly wage rate are essen-
tially die major sources of differentiation between the classes with regard
to leisure. The upper and upper middle classes decidely find leisure most
compelling when its costs are high and when wages in society are de-
creasing. Both factors contribute to the formation of social barriers which
the lower classes are unable to surmount because they rely on earned in-
come and must regard cost relative to wages as a factor in their rate of
leisure intere^, a finding entirely consistent with patterns of leisure life
styles characterized for liiose strata.
Upper class members are described as living in "great luxury for their
leisure time and recreational activities have traditionally included polo,
yachting, and other sports that cannot be easily imitated by those lower on
the status ladder, although this pattern has been changing somewhat with
the growing democratization of sports" (36). The vast middle dass or
lower middle class also consistently fashions a pattern of leisure activity.
"They take a two-week vacation in the country every year. They watch TV
a couple of hours every evening when not at the movies or visit nei^ibors
for a game of Scrabble. They read the daily newspaper, a weekly news
magazine, and a monthly woman's magazine, but not many books" (37).
Leisure life styles differ among strata not only in what they actively pursue,
but just as decisively are effected differentially by economic conditions.
Looking now to Table 2, the total amount of vatiance explained for the
upper and upper middle class was about 41 per cent, while for the lower
middle class explained variance was about 49 per cent. The importance
of the variables in contributing to the explanation of the criterion variables
10. 390 American journal oj Economics and Sociology
is indicated by their respective standardi2ed beta weighte (38). The issue
of multicollinearity necessitated the removal of several variables from the
final models. The magnitude of the standard errors associated with those
variables indicated that the associated regression coefficients were extremely
unstable, unlike those presented in Table 2.
The magnitude of the explained variance confirms the earlier position that
leisure interest is more likely to be accelerated for the upper and upper
middle class during periods of economic downturn where wage rates, either
hourly or salary, are on the decline. Coupled with this phenomena is the
TABLE 2
F£GPIS5tOH AHU.VSIS OP THE E£FENDEHT VARIASLES
gn't Variable! Ufper and Middle Class Leisure Interest
Independent Variable Zeio-pider unstdndardiied Standard StandardizatI
negre'ssion Coefficient Ectai Beta Height
Real Hourly Wage Rate -0.6B7 -4.53 1.16 -0.6B7
.473
Variable! Lower aid Lower Middle Class Lgisure
Independent Vaitable
Individual Debt
ltecrea,tion Fiice
Zero-Order
CutrElation
0.627
-0.403
unstajidardized
Fagro56ian CoefEicianc
6.27
-2.93
Etanda'cd
ECtat
1,96
1.69
Standardized
Beta Weight
o.seo
-0.314
R • .490
fact that when leisure costs are moving up, interest in leisure is also on the
increase for the upper and upper middle class. If the conspicuous con-
sumption hypothesis of status acquisition has any merit at all, then perhaps
it acquires greater significance when resources are scarce in society. The
upper and upper middle class are not solely controlled by sources of wealth
related exclusively to earned income, whereas the lower middle classes, for
the most part, are dependent upon earned income. The costs of leisure
are also influential in determining whether the lower middle class rate of
interest wanes or expands. The evidence suggests, within the limitations
of the variables, that the rate of leisure interest for the lower middle class
is increased by accelerating wage rates and reducing costs of leisure. Most
importantly, the predominant factor of individual debt which for the mid-
11. class and Status, 1929-1960 391
die income group signifies a climate of favorable growth is highly related to
leisure interest for the lower middle classes and not in the least for the
upper and upper middle classes. The results offer additional substantia-
tion that a positive correlation exists between the size of deficit and level
of leisure expenditure for an average-sized family (39). Perhaps symbols
Of status identification are less a factor in explaining lower-middle class
leisure styles when compared to the upper classes since only favorable con-
ditions of wealth prevail when interest is high in leisure. Conditions of
scarcity and inaccessibility heighten status claims, but for the lower middle
class, unlike the upper and upper middle class, interest is higher when
leisure is plentiful.
IV
CONCLUSIONS
THE SHORT-TERM EFFECTS of the economic institution serve to regulate
leisure interests by social class. The incumbent pressures of wealth are not
so uniform across class strata. If scarcity of resources gives rise to status
differentiation because one class strata is able to capitalize upon that condi-
tion, then leisure interests for the upper and upper middle classes seem to
be so determined. The lower middle class perhaps cannot afford the lux-
ury of pursuing leisure during periods of economic downturn and so pro-
vide paradoxically a condition favorable to "invidious compadron" for the
upper and upper middle classes.
The symbolic importance of leisure is not necessarily of equal value for
every social class. While many studies mentioned earlier have demon-
strated that leisure activities are not alike across America's social classes,
these same studies do not determine when and how status is affected.
Neither does this particular study, but it does proceed a step further by
showing that interest in leisure is relative to the economic situation. If
leisure symbolizes exclusivity and abundance through waste as Vd^Ien
would have it, then the reduced possibility of wealth will make an even
greater difference. When wages are declining, for example, it would not
be very prudent for a lower middle class member of society who relies
largely on a salary to go on a European trip, or take out a membership in a
sport club since the economic climate works against such consumption.
But for the upper and upper middle class member, the economic climate
for investing in leisure may be most advantageous for gaining status recog-
nition when things are on the downturn. The exposure in public would
be more pronounced because few individuals take part in it. Recognition
would also be more salient since a wasteful display of abundance projects
12. 392 American Journal of Economics and Sociology
a higher contrast against a background of scarcity. Both recognition and
exposure immeasurably add to status recognition.
The evidence against Vdilen's idea of 'invidious comparison' based upon
pecuniary emulation of the upper strata and difiusion downward cannot
totally be dismissed because squash or day court tennis never got down
to the working class. Placing emphasis on the leisure activity itself as
being indicative of class position may not be so important as when a leisure
activity is engaged in or sought after. The timing of the activities" occur-
rence may be more important for gaining status recognition than trying to
determine where activities are similar or different among strata. The per-
ception of not being part of a dominant life style was very explicit in Vd>-
Ien's conception of 'invidious comparison.' While life styles tend to vary
among classes with no dominant theme, there may still be a kind of leisure
class model based not on any pattern of leisure activities but based on access
to them. The kind of dominance of the upper and upper middle class may
be one of engaging in leisure when the lower middle class cannot afford
to do so. Thus, the symbolic importance of leisure may be more important
for acquiring status recognition in the upper classes. For the lower classes,
leisure may have much less status merit.
Conspicuous consumption never meant just the potlasb display of sym-
bols. Rather it focused too On scarcity and nonproductivity. The option
to waste time or resources and to be unproductive during periods of eco-
nomic recession carries greater weight than when that activity is easily acces-
sible during periods of abundance. Although Veblen doggedly pursued
that line of reasoning, his explanations were clouded by an ideology which
engulfed tiie elite leisured class. Ignoring the elitist inference, the upper
strata, whether a leisured class or not, appear to be more adaptable to tak-
ing their leisure during periods of economic downturn. ITie findings that
were analyzed lend support to Veblen's notion of the leisured class and
status recognition (40).
Nation^ Park Service Scitnce Center
National Space Technology Laboraiones
Bay Si. Louii, Mm. 39520
and
Georgia State Unlvertity
Atlanta, Ga. 3030}
1. Thorstein Vebloa, The Theory of the Leiiure Class (New York: Macnjillan,
1899), p. J4.
2. David Reiiman, "A Lecture on Veblen," JoarHid of General Education, April,
1912, p. 223.
3. George Piik, Leisure Spmding-Behavhr (Pbitaddphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania
Pre«, 1963); John D. Owen, The Price of Leimre (MontMal: McGUl-Queen's Univ.
Press, 1970); Tbe Conference Board, New York. 1973.
13. Class and Status, 1929-1960 393
4. As an example of contextual emphasis, the following is ofieced: "But the gravest
significance of this cleavage that go runs through the population of the advanced tndus'
trial countries lies in the fact that it is a division between the vested interests and the
conunan man. It is a division between those who control the conditions of work and
the rate and volume of output and to whom the net output of industry goes as free
income, on the one hand and those others who have the work to do and to whom a
livelihood is allowed by these persons In control, on the other hand. In paini of num-
bers it it a very uneven division, of course." Veblen, The Vested Interests and the
Common Man (New York: Capricorn Books, 1319), p. 161.
J. Veblen, ibid., p. 84.
6. Lloyd Morris, "The 400," In Norman P. Cantor and Michael S. Werthman, eds..
The Hhtory of Popular Culture Since I8I5 (New York: Macralllan, 1947), pp. 122-27.
7. Francis P. Noe, "Leisure Life Styles: Indicators of Social Class," unpubliihed
doctoral dissertation. State Univ. of New York at Buffalo, 1972, pp. 14—18.
5. Alfred C. Clarke, "Leisure and Occupational Prestige," in Eric Larrabee and
R. Meyersohn, eds., Mass Leisure (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 19Ifi); Robert Havighwrst
and Kenneifa Feigenbaum, "Leisure and Life Styles," American Journal of Sociology,
6(January, 1959}, pp. 391—404; George Lundberg, Mirra Komaravsky and Mary Alice
Mclnerney, Leisure: A Suburbm Study (1934) (New York: Agathon Press, 1969);
L. C. Michelson, "The New Leisure Class," American Journal of Sodohgy, J9 (Jan-
uary, 19J4), pp, 371-78; Francis P. Noe, "Autonomous Spheres of Leisure Activity for
the Industrial Executive and the Blue Collarite," Journal of Leisure Research, Vol. 5,
No. 4 (Fall, 1971), pp. 220-49; Qyde White, "Social Class Differences In the Use of
Leisure," in Larrabee and Meyersohn, op. cil.
9. Four monthly magazines, all of which were published during the period 1929—
1960, were finally selected for analysis. The Atlanta Monthly and Harpers were choien
because they were predominantly read by the upper and upper middle classes, and
American and Saturday Evening Post were chosen because they were preferred by the
lower middle class. "The extent of the validity of these magazines as representing a
distinct class affiliation rests upon crude readership information, historical assessments,
the autobiographical judgments of managing editors, periodic critiques of the magazines
by the working press, a survey of circulation editors' opinions about those who read
their magazines, and finally, communication content analyses carried out by social
scientists at various times in the history of these magazines. See Noe, "Leisure Life
Styles," Op. cit.
10. Richard Coleman and Bernice Neugarten, Social Status in the City (San Fran-
cisco: Jossey, Boss, Inc., 1971), pp. 261-^3.
n . Kaplan, Leisure m America: A Social Inquiry (New York: Wiley, I960).
12. MiltOQ C. Albrecht, "Does Literature Reflect Common Values?" in S. M. Lipset
and N. M. Smelser, eds.. Sociology: The Progress of a Decade (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice Hail, Inc., 1956); Irene Traviss, "Changes in the Form of Alienation: 1900 vs.
the 1950s," American Sodoiogical Review, 34 (February, 1969), pp. •46-57; George
Gerbner, "Toward 'Cultural Indicators': the Analysis of Masj Mediated Public Message
Systems," in Gerbner et al., eds.. The Analysis of Communication Content (New York:
Wiley, 1969).
13. An inter-coder reliability check was conducted on tbe data gathering procedures.
The agreement was in every case above 80 per cent. A more complete explanation of
the techniques and coding procedures is available to Noe, "Leisure Life Styles," op. at.
The class-leisure findings corroborated earUer cross-sectional studies that were concerned
primarily with the upper and middle classes (Lundberg et al., 1934; Havighurat and
Feigenbaum, 1959; Burdge, 1969; Clarke, 1956; White, 1956). (Lundberg, et al,
"Ldsure," op. cit.; Havighurat and Feigenbaum, op. cit.; Rabel Burdge, "Levels of
Occupational Prestige and Leisure Activity," Journal of leisure Research, 1 (1969), pp.
2«2~74.)
14. S. R. Parker, "Work and Non-Work in Three Occupations," Socioto^cal Re-
view, 13(Marth, 1965), pp. 6!-75; Edwin O. Smiegel, ed.. Work «nd teisute: A Con-
temporary Social Problem (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1963); Harold
Wilensky, "Labor and Leisure: Intellectual Tradition," Industrial Relations, 1 (February,
1962), pp. 1-12.
14. 394 American Journal of Economics and Sociology
15. Owen, op. cit.; Fisk, op. cit.; George Soule, "The Econonrucs of Leisure," An-
nals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 313 (September, 1957),
pp. 16-24.
16. Annual estimates of the unemployment rate were noade by the U.S. Bureau of
Labor, but adjusted for 1957 changes in the Bureau's definition by Owen, op. cit.,
p. 99. The index for average hours worked per week by private, non-agricultural wage
and salary workers in the United States is found in a variety of sources. The inclu-
sion of sucb an index was suggested by the work of Owen, ibid., p. 77, who used it
successfully in an economic analysis of the demand for leisure time. The index mea-
sures average weekly hours worked by both salaried personnel and wage earners.
17. Hourly compensation, including various fringe benefits and cash payments, fot
wage and salary employees in the private non-farm sector or the U.S. economy was
subsequently "divided by an index of consumer prices to obtain real compensation per
hour," ibid., p. 98.
18. Ibid., pp. 84-6.
19. A price index for leisure was adapted by Owen {ibid., p. 9J) from Department
of Commerce reports. The indes measures annual expenditures for commercial recrea-
tion.
20. Op. cit., p. 84.
21. Lawrence G. Thomas, "Leisure Pursuits by Socioeconomic Strata," Journal of
Educational Sociology, 29 (May, 1950), pp. $67-77.
22. The net individual debt series takes into consideration short-term liabilities
anaong individuals. The data pertain to outstanding debt as of the end of the calendar
year. {Survey of Current Business, 1960),
23. Blalock has addressed the problem of multicoilinearity and its implications for
standard error of tihe partials; see H. M. Blalock Jr., ed.. Measurement in the Social
Sciences; Theories and Strategies (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974).
24. Karl Fca, Intermediate Economic Statistics (New York: Wiley, 1968), p. 199.
21. An overview of trend adjustments is contained in an article by Silver, who
actually compared the differences between various methods. No method proved su-
perior to another. Silver did note that when using a moving average scheme it is ad-
visable to consider the business cycle which moves on an average of a five year rate.
To eliminate it as a latent correlate, a conservative approach would he to use a five
year moving deviation scheme which was in fact applinJ to the various series in ques-
tion. See Morris Silver, "Births, Marriages, and Business Cycles in the United States,"
Journal of Political Economy, 73 (June, 1965). PP- 237-55.
26. The Durbin-NPatson statistic appears to be the most generally used test, G. Dur-
bin and G. S. Watson, "Testing for Serial Correlation in Least Squares Regression I,"
Biometrika, 37(December, 19S0), pp. 410-11. A good treatment of the technique can
be found in Dennis J. Aigner, Basic Econometrics (Englewood ClifEs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall, Inc., 1971). For the upper and upper middle class series, D-W equals 2.01, P >
.01 and for the lower-middle class aeries, D-W equals 2.31, a value which falls in tbe
inconclusive range, indicating neither positive nor negative autoregression.
27. Two measures of Insure expenditures were so highly related that a single index,
recreation price, was chosen due to conceptual and empirical overlap. This was also
true for the "leisure time series" upon considering its covariation with work time.
Work time rather than hours of leisure per week was utilized.
28. Peter Henle, "Recent Growth of Paid Leisure for U.S. Workers," Monthly Labor
Review, 85 (March, 1962), pp. 249-57.
29. Thomas, op. cit.
30. Owen, op. cit.; Charles D. Stewart, "The Shortening Work Week » a Com-
ponent of Economic Growth," American Economic Review, 46(May, 1956), pp. 211-17;
H. Gregg Lewis, "Hours of Work and Hours of Leisure," Proceedings, Industrial Rela-
tions Research Association, 9th annual meeting, Madison, Wis., 1957; Gary S. Becker,
"A Throry of the Allocation of Time," in J. H. Burton Jr., et al., eds.. Readings m
Labor Market Analysis (1965) (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), pp.
106-25.
31. Nelson N. Foote, "Discussion of Shortening Work Week," American Economic
15. Class md Status, 1929-1960 395
Review, 46(May, 19J6), pp. 226-29; Harold 'WileiMky, "The Moonlighter," Industrial
Relations, J (October, J96J), pp. 105-24.
32. Noe, "Autonomous Spheres . . . ," op. cit.
33. H. L. Slobodin, "Unemployment or Leisure, 'Which?" American Federationist,
37(1930), pp. 12OJ-08.
34. A. D. Lindsay, "Unemployment: The Meanwhile Prdslem," Contemporary Re-
view, 143(1933), pp. 687-95.
3 J. Clark Kerr, "Discussion of the Shortening Work Week," op. cit., p. 222.
36. Kurt Mayer and 'Walter Buckley, Class and Society (New York; Random House,
1969), p. 9J.
37. Joseph Kahl, The American Class Structure (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1961), p. 109.
38. Quion McNemar, Psychological Statistics, 3d ed., (New York: Wiley, 1962).
39. Fisk, op. dt., p. 100.
40. See also J. B. Cullingworth, "Planning for Leisure," Urhan Studies, 1 (May,
1964), p. 17; Mirjorie N. Donald and Rt^rt J. Havighurst, "The Meanings of Lri-
sure," Socid/ Forces, 37(May, I9i9), p. 3J6; Eric Dunning, "The Spare Time Spec-
trum," unpublished paper, Univ. of Leicester, England, p. S6; Rolf MeyerstAn, "Tele-
vision and the Rest of Leisure," Public Opinion Quarterly, 32 (Spring, 1968), pp.
102-12; Wilbert Ellis Moore, Mim, Time and Society (New York: Wiley, 196J); Mar-
tin Neumeyer, "Tlie New Leisure and Social Objectives" Sociology and Social Research,
20(1936), p. 348; S. R. Parker, The Future of Work and Leisure (New York: Praeger,
1971); Leonard Reisiman, "Class, Leisure and Social Participation," American Socio-
logical Keview, 19(1914), pp. 79-80.
Japan Acts to Control Urban Growtfj
IN TOKYO, KAWASAKI, AND YOKOHAMA, there are trees that grow and
shed theic leaves four times a year, apparently due to the increased fumes
of car exhausts. Birds that have not fled to purer dimes or perished from
insecticide poisoning have been found to have asthma and bronchitis.
Certain rare and some common species of insects are rapidly disappearing
due to urhanization and indiscriminate use of insecticides. In Japan, a
country known for its reverence of natural beauty, from the perfection of
a single flower in a vase to the majesty of a snow-capped mountain land-
scape, nature is not only tragically out of balance; it has been crushed
almost out of existence.
The government is aware, as is private industry, of the growing im-
patience of the Japanese citizenry with the sad state of the country's envi-
ronment and the resultant effects on their standard of living. The forma-
tion of citi2en groups and organization of boycotts and picket lines have
forced both government and industry to act with increasing speed in deal-
ing with pollution problems. Private legal suits against government and
large industrial completes are common today in a country where such
actions would have been undiinkable a few decades ago. Japanese in all
16. 396 American journal of Economics and Sociology
walks of life, aware that their daily comfort aad future well-being are at
stake, have shown themselves -willing to break centuries of traditional
acceptance of authority to demand a reversal of present trends.
The Japanese Government has plans for decentralization of industry,
which include relocation of factories from urban to rural districts and an
extensive hig^ speed rail transport s]retem that will serve |M:oposed new
cities of 250,000 population. Official efforts to reverse rural-urban migra-
tion may -well be helped by eflforts on the part of the Japanese themselves
to achieve a more equable distribution of population throughout the
country.
While satellite cities continue to expand rapidly, the largest cities of
Tokyo and Osaka have stopped growing, and Nagoya and Kyoto have
shown declining rates of increase. The fastest growth rates for urban
entities have been evidenced in medium-sized cities of between 200,000
and 299,000 persons and smaller-sized cities of 100,000 to 199.000. The
fact that these cities gained population even in regions and prefectures
that showed an over-all loss in growth indicates that there is a trend to-
ward a more localized migration. In addition, the rate of population loss
from rural regions to metropolitan areas has decreased, and return migra-
tion in, for example, the Tohoku region (northeast Japan) was 62 per cent
higher in 1968 dian in 196I.
If the present trends towards reverse migration are borne out, the govern-
ment's efforts to relocate and build new industry in the less urban areas will
be made easier. Public reaction to the Government Plan has been generally
favorable, but the Japanese people have shown by their spirited opposition
to continued pollution of their limited environment that their acceptance
of any plans for further economic development is contingent upon how
far and how fast the government is willing to go in following through on
its antipollution pledges.
POPULATION REFERENCE BUREAU
Wmbmgttm, D. C. 20036