The document discusses the rise of the middle class in Brazil. It notes that Brazil first expanded its middle class in the 1960s through state jobs, but this led to economic instability and inequality. More recently, Brazil grew its middle class through private sector job growth, reduced inequality, and increased political stability as the middle class demanded more. The new middle class is delivering on promises of growth, stability, and equality in Brazil.
This document discusses social stratification and social mobility in the United States. It defines stratification as a system that ranks social groups and perpetuates unequal rewards and power. It examines different stratification systems throughout history such as slavery, castes, estates, and social classes. It discusses sociological perspectives on stratification from functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists. It also discusses how stratification is measured objectively based on factors like occupation, education, income and how this determines one's social class.
This document discusses gender inequality and the role of capitalism and religion in perpetuating it. It argues that macroeconomic theories of development often overlook gender and that capitalism and religious doctrines used by patriarchal groups reinforce gender hierarchies. Specifically, it examines how some interpretations of Islam are used to rationalize limiting women's rights and liberation, though universalist perspectives argue oppression is socially constructed and can be dismantled. The document explores tensions between cultural relativism and moral universalism in debates around feminism and religious reform.
- The concept of meritocracy and the American Dream are key ideological components of capitalist democracies that promote socioeconomic inequality as desirable and necessary. However, inequality is often not actually based on individual merit but is artificially engineered by the wealthy and privileged to undermine meritocracy.
- The capitalist system is inherently not meritocratic as its functioning depends on limiting upward mobility to ensure the reproduction of class structure with the bourgeoisie in control at the top. The concepts of meritocracy and the American Dream fail to consider how social and institutional structures, not just individual qualities, determine one's socioeconomic achievement and mobility.
1. Social stratification refers to the categorization and ranking of people into hierarchical social groups based on characteristics like economic status, culture, race, gender, etc.
2. Functionalists view social stratification as serving important social functions like maintaining social order and ensuring that important roles are filled by qualified individuals. Davis and Moore argue that social inequality is an unconsciously evolved mechanism for societies to efficiently organize themselves.
3. Theories of Caribbean social stratification include the plantation society model of distinct upper, intermediate, and lower castes; plural society theory which describes culturally distinct ethnic groups coexisting under one political system; and creole society theory describing a hybrid culture with elements of both ascriptive and merit-based
The document provides a long list of potential topics that could be researched for a sociology paper. Some of the topics mentioned include homelessness, domestic violence, racism, social inequality, race/ethnicity, media, food culture, youth culture, gender, social movements, religions/cults, social classes, myths/legends, and families. For each topic, 2-3 specific research areas or questions are outlined to provide more focused paper ideas within the general subject. The document serves as a useful starting point for a student looking for potential research topics within sociology.
the relationship between Poverty, equality &; inequalityMohamud Maybe
Objectives
The correct indexes to measure poverty and inequality;
Different theoretical perspectives on poverty and inequality; and
The complexity and diversity of inequality.
I have compiled these notes from different resources. I am hopeful that these notes will help students who are willing to grab information on this subject for civil services exams or university exams. Good Luck
The document provides an overview of the sociology of education field and summarizes several influential works. It discusses how sociology of education examines how individuals' experiences shape their interactions with schooling and educational outcomes. Several foundational works are highlighted that explore topics such as status attainment, social reproduction of inequalities, and the relationship between education and the economy. The document serves as a guide to literature on the sociological study of the structure and impact of schooling.
This document discusses social stratification and social mobility in the United States. It defines stratification as a system that ranks social groups and perpetuates unequal rewards and power. It examines different stratification systems throughout history such as slavery, castes, estates, and social classes. It discusses sociological perspectives on stratification from functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists. It also discusses how stratification is measured objectively based on factors like occupation, education, income and how this determines one's social class.
This document discusses gender inequality and the role of capitalism and religion in perpetuating it. It argues that macroeconomic theories of development often overlook gender and that capitalism and religious doctrines used by patriarchal groups reinforce gender hierarchies. Specifically, it examines how some interpretations of Islam are used to rationalize limiting women's rights and liberation, though universalist perspectives argue oppression is socially constructed and can be dismantled. The document explores tensions between cultural relativism and moral universalism in debates around feminism and religious reform.
- The concept of meritocracy and the American Dream are key ideological components of capitalist democracies that promote socioeconomic inequality as desirable and necessary. However, inequality is often not actually based on individual merit but is artificially engineered by the wealthy and privileged to undermine meritocracy.
- The capitalist system is inherently not meritocratic as its functioning depends on limiting upward mobility to ensure the reproduction of class structure with the bourgeoisie in control at the top. The concepts of meritocracy and the American Dream fail to consider how social and institutional structures, not just individual qualities, determine one's socioeconomic achievement and mobility.
1. Social stratification refers to the categorization and ranking of people into hierarchical social groups based on characteristics like economic status, culture, race, gender, etc.
2. Functionalists view social stratification as serving important social functions like maintaining social order and ensuring that important roles are filled by qualified individuals. Davis and Moore argue that social inequality is an unconsciously evolved mechanism for societies to efficiently organize themselves.
3. Theories of Caribbean social stratification include the plantation society model of distinct upper, intermediate, and lower castes; plural society theory which describes culturally distinct ethnic groups coexisting under one political system; and creole society theory describing a hybrid culture with elements of both ascriptive and merit-based
The document provides a long list of potential topics that could be researched for a sociology paper. Some of the topics mentioned include homelessness, domestic violence, racism, social inequality, race/ethnicity, media, food culture, youth culture, gender, social movements, religions/cults, social classes, myths/legends, and families. For each topic, 2-3 specific research areas or questions are outlined to provide more focused paper ideas within the general subject. The document serves as a useful starting point for a student looking for potential research topics within sociology.
the relationship between Poverty, equality &; inequalityMohamud Maybe
Objectives
The correct indexes to measure poverty and inequality;
Different theoretical perspectives on poverty and inequality; and
The complexity and diversity of inequality.
I have compiled these notes from different resources. I am hopeful that these notes will help students who are willing to grab information on this subject for civil services exams or university exams. Good Luck
The document provides an overview of the sociology of education field and summarizes several influential works. It discusses how sociology of education examines how individuals' experiences shape their interactions with schooling and educational outcomes. Several foundational works are highlighted that explore topics such as status attainment, social reproduction of inequalities, and the relationship between education and the economy. The document serves as a guide to literature on the sociological study of the structure and impact of schooling.
Three types of legitimate authority were discussed: charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. Power can be exercised through force, authority, or persuasion. Political systems like democracy, monarchy, and totalitarianism were defined. Capitalism and socialism were compared as economic systems that differ in levels of government intervention and priorities like economic productivity versus equality. Most modern economies are mixed systems that blend elements of both.
Social stratification and divisionssept12 intakefatima d
Social stratification describes inequalities between individuals and groups in societies. There are four basic systems of stratification: slavery, caste, estates, and class. Class stratification is based on large groupings that share economic resources which shape lifestyles. Theories of class include Marx who saw two main groups based on ownership of capital or labor, and Weber who saw class as one dimension alongside status and party, with life chances dependent on skills and qualifications as well as economic position. Debates continue around the sources and persistence of social stratification, and whether it benefits society or primarily serves the interests of elites.
Stratification refers to systematic inequalities between groups that arise from social processes and relationships. Social stratification creates a hierarchy in society where groups have unequal access to resources, power, and social worth. It can take various forms like class, race, and gender, which overlap and influence life chances. Theories of stratification like functionalism see it as necessary for society, while conflict theory views it as certain groups exploiting others. Stratification is evident in the United States through inequality in income, wealth, health outcomes, and poverty rates along racial and gender lines.
Women, Work, And Poverty: Gender Norms And The Intersectionality Of Biasmaxbury
This document provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several sources that examine the intersection of gender, labor, and poverty. The sources discuss how social norms have historically constrained women's roles and wages. They also analyze the complex experiences and challenges faced by groups like single mothers, minority women, and women factory workers in developing countries. The overall purpose is to provide a collective understanding of the hardships women face in the global economy.
For students of CAPE pursuing Sociology or Caribbean studies. This would provide relevant information pertinent to their understanding of Caribbean society and Culture.
KAFKAS ÜNİVERSİTESİ/KAFKAS UNIVERSITY
SOCIOLOGY
Course
LECTURE NOTES AND POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kars, TURKEY
hamioz@yahoo.com
The document examines how society exerts social control over individuals by redirecting their primal drives of libido and aggression according to Freud, Mead, and Elias. It discusses how Freud saw the family unit forming from love and necessity, with society finding ways to control drives through sublimation. Mead believed individuals are controlled by integrating the attitudes of their social group. Elias viewed society gravitating toward universality through increasing social cohesion over time. The document argues society has a primal drive for increased social cohesion that enables it to control individuals by inducing them to adopt group mentalities conducive to this drive without realizing they are being controlled.
The document discusses the history and social significance of work. It describes how work evolved from agricultural societies to the Industrial Revolution and Fordist systems of mass production. It analyzes Marx and Durkheim's perspectives on the alienating effects of specialized labor. The experience of women entering the paid workforce is also examined, noting their concentration in low-paying jobs and the "double shift" many still face. The rise of job insecurity and changing career trajectories, like portfolio work, are also summarized.
This document discusses Marxist perspectives on the family. Key points include: Marxists see society as based on unequal class conflict between the capitalist class and working class. The family serves capitalist interests by socializing children into accepting inequality and consuming products. The nuclear family form arose to legitimize inheritance of private property but oppresses women. Marxists argue the family will be liberated when capitalism is overthrown and private property abolished.
- Social stratification refers to a hierarchy based on property, power and prestige that exists in all societies. The major stratification systems are slavery, caste, estate and class.
- Karl Marx and Max Weber proposed different theories for what determines social class - Marx argued it is ownership of production means, while Weber argued it is a combination of property, power and prestige.
- Functionalists argue stratification is universal because societies must offer greater rewards to attract capable people to important positions, but conflict theorists see it as a result of elite groups struggling over limited resources.
- Nations can be divided into three groups based on industrialization - most, industrializing, and least industrialized, representing their relative property, power and
1) The document discusses the theory of rationalization and how it relates to modernization and globalization. It argues that rationalization, which prioritizes individualism and freethinking, will continue to increase as modernization and globalization progress globally.
2) It examines the history of modernization in America and how the U.S. constructed its national identity based on European characteristics of modernity. It also discusses how modernization manifested differently in various nations and regions.
3) The paper predicts that rationalization will continue to spread worldwide as younger, more educated populations embrace values like human dignity and respect across borders through increased communication and education on a global scale.
Cultural hegemony refers to the domination of one social group's cultural values over others. The ruling class promotes their ideologies and values as common sense through media representations. Examples include portrayals that normalize certain groups while marginalizing others. Analyzing media through the lens of cultural hegemony reveals its social implications for collective identities.
#1 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER
Download more: https://vietfamehair.com
The seven-time #1 New York Times bestselling author, Fox News star, and radio host Mark R. Levin explains how the dangers he warned against in the “timely yet timeless” (David Limbaugh, author of Jesus Is Risen) bestseller Liberty and Tyranny have come to pass.
In 2009, Mark R. Levin galvanized conservatives with his unforgettable manifesto Liberty and Tyranny, by providing a philosophical, historical, and practical framework for halting the liberal assault on Constitution-based values. That book was about standing at the precipice of progressivism’s threat to our freedom and now, over a decade later, we’re fully over that precipice and paying the price.
In American Marxism, Levin explains how the core elements of Marxist ideology are now pervasive in American society and culture—from our schools, the press, and corporations, to Hollywood, the Democratic Party, and the Biden presidency—and how it is often cloaked in deceptive labels like “progressivism,” “democratic socialism,” “social activism,” and more. With his characteristic trenchant analysis, Levin digs into the psychology and tactics of these movements, the widespread brainwashing of students, the anti-American purposes of Critical Race Theory and the Green New Deal, and the escalation of repression and censorship to silence opposing voices and enforce conformity. Levin exposes many of the institutions, intellectuals, scholars, and activists who are leading this revolution, and provides us with some answers and ideas on how to confront them.
As Levin writes: “The counter-revolution to the American Revolution is in full force. And it can no longer be dismissed or ignored for it is devouring our society and culture, swirling around our everyday lives, and ubiquitous in our politics, schools, media, and entertainment.” And, like before, Levin seeks to rally the American people to defend their liberty.
Social stratification divides society into hierarchical groups based on factors like wealth, occupation, and education. The bourgeoisie own businesses and capital, while the proletariat work for the bourgeoisie's businesses. Education levels also differ between classes, with the bourgeoisie typically receiving more schooling.
This document discusses how stereotypes can become self-fulfilling and push people into stereotypical roles based on their gender or other attributes. It also examines how social status is often determined by things like income, occupation, and ability to attract a romantic partner. Finally, it analyzes how institutions and media coverage tend to preserve the status quo and make class divisions invisible by portraying the poor in contradictory or sensationalized ways.
The conflict perspective views society as made up of groups competing for limited resources that are unevenly distributed, which causes tensions and conflicts that become agents of social change. It was originated by Karl Marx and later expanded on by C. Wright Mills, who argued that societies inherently have conflicts due to unequal distributions of power and wealth where dominant groups control social structures. Mills agreed with Marxist views of the importance of conflict in society.
The document discusses social stratification and how societies rank people in hierarchies based on access to resources. It outlines four principles of social stratification: it is a characteristic of societies, not individuals; it persists over generations; it is universal but variable; and it involves inequality and beliefs used to justify the stratification. Types of stratification systems include caste systems based on ascribed status and class systems based on achieved status. In the US, people are stratified based on income, prestige, wealth, education, and power, with significant inequality in the distribution of income and wealth.
The document discusses secularization of religion in Caribbean society. It provides arguments both for and against secularization using Wilson's theory of secularization. It examines secularization in four key elements - statistical decline in religious participation, growth of rationalism replacing religion, disengagement of churches from society, and religious pluralism fragmenting society. While some statistics show declining religiosity, others show growth in sects and ethnic religions. Overall, secularization is a complex phenomenon with evidence both supporting and limiting its presence in the Caribbean.
This document provides background information on the American middle class, including its history, defining characteristics, employment and income trends over time. It analyzes data from the US Census Bureau and other sources to compare the middle class populations and standards of living in Detroit and Chicago. While the middle class is becoming more diverse in terms of occupations and incomes, data shows growing inequality between lower, middle and upper classes nationally. Housing and consumption patterns also differ between middle class groups in urban vs. rural areas.
This document presents a summary of social class by Shafiq-ur-Rehman. It defines social class as groups differentiated by characteristics like occupation, income, wealth, and prestige. Common factors used to determine social class are occupation, income, possessions, associations, and influence. Social class determines values, beliefs, behaviors, and lifestyles. There are typically considered to be five social classes ranging from upper class to lower class.
Chapter 12Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge .docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 12
Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge Chapter Overview Chapter 12 begins by defining the differences be- tween two similar concepts: equity and equality. It then reviews the history of efforts to address educational equity since the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Current social inequalities are explained, including such political–economic dimensions as income, employment, housing, and political power differences among different ethnic and gender groups. The chapter then turns from social inequalities to educational inequalities among various so- cial groups. The social construction of different ethnic, gender, and economic groups’ status in schools is considered. While particular attention is paid to African Americans and Latinos, Asian Americans and students with disabilities are also considered. The Primary Source reading points out specifics regarding socio-economic, ethnic and racial dimensions of the “achievement gap. Educational Aims in Contemporary Society Analytic Framework Diversity and Equity Today IIdeollogy Equal opportunity Meritocracy Genetic deficit theory Cultural deficit theory Racism Sexism Class bias Disability bias Social construction of which human differences matter Political Economy Social inequalities: Racial and ethnic Gender Economic class Diversity across and within groups Inequalities in employment Effects of poverty and racism on families Income versus wealth differences Education for All Handicapped Children Act Schooling Inequalities in educational resources Inequalities in educational expectations Standardized achievement test differences Educational attainment differences Language differences and school achievement Inclusion of students with disabilities in “mainstream” classrooms Gender and learning differences No Child Left Behind Introduction: Inequity and Inequality From its very origins American society has struggled with questions of equity and equality. Although these terms derive from the same linguistic stem, they carry sub- stantially different meanings. Equality denotes “equal”; equity, “fair.” Even as an ideal, democracy does not call for an identical existence for each citizen or promise to equalize outcomes. In theory, democratic ideals of freedom marry well with ideals of economic freedom. Robert N. Carson wrote the original draft of this chapter. Those who have the most skill and talent, work hard- est, and have the best luck are expected to prosper in a free market economy. The free market is supposed to structure a system of rewards that bring out the produc- tive best in people. In practice, however, this theory is questionable. It assumes that the starting conditions for everyone allow for fair competition or, at the very least, that social institutions treat everyone fairly. British economic historian R. H. Tawney draws the distinction in this manner: [To] criticize inequality and to desire equality is not, as is sometime.
Three types of legitimate authority were discussed: charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal. Power can be exercised through force, authority, or persuasion. Political systems like democracy, monarchy, and totalitarianism were defined. Capitalism and socialism were compared as economic systems that differ in levels of government intervention and priorities like economic productivity versus equality. Most modern economies are mixed systems that blend elements of both.
Social stratification and divisionssept12 intakefatima d
Social stratification describes inequalities between individuals and groups in societies. There are four basic systems of stratification: slavery, caste, estates, and class. Class stratification is based on large groupings that share economic resources which shape lifestyles. Theories of class include Marx who saw two main groups based on ownership of capital or labor, and Weber who saw class as one dimension alongside status and party, with life chances dependent on skills and qualifications as well as economic position. Debates continue around the sources and persistence of social stratification, and whether it benefits society or primarily serves the interests of elites.
Stratification refers to systematic inequalities between groups that arise from social processes and relationships. Social stratification creates a hierarchy in society where groups have unequal access to resources, power, and social worth. It can take various forms like class, race, and gender, which overlap and influence life chances. Theories of stratification like functionalism see it as necessary for society, while conflict theory views it as certain groups exploiting others. Stratification is evident in the United States through inequality in income, wealth, health outcomes, and poverty rates along racial and gender lines.
Women, Work, And Poverty: Gender Norms And The Intersectionality Of Biasmaxbury
This document provides an annotated bibliography summarizing several sources that examine the intersection of gender, labor, and poverty. The sources discuss how social norms have historically constrained women's roles and wages. They also analyze the complex experiences and challenges faced by groups like single mothers, minority women, and women factory workers in developing countries. The overall purpose is to provide a collective understanding of the hardships women face in the global economy.
For students of CAPE pursuing Sociology or Caribbean studies. This would provide relevant information pertinent to their understanding of Caribbean society and Culture.
KAFKAS ÜNİVERSİTESİ/KAFKAS UNIVERSITY
SOCIOLOGY
Course
LECTURE NOTES AND POWER POINT PRESENTATIONS
Prof.Dr. Halit Hami ÖZ
Kars, TURKEY
hamioz@yahoo.com
The document examines how society exerts social control over individuals by redirecting their primal drives of libido and aggression according to Freud, Mead, and Elias. It discusses how Freud saw the family unit forming from love and necessity, with society finding ways to control drives through sublimation. Mead believed individuals are controlled by integrating the attitudes of their social group. Elias viewed society gravitating toward universality through increasing social cohesion over time. The document argues society has a primal drive for increased social cohesion that enables it to control individuals by inducing them to adopt group mentalities conducive to this drive without realizing they are being controlled.
The document discusses the history and social significance of work. It describes how work evolved from agricultural societies to the Industrial Revolution and Fordist systems of mass production. It analyzes Marx and Durkheim's perspectives on the alienating effects of specialized labor. The experience of women entering the paid workforce is also examined, noting their concentration in low-paying jobs and the "double shift" many still face. The rise of job insecurity and changing career trajectories, like portfolio work, are also summarized.
This document discusses Marxist perspectives on the family. Key points include: Marxists see society as based on unequal class conflict between the capitalist class and working class. The family serves capitalist interests by socializing children into accepting inequality and consuming products. The nuclear family form arose to legitimize inheritance of private property but oppresses women. Marxists argue the family will be liberated when capitalism is overthrown and private property abolished.
- Social stratification refers to a hierarchy based on property, power and prestige that exists in all societies. The major stratification systems are slavery, caste, estate and class.
- Karl Marx and Max Weber proposed different theories for what determines social class - Marx argued it is ownership of production means, while Weber argued it is a combination of property, power and prestige.
- Functionalists argue stratification is universal because societies must offer greater rewards to attract capable people to important positions, but conflict theorists see it as a result of elite groups struggling over limited resources.
- Nations can be divided into three groups based on industrialization - most, industrializing, and least industrialized, representing their relative property, power and
1) The document discusses the theory of rationalization and how it relates to modernization and globalization. It argues that rationalization, which prioritizes individualism and freethinking, will continue to increase as modernization and globalization progress globally.
2) It examines the history of modernization in America and how the U.S. constructed its national identity based on European characteristics of modernity. It also discusses how modernization manifested differently in various nations and regions.
3) The paper predicts that rationalization will continue to spread worldwide as younger, more educated populations embrace values like human dignity and respect across borders through increased communication and education on a global scale.
Cultural hegemony refers to the domination of one social group's cultural values over others. The ruling class promotes their ideologies and values as common sense through media representations. Examples include portrayals that normalize certain groups while marginalizing others. Analyzing media through the lens of cultural hegemony reveals its social implications for collective identities.
#1 NEW YORK TIMES BESTSELLER
Download more: https://vietfamehair.com
The seven-time #1 New York Times bestselling author, Fox News star, and radio host Mark R. Levin explains how the dangers he warned against in the “timely yet timeless” (David Limbaugh, author of Jesus Is Risen) bestseller Liberty and Tyranny have come to pass.
In 2009, Mark R. Levin galvanized conservatives with his unforgettable manifesto Liberty and Tyranny, by providing a philosophical, historical, and practical framework for halting the liberal assault on Constitution-based values. That book was about standing at the precipice of progressivism’s threat to our freedom and now, over a decade later, we’re fully over that precipice and paying the price.
In American Marxism, Levin explains how the core elements of Marxist ideology are now pervasive in American society and culture—from our schools, the press, and corporations, to Hollywood, the Democratic Party, and the Biden presidency—and how it is often cloaked in deceptive labels like “progressivism,” “democratic socialism,” “social activism,” and more. With his characteristic trenchant analysis, Levin digs into the psychology and tactics of these movements, the widespread brainwashing of students, the anti-American purposes of Critical Race Theory and the Green New Deal, and the escalation of repression and censorship to silence opposing voices and enforce conformity. Levin exposes many of the institutions, intellectuals, scholars, and activists who are leading this revolution, and provides us with some answers and ideas on how to confront them.
As Levin writes: “The counter-revolution to the American Revolution is in full force. And it can no longer be dismissed or ignored for it is devouring our society and culture, swirling around our everyday lives, and ubiquitous in our politics, schools, media, and entertainment.” And, like before, Levin seeks to rally the American people to defend their liberty.
Social stratification divides society into hierarchical groups based on factors like wealth, occupation, and education. The bourgeoisie own businesses and capital, while the proletariat work for the bourgeoisie's businesses. Education levels also differ between classes, with the bourgeoisie typically receiving more schooling.
This document discusses how stereotypes can become self-fulfilling and push people into stereotypical roles based on their gender or other attributes. It also examines how social status is often determined by things like income, occupation, and ability to attract a romantic partner. Finally, it analyzes how institutions and media coverage tend to preserve the status quo and make class divisions invisible by portraying the poor in contradictory or sensationalized ways.
The conflict perspective views society as made up of groups competing for limited resources that are unevenly distributed, which causes tensions and conflicts that become agents of social change. It was originated by Karl Marx and later expanded on by C. Wright Mills, who argued that societies inherently have conflicts due to unequal distributions of power and wealth where dominant groups control social structures. Mills agreed with Marxist views of the importance of conflict in society.
The document discusses social stratification and how societies rank people in hierarchies based on access to resources. It outlines four principles of social stratification: it is a characteristic of societies, not individuals; it persists over generations; it is universal but variable; and it involves inequality and beliefs used to justify the stratification. Types of stratification systems include caste systems based on ascribed status and class systems based on achieved status. In the US, people are stratified based on income, prestige, wealth, education, and power, with significant inequality in the distribution of income and wealth.
The document discusses secularization of religion in Caribbean society. It provides arguments both for and against secularization using Wilson's theory of secularization. It examines secularization in four key elements - statistical decline in religious participation, growth of rationalism replacing religion, disengagement of churches from society, and religious pluralism fragmenting society. While some statistics show declining religiosity, others show growth in sects and ethnic religions. Overall, secularization is a complex phenomenon with evidence both supporting and limiting its presence in the Caribbean.
This document provides background information on the American middle class, including its history, defining characteristics, employment and income trends over time. It analyzes data from the US Census Bureau and other sources to compare the middle class populations and standards of living in Detroit and Chicago. While the middle class is becoming more diverse in terms of occupations and incomes, data shows growing inequality between lower, middle and upper classes nationally. Housing and consumption patterns also differ between middle class groups in urban vs. rural areas.
This document presents a summary of social class by Shafiq-ur-Rehman. It defines social class as groups differentiated by characteristics like occupation, income, wealth, and prestige. Common factors used to determine social class are occupation, income, possessions, associations, and influence. Social class determines values, beliefs, behaviors, and lifestyles. There are typically considered to be five social classes ranging from upper class to lower class.
Chapter 12Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge .docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 12
Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge Chapter Overview Chapter 12 begins by defining the differences be- tween two similar concepts: equity and equality. It then reviews the history of efforts to address educational equity since the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Current social inequalities are explained, including such political–economic dimensions as income, employment, housing, and political power differences among different ethnic and gender groups. The chapter then turns from social inequalities to educational inequalities among various so- cial groups. The social construction of different ethnic, gender, and economic groups’ status in schools is considered. While particular attention is paid to African Americans and Latinos, Asian Americans and students with disabilities are also considered. The Primary Source reading points out specifics regarding socio-economic, ethnic and racial dimensions of the “achievement gap. Educational Aims in Contemporary Society Analytic Framework Diversity and Equity Today IIdeollogy Equal opportunity Meritocracy Genetic deficit theory Cultural deficit theory Racism Sexism Class bias Disability bias Social construction of which human differences matter Political Economy Social inequalities: Racial and ethnic Gender Economic class Diversity across and within groups Inequalities in employment Effects of poverty and racism on families Income versus wealth differences Education for All Handicapped Children Act Schooling Inequalities in educational resources Inequalities in educational expectations Standardized achievement test differences Educational attainment differences Language differences and school achievement Inclusion of students with disabilities in “mainstream” classrooms Gender and learning differences No Child Left Behind Introduction: Inequity and Inequality From its very origins American society has struggled with questions of equity and equality. Although these terms derive from the same linguistic stem, they carry sub- stantially different meanings. Equality denotes “equal”; equity, “fair.” Even as an ideal, democracy does not call for an identical existence for each citizen or promise to equalize outcomes. In theory, democratic ideals of freedom marry well with ideals of economic freedom. Robert N. Carson wrote the original draft of this chapter. Those who have the most skill and talent, work hard- est, and have the best luck are expected to prosper in a free market economy. The free market is supposed to structure a system of rewards that bring out the produc- tive best in people. In practice, however, this theory is questionable. It assumes that the starting conditions for everyone allow for fair competition or, at the very least, that social institutions treat everyone fairly. British economic historian R. H. Tawney draws the distinction in this manner: [To] criticize inequality and to desire equality is not, as is sometime.
Complex Identities and Intersectionality Unit Three.docxdonnajames55
Complex Identities and Intersectionality
Unit Three
Learning Objectives
Be able to define race, ethnicity, social class, and sexual orientation.
Understand the theoretical concepts of “intersectionality”, “social location” , & “standpoint”.
Have a clear understanding of the ways in which oppressions are not “additive” but rather “multiples”
Be able to describe your own power/privileges
Know how stereotypes work in American society, including the ways in which they are perpetuated and some of their repercussions
Understand that everyone is vulnerable to their influence
2
PART ONE:
What are race, class, and sexuality?
Understanding: Race
RACE: is social constructed category that divides people into groups based on visible physical characteristics such as skin color, eye shape, hair texture, etc.
Although race is related to the physical body, the meaning we give these superficial differences between us are entirely socially constructed. There are NO actual genetic differences between the various races.
Because race categories are socially constructed, they change over time. Which categories we measure, and how we measure them, shifts.
4
Understanding: Ethnicity
Ethnicity: is a socially constructed category, a way of grouping people based on their shared culture, such as religion, language, and history.
The difference between “race” and “ethnicity” can be confusing. For example, “Asian American” is treated as a race, but “Chinese American” and “Japanese American” are treated as ethnicities because they have distinct languages and traditions.
In the United States, there is a great deal of pressure on ethnic minority groups to assimilate the norms, values, and characteristics of the majority ethnic group.
Race and Ethnicity in America
Different racial groups are just that– different. Even thought we often speak in terms of binaries (“minorities” verses “the majority”), it is important to realize that not all minority race and/or ethnic groups share the same characteristics, both between themselves and within themselves.
White Americans: white is a race!
Hispanic Americans
African Americans
Native Indigenous Americans
Asian Americans
Arab Americans
Multiracial
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
A commonality among those which are considered minority groups is the experience of inequality.
Inequalities are socially structured and thus can impact multiple aspects of an individual’s life– not just, for example, their ability to get a job.
Racism: the belief that the physical and cultural characteristics associated with a group of people are inferior and thus unequal treatment of the group and its members is justified.
Racism can occur at both the individual and institutional level.
7
Race Impacts Life Chances in a Multitude of Ways
The process of Maintaining Inequality
A stereotype is developed and is circulated throughout a society via cultural channels such as popular media .
The document discusses factors related to assessing an individual's social class position, including objective measures used by the government and subjective self-identification. It also examines how perceptions of the working class in the UK have changed over time, with more viewing it negatively and associating it with terms like "chav" that carry stigma, though some argue this demonization in the media has undermined traditional working class identity and pride.
Write An Essay On The Importance Of Education - SHALOMEC.ORG. Essay for education - College Homework Help and Online Tutoring.. Essay websites: Why education is important essay.
This document discusses several topics related to maintaining social hierarchies, including:
1) How stereotypes can become self-fulfilling prophecies that push people into stereotyped roles.
2) How women's worth and access to resources is often determined by their ability to attract men and get married.
3) How institutions in the US tend to be organized in ways that promote capitalist and corporate interests over democracy.
This document discusses several topics related to maintaining social hierarchies, including:
1) How stereotypes can become self-fulfilling prophecies that push people into stereotyped roles.
2) How women's worth and access to resources is often determined by their ability to attract men and get married.
3) How institutions in the US tend to be organized in ways that promote capitalist and corporate interests over democracy.
The document discusses social classes in ancient Mesopotamian civilization and how it affected education. Social classes were strictly divided, with kings and priests at the top who received education, while most people did not have access to formal schooling. Education differed depending on one's social class, with only elites learning to read, write and do mathematics. This rigid social structure determined who had access to education in Mesopotamian society.
The document provides an overview of Islam as a complete way of life. It discusses Islam as an ideology consisting of a creed and system of rules. The Islamic creed establishes the existence of Allah as the one and only Creator through rational examination of the universe. It also establishes the necessity of prophethood and that the Quran is the final revelation from Allah through the prophet Muhammad. The system of Islam provides comprehensive laws governing relationships with the Creator, individuals, and society. The document presents Islam as offering solutions to modern problems that other ideologies have failed to resolve.
1. BEYOND WISTERIA LANE
Feb 12th 2009
Scott Fitzgerald was wrong. It is not the rich who are different but
the middle classes
IN 1943 Abraham Maslow, an American behavioural scientist, published an
article entitled "A Theory of Human Motivation" in which he argued that
people everywhere are subject to what he called a "hierarchy of needs".
At the bottom are food and shelter, sex and sleep: elementary
physiological needs. Next come the basic needs for safety and security.
As long as these things are lacking--as they are for billions of the
world's poor--the search for them dominates every aspect of life.
But once basic needs are met, people move up "Maslow's pyramid" to look
for other things: what he called "belonging needs" (love, acceptance,
affiliation), "esteem needs" (self-respect, social status, the approval
of others) and at the top "self-actualisation" (as he put it, "a
musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write if he
is to be ultimately at peace with himself").
Maslow was talking about individuals, but groups of people climb
Maslow's pyramid too, argues Brink Lindsey of the Cato Institute, a
think-tank in Washington, DC. In America, says Mr Lindsey, material
abundance has made people more self-absorbed, changing the character of
culture and politics. This is what happens when people reach the top of
the pyramid. Developing countries have yet to get there. Once they have
solved the problems of food and security, suggests Mr Lindsey, the
middle classes in those countries too start to turn to "belonging" and
"esteem" needs.
SUBURBAN REVOLUTION
Sociological research has confirmed that improvements in material
circumstances change the behaviour and the thinking of whole groups. In
1967, within a generation of Maslow's article, Herbert Gans wrote a
classic book, "The Levittowners", which described the changing mindset
of America's new middle class. Levittown was the original suburbia: a
place of identical detached single-family houses with white picket
fences. Lampooned for its uniformity ("Ant-like conformity now
affordable", joked a satirical newspaper, THE ONION), it nevertheless
influenced suburbs the world over.
In "The Levittowners", Gans claimed that America's new middle classes
were thinking and acting very differently from the working-class
communities in which most of them had grown up. Those traditional
communities had been (to use terms popular at the time)
"peer-group-directed", taking their values and their outlook from
people in their immediate circle, such as family and co-workers. By
contrast, Gans argued, the middle classes were "other-directed", taking
their cues not only from family and friends but from managers in
distant offices or from contemporaries they had heard about through
2. other means, such as the mass media.
Peer-group people live by rigid codes set by their village or trade
union. "Other-directed" folk are more flexible in their thinking. Mr
Lindsey explains: "Middle-class life is built on abstract relations
based on shared values...We are used to dealing with people we don't
know in order to get something done and do it by abstracting away from
the particular details of our background or personality." To use a
famous metaphor, the mind of the peer-group-directed person is a
gyroscope, pivoting on a single point; that of the other-directed
person works like radar, taking in signals from near and far.
Research based on opinion polls documents the differences between
middle-class and working-class attitudes. The best-known work of this
kind is the World Values Survey run by Ronald Inglehart of the
University of Michigan. It tracks attitudes to public
institutions--such as the government or the church--and to broader
social matters, such as the role of women or children. As countries get
richer (and, by implication, more middle-class), the influence of
traditional and religious authorities tends to fall away, though
"Western" attitudes to personal and individual well-being are slower to
develop. Just as people move up Maslow's pyramid from "safety" to
"esteem", so countries rid themselves of some traditional attitudes
without adopting individualistic Western notions about broader social
MORES. For this special report, THE ECONOMIST asked the Pew Research
Center to document the opinions of the global middle class: the
results, which confirm the distinctiveness of middle-class attitudes,
are summarised in this article[1].
Mr Inglehart identifies three kinds of society. The first is dominated
by traditional attitudes to authority and holds inherited religious and
communal norms in great esteem. The next is "modern society", which
covers the majority of middle-income countries. The last is what he
calls "post-modern society", which values individual and subjective
well-being above all else and downplays authority of any kind.
"Modern society" stresses the importance of economic growth and upward
mobility. It is shifting away from traditional acceptance of
established authority and putting more emphasis on law and rights. It
engages in a wider debate of policy and politics. It is the kind of
society in which people hope their children will do better than they
have done themselves; which believes in merit, not privilege;
competition, not inheritance; thrift, not conspicuous consumption; and
which applauds personal effort rather than collective endeavour. It is
a society summed up by the words of Margaret Thatcher, a former British
prime minister: "We were taught to work jolly hard. We were taught
self-reliance. We were taught to live within our income." Lastly, it is
a society whose critical characteristic, according to Justin Yifu Lin,
the World Bank's chief economist, is "aspiration, and the means to
pursue it". It is a society of the new middle classes.
THE MUDDLE CLASSES
3. So far, this report has looked at what the new middle classes have in
common, treating them as a homogeneous group. But, as Lawrence James
says about the British variety in his book, "The Middle Class: A
History", they are "a sprawling, untidy organism in a perpetual state
of evolution".
For example, Kellee Tsai, a professor at Johns Hopkins University,
argues that there is no such thing as a coherent middle class in China.
Her research shows that two-fifths of Chinese private-sector
entrepreneurs were born to farming families; one-fifth come from
families of ordinary workers; and about 15% are children of government
officials or enterprise managers. Their attitudes to China's Communist
party vary widely, from enthusiastic support to overt opposition, with
the majority accepting the status quo. She also points out that
private-sector entrepreneurship takes different forms in different
regions of the country. So the term "middle class" covers a multitude
of differences.
Pavan Varma, the director-general of the Indian Council for Cultural
Relations, also thinks that in at least one respect the middle class of
his own country behaves more like members of its elite than as a
distinctive group of its own. Both, he says, have similar attitudes to
the poor. Traditionally, the middle class has supported meritocracy and
upward mobility, more than the elite has done. Yet, according to Mr
Varma, the Indian middle class shows little inclination to fight the
corruption, bad governance and incompetence that hold back the poor and
block upward mobility through education. Unlike its peers in other
emerging countries, it has largely given up on public education, paying
for private schools for its own children.
The most important division, however, is probably between the middle
class created by the actions of the state and its equivalent created by
its own efforts in the private sector. The first group contains
managers and white-collar employees of state-owned enterprises,
accountants and civil servants, and teachers and doctors in the public
education and health systems. The second group covers private
entrepreneurs, their employees and archetypal small shopkeepers.
To see how much these groups differ, consider economies in which oil
plays a large part. Here the middle class is often puny or distorted. A
2003 survey by Tatyana Maleva of the Independent Institute for Social
Policy in Moscow found that only just over 20% of Russians were
middle-class by income or occupation. Depressingly, this was a smaller
share than on the eve of the October revolution of 1917, when a quarter
of the population was estimated to have been middle-class. In most
countries with Russia's income levels the middle class accounts for
half the population or more.
The distortions in the Gulf states are even more conspicuous. Kuwait
has both a public-sector and a private-sector middle class, but they
are totally separate. Over 95% of adult Kuwaitis work for the
government, usually in white-collar civil-service jobs. The emirate
4. also has a thriving private-sector middle class, but it consists almost
entirely of foreigners.
Considered as a group of consumers, a middle class created by the
state is unlikely to behave any differently from a private-sector
middle class. Its members will buy the same branded goods, save up for
the same houses, sign up for the same credit cards and aspire to put
their children into the same schools. But there are question marks over
whether the public-sector sort has the same entrepreneurial drive,
political impact or capacity to sustain high economic growth over time.
Brazil offers a case study in the differences between a middle class
created by the state and one that owes more to the private sector. In
2008 Brazil became a middle-class country by its own reckoning. In
April of that year Brazilians with household incomes ranging from 1,064
reais to 4,561 reais a year, which is the middle of the country's
income range, were found to make up nearly 52% of the population, up
from 44% in 2002 and only one-third in 1993. Marcelo Neri of the
Getulio Vargas Foundation, which carried out the research, says it
shows Brazil has at last become a middle-class country after decades of
effort.
The first big growth spurt took place in the 1960s behind high tariff
walls. The middle class expanded fast thanks to jobs in state-owned
companies, the public education system and the bloated civil service.
"We grew the middle class faster than would have been possible with
pure market forces," says Marcelo Giugale, the World Bank's chief
economist for Latin America. "But it was the result of state policy,
not growth." Income inequality also rose dramatically. By the 1980s
Brazil had become the world's most unequal society.
Moreover, the economy was prone to slumps and episodes of
hyperinflation. That made the middle class poorer (not least by
destroying its savings) and caused it to rebel. "Our middle class was
no longer willing to live in a closed society," says Mr Giugale.
"People have become more outgoing and technologically savvy. They don't
want their kids left behind by what the rest of the world knows. This
is the middle class of satellite dishes and political activity. If you
want to be middle-class now, you have to earn it; you can't have a
state that creates a middle class as you could 40 years ago."
Private-sector growth and openness to trade has so far proved a more
reliable engine of growth for the middle class than the old
state-directed version. Between 2001 and mid-2008 Brazil experienced a
long period of growth with low inflation, something it never managed in
its earlier stop-start period.
By squeezing inflation out of the economy, argues Santiago Levy of the
Inter-American Development Bank, Brazil has enabled people to expand
their planning horizons and take out credit, which has soared. This has
allowed a new middle class--a younger generation, mostly in their 30s
and 40s--to start building up assets. By encouraging growth and
5. improving the labour market, Brazil has greatly expanded the number of
jobs in the formal economy (which matters because its informal sector
is unusually large). Formal jobs, with health and pensions benefits,
are a middle-class preserve. In the first quarter of 2008 Brazil's six
largest cities created a record number of new jobs. Mr Neri talks of
"the return of the CARTEIRA DE TRABALHO" (the employment registration
book that comes with a formal-sector job).
Moreover, thanks partly to a government cash-transfer scheme called
Bolsa Familia, aimed at the poor, Brazil has reversed the vast rise in
income inequality that accompanied the earlier period of state-led
middle-class expansion. The Gini coefficient, a measure of income
inequality, fell from 0.628 in 2003 to 0.584 in early 2008, which by
the standards of this index amounted to a social revolution. Vinod
Thomas, the World Bank's former country director in Brazil, reckons the
lessening of income inequality has come in roughly equal measure from
cash transfers to the poor, better education and jobs growth. Brazil's
poorest provinces are growing faster than its richer ones, helping to
narrow the gap between its rich and its poor regions (whereas the
opposite is true in India and China).
The emergence of a new middle class in Brazil has gone hand in hand
with an increase in political stability. If the next presidential
election is held in 2010, as planned, it will be the fourth one in a
row to be conducted under the same rules. The last time that happened
was in the 19th century.
Brazil's economic record is not all jam. As Marcelo Carvalho of Morgan
Stanley argues, the country owes more of its recent growth to the
commodity boom than its policymakers realise, which suggests that it is
more vulnerable to the downturn in raw-material prices than its leaders
think. Even so, seen through the eyes of the middle class, recent times
compare favourably with the period of economic take-off in the 1960s.
In Brazil, the middle class is at last delivering on its long-standing
promise of growth, stability and equality.
-----
[1] http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_ID=13063322
See this article with graphics and related items at
http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13063290
6. improving the labour market, Brazil has greatly expanded the number of
jobs in the formal economy (which matters because its informal sector
is unusually large). Formal jobs, with health and pensions benefits,
are a middle-class preserve. In the first quarter of 2008 Brazil's six
largest cities created a record number of new jobs. Mr Neri talks of
"the return of the CARTEIRA DE TRABALHO" (the employment registration
book that comes with a formal-sector job).
Moreover, thanks partly to a government cash-transfer scheme called
Bolsa Familia, aimed at the poor, Brazil has reversed the vast rise in
income inequality that accompanied the earlier period of state-led
middle-class expansion. The Gini coefficient, a measure of income
inequality, fell from 0.628 in 2003 to 0.584 in early 2008, which by
the standards of this index amounted to a social revolution. Vinod
Thomas, the World Bank's former country director in Brazil, reckons the
lessening of income inequality has come in roughly equal measure from
cash transfers to the poor, better education and jobs growth. Brazil's
poorest provinces are growing faster than its richer ones, helping to
narrow the gap between its rich and its poor regions (whereas the
opposite is true in India and China).
The emergence of a new middle class in Brazil has gone hand in hand
with an increase in political stability. If the next presidential
election is held in 2010, as planned, it will be the fourth one in a
row to be conducted under the same rules. The last time that happened
was in the 19th century.
Brazil's economic record is not all jam. As Marcelo Carvalho of Morgan
Stanley argues, the country owes more of its recent growth to the
commodity boom than its policymakers realise, which suggests that it is
more vulnerable to the downturn in raw-material prices than its leaders
think. Even so, seen through the eyes of the middle class, recent times
compare favourably with the period of economic take-off in the 1960s.
In Brazil, the middle class is at last delivering on its long-standing
promise of growth, stability and equality.
-----
[1] http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_ID=13063322
See this article with graphics and related items at
http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13063290