This document summarizes theories of marginalization and applies them to analyze homelessness in America. It defines the underclass as those furthest from social integration due to unemployment and poverty. The American Dream ideology equates social worth with employment and wealth, marginalizing the homeless. Theories discussed view marginalization as unwanted exclusion from social participation. The homeless experience both chronic (long-term due to disabilities) and short-term homelessness, but both subgroups are seen as the underclass. Marginalization results from an individual's incomplete participation in social norms and practices due to poverty and unemployment.
The document contains a daily prayer and reminders for health and safety protocols for students returning to school. It includes guidelines such as wearing a mask, maintaining social distancing, bringing personal belongings and food, and participating in handwashing. The prayer asks God for guidance and protection as the students learn and interact with each other.
This document discusses formalism, also known as New Criticism, which is a literary theory that focuses exclusively on analyzing the literal elements within a text without consideration of external contexts like the author's biography. It examines the relationship between a text's form and content. The document also provides a glossary of major formalist literary terms used to analyze elements like characters, imagery, plot, point of view, setting, and theme.
This document provides biographical information about several prominent Filipino authors and discusses some of their notable works. It mentions F. Sionil José, one of the most widely read Filipino authors in English who wrote about class struggles and colonialism. It also discusses novels by José like "Po-on" and short stories by Genoveva Matute and novels by Peter Bacho that explore the Filipino immigrant experience. The document also provides information on writers like Cecilia Brainard and Ambeth Ocampo as well as lists some recommended Pinoy literature works.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
The top 10 export products of the Philippines in 2006 accounted for 84.6% of total export earnings. These top 10 products were electronics, clothing accessories, refined copper, vehicles/aircrafts/ships, manufacturing materials, wood crafts/furniture, coconut oil, bananas, metal components, and petroleum products. The top 10 import products of the Philippines in 2005 accounted for 8.13% of total import value and included electronics, minerals, machinery, transport equipment, iron and steel, fabrics, cereals, telecom equipment, plastics, and chemicals.
The document contains a daily prayer and reminders for health and safety protocols for students returning to school. It includes guidelines such as wearing a mask, maintaining social distancing, bringing personal belongings and food, and participating in handwashing. The prayer asks God for guidance and protection as the students learn and interact with each other.
This document discusses formalism, also known as New Criticism, which is a literary theory that focuses exclusively on analyzing the literal elements within a text without consideration of external contexts like the author's biography. It examines the relationship between a text's form and content. The document also provides a glossary of major formalist literary terms used to analyze elements like characters, imagery, plot, point of view, setting, and theme.
This document provides biographical information about several prominent Filipino authors and discusses some of their notable works. It mentions F. Sionil José, one of the most widely read Filipino authors in English who wrote about class struggles and colonialism. It also discusses novels by José like "Po-on" and short stories by Genoveva Matute and novels by Peter Bacho that explore the Filipino immigrant experience. The document also provides information on writers like Cecilia Brainard and Ambeth Ocampo as well as lists some recommended Pinoy literature works.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms for those who already suffer from conditions like anxiety and depression.
The top 10 export products of the Philippines in 2006 accounted for 84.6% of total export earnings. These top 10 products were electronics, clothing accessories, refined copper, vehicles/aircrafts/ships, manufacturing materials, wood crafts/furniture, coconut oil, bananas, metal components, and petroleum products. The top 10 import products of the Philippines in 2005 accounted for 8.13% of total import value and included electronics, minerals, machinery, transport equipment, iron and steel, fabrics, cereals, telecom equipment, plastics, and chemicals.
This document discusses literary criticism and different approaches for analyzing literature. It provides an overview of various literary theories including moral criticism, formalism, psychoanalytic criticism, Marxist criticism, reader-response criticism, structuralism/semiotics, post-structuralism/deconstruction, new historicism/cultural studies, post-colonial criticism, feminist criticism, and gender/queer studies. It then gives examples of analyzing the children's poem "Mary Had a Little Lamb" from historical, formalist, and psychological perspectives to demonstrate how different theories can provide different interpretations. The document encourages the reader to try applying an unspecified theory to the poem "Humpty Dumpty."
Hamlet seeks revenge for his father's murder, which was committed by his uncle Claudius. While his desire for revenge is understandable, it drives him mad and leads to tragedy. The story explores themes of revenge, love, betrayal and the complex emotions of the characters. In the end, Hamlet fulfills his plot against Claudius but also loses his mother, Ophelia and his own life, demonstrating that vengeance often breeds more violence and pain.
1. This document discusses identifying explicit and implicit claims made in written texts. It provides examples of claims of fact ("The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy"), claims of policy ("The death penalty does not deter crime"), and claims of value ("It is wrong to use social media to bully people").
2. The document then provides a knowledge test asking the reader to identify 10 statements as claims of fact, value, or policy. It concludes by crediting several sources for the information presented.
The document summarizes the major periods of Philippine literature from pre-historic times to the contemporary period. It discusses the main characteristics of oral literature during the pre-historic period and the epics that developed. During the Spanish period, it highlights notable Filipino writers and works like Noli Me Tangere. The American, Japanese, and Martial Law periods saw a shift towards nationalism and restrictions. Post-Martial Law brought democratic reforms and a growth in writers' organizations. Today's contemporary literature incorporates English, Filipino, and international influences.
Moral criticism examines literature through a moral or philosophical lens to assess how well a work teaches morality or explores philosophical issues. While this approach can be useful for works with an obvious moral message, it has declined in popularity due to perceived limitations. Specifically, moral criticism risks being too judgmental and oversimplifying complex works, as discerning intentions and evaluating contexts is difficult.
The document discusses Philippine literature during different historical periods from the Japanese period to the New Society era. It notes that literature during the Japanese period focused on themes of life in the province and included poems about nationalism, love, and faith. Plays during this time included translations of English works and original pieces by Filipino playwrights. Short stories and works in English also emerged. During the rebirth of freedom following WWII, literature reflected the struggle of the mind and spirit and the difficulties of the war. The period of activism saw the rise of activist literature and films responding to social and political issues, while the New Society era promoted themes of national development.
The story is about two brothers, Kiko and the narrator, who argue all day about whether a peculiar chicken they found is a rooster or a hen. The chicken has characteristics of both. They take the chicken to various people in the village to try to get an answer, but no one can agree. Finally, Kiko enters the chicken in a cockfight to prove it is a rooster. Surprisingly, the chicken wins the fight. However, after the fight the chicken lays an egg, revealing it is truly a hen.
The document discusses the results of a study on the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on air pollution. Researchers found that lockdowns led to significant short-term reductions in nitrogen dioxide and fine particulate matter pollution globally as transportation and industrial activities declined substantially. However, the document notes that the improvements in air quality were temporary and pollution levels rose back to pre-pandemic levels as restrictions eased and activity increased again.
This poem by Kristian Sendon Cordero uses imagery to portray the volcano Mayon in the Philippines. Through four stanzas, the poem presents Mayon as both beautiful yet dangerous. The first stanza references the legend that Mayon was born from the breath of a maiden who died in battle. Subsequent stanzas depict Mayon covered in clouds and smoke, with lava flowing down like excrement. The final stanza likens Mayon to a beautiful guard waiting to engulf those who enter. The poem conveys the dual nature of Mayon as both scenic yet threatening destruction.
Design Thinking and Nonprofit Performance Monique Hagler
This document discusses quantifying the performance of nonprofits. It proposes using a framework of defined intended impact, theory of change, and design thinking to convert social outcomes into quantitative measurements. Specifically, it argues that understanding a nonprofit's human components (staff, donors, users) and how well it addresses community needs are important for measuring performance. Quantifying social success is challenging but important for nonprofits to assess their ability to fulfill their mission and meet goals.
OVERVIEW ON COMMONWEALTH LITERATURE AND POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES kishanhariyani
This document is a paper submitted by Hariyani Kishan.R to S.B.G Department of English at M.K.Bhavnagar University in batch 2015-2017. It discusses the evolution of English studies, the incorporation of American literature, and the differences between Commonwealth literature and postcolonial literature. Commonwealth literature highlights similarities between English-language literatures, but does not account for literature from non-Commonwealth countries or exclude British literature. Postcolonial literature relates literatures based on a shared history of colonialism and includes criticism of both Western and non-Western texts.
This document discusses literary criticism and different approaches for analyzing literature. It provides an overview of various literary theories including moral criticism, formalism, psychoanalytic criticism, Marxist criticism, reader-response criticism, structuralism/semiotics, post-structuralism/deconstruction, new historicism/cultural studies, post-colonial criticism, feminist criticism, and gender/queer studies. It then gives examples of analyzing the children's poem "Mary Had a Little Lamb" from historical, formalist, and psychological perspectives to demonstrate how different theories can provide different interpretations. The document encourages the reader to try applying an unspecified theory to the poem "Humpty Dumpty."
Hamlet seeks revenge for his father's murder, which was committed by his uncle Claudius. While his desire for revenge is understandable, it drives him mad and leads to tragedy. The story explores themes of revenge, love, betrayal and the complex emotions of the characters. In the end, Hamlet fulfills his plot against Claudius but also loses his mother, Ophelia and his own life, demonstrating that vengeance often breeds more violence and pain.
1. This document discusses identifying explicit and implicit claims made in written texts. It provides examples of claims of fact ("The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy"), claims of policy ("The death penalty does not deter crime"), and claims of value ("It is wrong to use social media to bully people").
2. The document then provides a knowledge test asking the reader to identify 10 statements as claims of fact, value, or policy. It concludes by crediting several sources for the information presented.
The document summarizes the major periods of Philippine literature from pre-historic times to the contemporary period. It discusses the main characteristics of oral literature during the pre-historic period and the epics that developed. During the Spanish period, it highlights notable Filipino writers and works like Noli Me Tangere. The American, Japanese, and Martial Law periods saw a shift towards nationalism and restrictions. Post-Martial Law brought democratic reforms and a growth in writers' organizations. Today's contemporary literature incorporates English, Filipino, and international influences.
Moral criticism examines literature through a moral or philosophical lens to assess how well a work teaches morality or explores philosophical issues. While this approach can be useful for works with an obvious moral message, it has declined in popularity due to perceived limitations. Specifically, moral criticism risks being too judgmental and oversimplifying complex works, as discerning intentions and evaluating contexts is difficult.
The document discusses Philippine literature during different historical periods from the Japanese period to the New Society era. It notes that literature during the Japanese period focused on themes of life in the province and included poems about nationalism, love, and faith. Plays during this time included translations of English works and original pieces by Filipino playwrights. Short stories and works in English also emerged. During the rebirth of freedom following WWII, literature reflected the struggle of the mind and spirit and the difficulties of the war. The period of activism saw the rise of activist literature and films responding to social and political issues, while the New Society era promoted themes of national development.
The story is about two brothers, Kiko and the narrator, who argue all day about whether a peculiar chicken they found is a rooster or a hen. The chicken has characteristics of both. They take the chicken to various people in the village to try to get an answer, but no one can agree. Finally, Kiko enters the chicken in a cockfight to prove it is a rooster. Surprisingly, the chicken wins the fight. However, after the fight the chicken lays an egg, revealing it is truly a hen.
The document discusses the results of a study on the impact of COVID-19 lockdowns on air pollution. Researchers found that lockdowns led to significant short-term reductions in nitrogen dioxide and fine particulate matter pollution globally as transportation and industrial activities declined substantially. However, the document notes that the improvements in air quality were temporary and pollution levels rose back to pre-pandemic levels as restrictions eased and activity increased again.
This poem by Kristian Sendon Cordero uses imagery to portray the volcano Mayon in the Philippines. Through four stanzas, the poem presents Mayon as both beautiful yet dangerous. The first stanza references the legend that Mayon was born from the breath of a maiden who died in battle. Subsequent stanzas depict Mayon covered in clouds and smoke, with lava flowing down like excrement. The final stanza likens Mayon to a beautiful guard waiting to engulf those who enter. The poem conveys the dual nature of Mayon as both scenic yet threatening destruction.
Design Thinking and Nonprofit Performance Monique Hagler
This document discusses quantifying the performance of nonprofits. It proposes using a framework of defined intended impact, theory of change, and design thinking to convert social outcomes into quantitative measurements. Specifically, it argues that understanding a nonprofit's human components (staff, donors, users) and how well it addresses community needs are important for measuring performance. Quantifying social success is challenging but important for nonprofits to assess their ability to fulfill their mission and meet goals.
OVERVIEW ON COMMONWEALTH LITERATURE AND POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES kishanhariyani
This document is a paper submitted by Hariyani Kishan.R to S.B.G Department of English at M.K.Bhavnagar University in batch 2015-2017. It discusses the evolution of English studies, the incorporation of American literature, and the differences between Commonwealth literature and postcolonial literature. Commonwealth literature highlights similarities between English-language literatures, but does not account for literature from non-Commonwealth countries or exclude British literature. Postcolonial literature relates literatures based on a shared history of colonialism and includes criticism of both Western and non-Western texts.
The document discusses several LGBTQ+ identities and why they experience marginalization. It states that lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender groups face marginalization because most people do not fully understand them and are uncertain how to accept things they see as unknown. Bisexual people in particular face rejection from both straight and gay communities. Transgender people are often excluded and face huge psychological and physical challenges due to the lack of acceptance of their gender identity.
This document provides an overview of the key ideas and contributors in the development of marginalism and microeconomic foundations. It summarizes the works of early marginalist thinkers such as Cournot, Dupuit, Gossen, Jevons, Menger, Wieser, Bohm-Bawerk, Edgeworth, Clark, and George. Their works established concepts like marginal utility, demand curves, diminishing marginal returns, opportunity cost, indifference curves, and the marginal productivity theory of factor returns. These ideas challenged existing economic thought and laid the groundwork for modern microeconomics by taking an analytical and marginal approach focused on individual decision-making.
Marginalism is an economic technique used to determine how much of something to consume or do when decisions involve quantities rather than a simple yes or no. It compares the marginal benefit of consuming an additional unit to the marginal cost or price. You should consume more units as long as the marginal benefit exceeds the price, since this results in a positive marginal gain. The example shows calculating marginal benefit and gain for consuming hamburgers, determining the optimal quantity is two since the marginal gain is positive for the first two hamburgers but negative after that.
The document discusses the concept of marginalization through examining marginalized groups around the world. It defines marginalization as the process by which individuals or groups are excluded based on their identities. Examples provided include non-Arab Sudanese being oppressed in Sudan, over 5 million people affected by conflict in Darfur, one in five Tanzanian girls receiving no education, adolescent girls in Africa facing threats to their human rights, and Indian farmers committing suicide due to debt and economic reforms. Marginalized populations are defined as groups experiencing social exclusion and inequalities.
This document discusses marginalization and factors that lead to it. Marginalization is the process of making groups or individuals less important and relegating them to secondary positions in society. It involves denying access to rights, opportunities, and resources normally available to others. Groups that often face marginalization include those defined by sex, age, disability, ethnicity, religion, caste, illness, occupation, or refugee/migrant status. Factors contributing to marginalization are poverty, lack of education, gender inequalities, discrimination, disability, family circumstances like single parenthood, and living in deprived areas or institutions. Teachers can play a key role in promoting social inclusion by implementing inclusive teaching strategies and recognizing individual differences.
The colonial period of American literature lasted from 1607 to 1765. Writing during this time was mostly religious, such as sermons, or utilitarian. Major events included the Salem Witch Trials and the Great Awakening religious revival. Important authors included Anne Bradstreet, Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, and Edward Taylor. Literature was heavily influenced by Puritanism and focused on religious and philosophical themes rather than imaginative works of fiction.
This document provides an overview of several key theorists relevant to postcolonial studies and colonial discourse theory, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Louis Althusser, Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, and Homi Bhabha. It summarizes some of their main ideas, such as Nietzsche's critique of history and the subject, Althusser's concepts of ideology and interpellation, Lacan's stages of subject formation, Foucault's theories of power, knowledge, and resistance, Said's concept of Orientalism, and Bhabha's ideas around colonial hybridity and mimicry.
The document discusses sarswela during the American colonial period in the Philippines. It provides historical context, noting that Spain ceded the Philippines to the US in 1898. Sarswela, a musical comedy or melodrama genre introduced from Spain, flourished during this time and took on more combative forms that promoted nationalism, freedom of speech, and a desire for independence from colonial rule. Examples of prominent sarswela during this period included "Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa" by Pascual Poblete and "Tanikalang Ginto" by Juan Abad.
This document provides an overview of folk literature in the Philippines. It discusses the main classifications and types of folk narratives, including myths, legends, folktales, and folk epics. It also covers folk speech such as proverbs and riddles, as well as folk songs. Different genres of folk literature often use oral traditions to pass down stories, convey lessons, or describe aspects of daily life and culture. Motifs in myths commonly involve transformation or tales of faithful lovers. Legends and folktales aim to entertain as well as teach lessons. Folk epics recount heroic deeds and involve supernatural elements. Proverbs, riddles, and poems are concise forms that reflect local perspectives and traditions. Folk songs encomp
This document discusses the marginalization of various groups in India including Adivasis, Muslims, and other minorities. It provides background information on Adivasis, noting where they live, their cultural practices, and how development has displaced many from their lands. It also discusses laws and policies aimed at promoting social justice and protecting marginalized groups. The Scheduled Tribes Act of 1989 is highlighted as an important law for protecting the rights of Adivasis.
Marginalization refers to the weakening of social ties between an individual and society, which can lead to social exclusion. It is a multidimensional concept relating to lack of integration and resources in areas of production, reproduction, and power. The basic dimensions of marginalization - lack of participation in work, family, consumerism, civic engagement, and influence - interact and reinforce one another, creating a vicious cycle. Marginalization diminishes an individual's life chances due to changes in social connections and opportunities.
The document summarizes Edward Said's book Orientalism, which argues that European culture constructed itself in opposition to an imagined Orient. It defined Orientalism as a Western style used to dominate and control the Orient. Said believed one cannot understand European imperialism without examining how it produced representations of the Orient. The document also discusses how Said's work can be used as a critical lens to examine Western literature about Eastern cultures, which was often influenced by colonialism and notions of European superiority. It provides context on Said and quotes from his work on Orientalism and cultural imperialism.
The document discusses the scope of sociology in the fields of knowledge and profession. It describes several specialized fields of sociology that provide knowledge about different aspects of human social life. It also lists some common professional roles for sociologists, including teaching, research, and administration. Finally, it provides details on various social welfare programs and services in Pakistan, including orphanages, vocational training centers, and medical assistance projects.
The document summarizes various American influences on Filipino culture, society, and politics during the American Colonial Period from 1888 to 1945. It discusses influences on diet, dress, emancipation of women, education, literature in English and local languages, plays, journalism, fine arts, music, science, holidays, and nationalism. Key American influences included the introduction of American foods, clothing styles, and cigarettes. Women gained new rights and access to higher education. The US established schools and sent teachers and students to America. Literature and journalism flourished in both English and Filipino languages. Architecture, music, dances, and sciences also took on American styles and techniques.
This document provides an overview of the history of American literature from the colonial period through the 20th century. It summarizes key authors and works from each time period, including colonial writings by John Smith and Benjamin Franklin, early US works by Thomas Jefferson and Washington Irving, 19th century poetry by Walt Whitman and Emily Dickinson, realism in Mark Twain and Henry James, and modernism in F. Scott Fitzgerald and John Steinbeck. The document concludes with a brief discussion of post-World War II literature and the Beat generation.
Homelessness-- Emerging Trends and ThemesAmanda Olson
This document provides a biography of Amanda Olson, a psychology student at San Jose State University with interests in homelessness and social justice. It then presents an abstract for her research paper on homelessness, which examines trends and themes in previous homelessness research over time. The paper aims to illustrate how perspectives on the causes of homelessness have shifted between individual and structural factors depending on the social context. It also argues that current research excludes the perspectives of homeless individuals themselves.
This document discusses social problems from several perspectives. It begins by defining a social problem as having four key elements: a pressure group concerned about a social condition, a challenge to social values and norms, and a need for collective action to address it. Racism and discrimination are provided as examples of social problems. The document also discusses how social problems related to the LGBT community include discrimination and a lack of social justice. Finally, it analyzes urbanization in Africa as a social problem, noting the social conditions, pressure groups, values and norms, and lack of expected development outcomes.
The Developmment and Critique of the Social Model of DisabilityScott Rains
The Developmment and Critique of the Social Model of Disability
The objective of this paper is to provide a description and analysis of the social model of
disability, and how it has developed during the past 30 years. Both academics working
in the field of disability studies, as well as practitioners providing disability services
have been increasingly influenced by its underpinning philosophy. Furthermore, the
“disability movement” utilises the social model as a political platform and tool to secure
the “rights” of disabled people, with the objective of ensuring that they enjoy the status
of full citizenship within contemporary society.
The social model of disability should not be considered as a monolithic entity, butrather
as a cluster of approaches to the understanding of the notion of disablement.
This document provides background information on the American middle class, including its history, defining characteristics, employment and income trends over time. It analyzes data from the US Census Bureau and other sources to compare the middle class populations and standards of living in Detroit and Chicago. While the middle class is becoming more diverse in terms of occupations and incomes, data shows growing inequality between lower, middle and upper classes nationally. Housing and consumption patterns also differ between middle class groups in urban vs. rural areas.
For your Paper, you will have to answer two sets of questions (y.docxshericehewat
For your Paper, you will have to answer two sets of questions (you must answer both):
(1)Among all the topics we talked about this quarter (i.e. student loan debt, poverty, homelessness, addiction, etc.) which one was most interesting to you? Why?
(2)What social problems topic would you like to see added to a future iteration of this class? In what ways is the topic you have identified both a personal trouble and public issue?
Please produce a written response that answers both sets of questions. Your written responses must be between 500-600 words.
pre-requisite:Most Interesting in the topic of inequality than others(like i.e. student loan debt, poverty, homelessness, addiction). This is my inequality paper before, talking around inequality, and have same basic understanding as my previous paper, but don’t copy it PLZ. Thanks!
For Inequality
“ In "The 1 percent's Problem" and "The Pitchforks are Coming" various arguments are presented which situate socioeconomic inequality as a social problem. Focus on 1-2 of the arguments from the readings that you personally find most compelling (for example, "the fairness problem"). Briefly outline these arguments and evaluate them. Are these valid reasons for why inequality matters? Why or why not? ”
“The 1 Percent’s Problem” contains extensive arguments shedding light socioeconomic inequality as a social problem. The consumption problem springs up as a result of a widening gap between rich and poor. It is profound that too much power possessed by one interest group helps them to formulate the policies that will help them in the short run, rather than helping the entire society in the long run. The American tax policy, public investment and regulatory policy are all result of a persistent gap between the two classes. The effects of channeling the wealth and income in one direction only are easy to discern on household expenditure which is the backbone of the American economy. When too much money is accumulated by the upper strata of society the spending of the average American abate. The flow of money from the bottom to the top reduced the consumption, as the high-income group spends money on consumption with respect to their income, lower than the lower income group.
The consumption lowers when inequality rises because lower-income individuals do not have enough money to spend. In addition, lower income individuals are more than high-income individuals. In terms of economics, the relationship is simple. As the high-income group accumulates more and more money the aggregate demand goes down. The total demand in the economy goes down despite its high capability of supplying. As a result, the unemployment increases which damp the demand even more. The purchasing power decreases with the less money supply among the lower income individuals which compel them to spend less. Thus, we could say that increasing income inequality decreased the overall consumption of the economy.
Another economic jargon is ren ...
This document summarizes and compares two theories on the causes of poverty: Oscar Lewis's "culture of poverty" theory from 1966 and Karen Seccombe's 2000 structural theory. Lewis argued that a subculture forms among the poor, characterized by things like dependency, lack of paternal authority, and hostility towards authorities, that perpetuates poverty. However, Seccombe contends that structural factors in the US economy and government are more to blame, such as declining manufacturing jobs and welfare cuts. While Lewis only studied a small sample, Seccombe analyzed large-scale national data. Ultimately, the document concludes that poverty has multiple interconnected causes, both cultural aspects within poor communities and deficiencies in societal institutions.
Chapter 12Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge .docxbartholomeocoombs
Chapter 12
Diversity and Equity Today Defining the Challenge Chapter Overview Chapter 12 begins by defining the differences be- tween two similar concepts: equity and equality. It then reviews the history of efforts to address educational equity since the 1954 Supreme Court decision Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Current social inequalities are explained, including such political–economic dimensions as income, employment, housing, and political power differences among different ethnic and gender groups. The chapter then turns from social inequalities to educational inequalities among various so- cial groups. The social construction of different ethnic, gender, and economic groups’ status in schools is considered. While particular attention is paid to African Americans and Latinos, Asian Americans and students with disabilities are also considered. The Primary Source reading points out specifics regarding socio-economic, ethnic and racial dimensions of the “achievement gap. Educational Aims in Contemporary Society Analytic Framework Diversity and Equity Today IIdeollogy Equal opportunity Meritocracy Genetic deficit theory Cultural deficit theory Racism Sexism Class bias Disability bias Social construction of which human differences matter Political Economy Social inequalities: Racial and ethnic Gender Economic class Diversity across and within groups Inequalities in employment Effects of poverty and racism on families Income versus wealth differences Education for All Handicapped Children Act Schooling Inequalities in educational resources Inequalities in educational expectations Standardized achievement test differences Educational attainment differences Language differences and school achievement Inclusion of students with disabilities in “mainstream” classrooms Gender and learning differences No Child Left Behind Introduction: Inequity and Inequality From its very origins American society has struggled with questions of equity and equality. Although these terms derive from the same linguistic stem, they carry sub- stantially different meanings. Equality denotes “equal”; equity, “fair.” Even as an ideal, democracy does not call for an identical existence for each citizen or promise to equalize outcomes. In theory, democratic ideals of freedom marry well with ideals of economic freedom. Robert N. Carson wrote the original draft of this chapter. Those who have the most skill and talent, work hard- est, and have the best luck are expected to prosper in a free market economy. The free market is supposed to structure a system of rewards that bring out the produc- tive best in people. In practice, however, this theory is questionable. It assumes that the starting conditions for everyone allow for fair competition or, at the very least, that social institutions treat everyone fairly. British economic historian R. H. Tawney draws the distinction in this manner: [To] criticize inequality and to desire equality is not, as is sometime.
This document provides an overview of social stratification and social class. It discusses key concepts like social mobility, different social classes in the US and worldwide, dimensions of social stratification including economic, power and prestige, explanations of stratification from different sociological perspectives, poverty in America, and responses to poverty. Overall, the document presents foundational information on social stratification and class through definitions of key terms and concepts.
The document compares and contrasts social theories related to crime causation, and then applies them to explore the causes of gang violence. It discusses three main categories of social theories: social structure theories which assert that crime is caused by poverty and membership in the underprivileged class; social process theories which claim crime is caused by negative interactions with social institutions and relationships; and social control theories which maintain that weak social ties allow criminal behavior. It then analyzes how social learning theory, differential opportunity theory, social reaction theory, and family socialization help explain why youth join gangs and engage in violence.
This document discusses social stratification and social mobility in the United States. It defines stratification as a system that ranks social groups and perpetuates unequal rewards and power. It examines different stratification systems throughout history such as slavery, castes, estates, and social classes. It discusses sociological perspectives on stratification from functionalists, conflict theorists, and interactionists. It also discusses how stratification is measured objectively based on factors like occupation, education, income and how this determines one's social class.
Part I Studying nonprofit organizationsThe study of nonprofit.docxdanhaley45372
Part I: Studying nonprofit organizations
The study of nonprofit, third sector, or voluntary organizations is a fairly recent development in the history of the social sciences. What has become one of the most dynamic and interdisciplinary fields of the social sciences today began to gather momentum more than three decades ago. At the same time, the field is rooted in long-standing intellectual and disciplinary approaches that seek to come to terms with the complexity and vast variety of nonprofit organizations and related forms and phenomena. After considering this chapter, the reader should:
■ have an understanding of the wide range of institutions, organizations, and types of activities that come under the label of the nonprofit sector;
■ be able to identify key intellectual traditions of nonprofit sector research;
■ have a sense of the major factors that influenced the field and that contributed to its development; and
■ be able to navigate through the book’s various parts and chapters in terms of specific content and their thematic connections. Some of the key concepts introduced in this chapter are:
THE EMERGENCE OF THE NONPROFIT SECTOR IN THE US While the concept of civil society as such is not common currency in the US, there is nonetheless a deep-seated cultural understanding that civil society finds its clearest expression in this country. Indeed a strong political as well as cultural current running through American history and contemporary society sees the US as an ongoing “experiment” in civility, community, democracy, and self-governance. Not only the country as a whole, but cities, such as New York, Chicago, Miami, and Los Angeles in particular, regard themselves as the “social laboratories” of modern urban life: they are among the most diverse in the world in ethnic, religious, and social terms, with large portions of immigrant populations, small local government, and high levels of community organizing and individualism. A strong expression of this cultural self-understanding is that the US, in all its imperfections and injustices, is nonetheless regarded as the embodiment of human political progress. This ideological current assumes at times mythical dimensions, perhaps because it is so closely linked to, and rests on, major symbols of US political history. In countless political speeches as well as in popular culture frequent references are made to highly symbolic events and documents that provide deep roots of legitimacy to both nonprofit organizations and the notion of self-organization. Among the most prominent of such cultural-political icons:
Charity, i.e. individual benevolence and caring, is a value and practice found in all major world cultures and religions. It is one of the “fi ve pillars” of Islam, and central to Christian and Jewish religious teaching and practice as well. In many countries, including the US, the notion of charity includes relief of poverty, helping the sick, disabled, and elderly, supporting.
This thesis examines how cultural and political factors in the United States foster economic hardship and inequality, undermining efforts for a more egalitarian society. While some degree of inequality is expected in a capitalist system, the U.S. has experienced a dramatic rise in poverty and income disparity since the 1970s. Globalization and technology alone do not explain this, as other nations facing the same pressures have avoided similar increases. The paper will analyze how uniquely American traits like individualism and distrust of government, as well as the influence of special interests and wealthy donors in politics, impede reforms and preserve the status quo, causing many to miss out on the American Dream.
Complex Identities and Intersectionality Unit Three.docxdonnajames55
Complex Identities and Intersectionality
Unit Three
Learning Objectives
Be able to define race, ethnicity, social class, and sexual orientation.
Understand the theoretical concepts of “intersectionality”, “social location” , & “standpoint”.
Have a clear understanding of the ways in which oppressions are not “additive” but rather “multiples”
Be able to describe your own power/privileges
Know how stereotypes work in American society, including the ways in which they are perpetuated and some of their repercussions
Understand that everyone is vulnerable to their influence
2
PART ONE:
What are race, class, and sexuality?
Understanding: Race
RACE: is social constructed category that divides people into groups based on visible physical characteristics such as skin color, eye shape, hair texture, etc.
Although race is related to the physical body, the meaning we give these superficial differences between us are entirely socially constructed. There are NO actual genetic differences between the various races.
Because race categories are socially constructed, they change over time. Which categories we measure, and how we measure them, shifts.
4
Understanding: Ethnicity
Ethnicity: is a socially constructed category, a way of grouping people based on their shared culture, such as religion, language, and history.
The difference between “race” and “ethnicity” can be confusing. For example, “Asian American” is treated as a race, but “Chinese American” and “Japanese American” are treated as ethnicities because they have distinct languages and traditions.
In the United States, there is a great deal of pressure on ethnic minority groups to assimilate the norms, values, and characteristics of the majority ethnic group.
Race and Ethnicity in America
Different racial groups are just that– different. Even thought we often speak in terms of binaries (“minorities” verses “the majority”), it is important to realize that not all minority race and/or ethnic groups share the same characteristics, both between themselves and within themselves.
White Americans: white is a race!
Hispanic Americans
African Americans
Native Indigenous Americans
Asian Americans
Arab Americans
Multiracial
Racial and Ethnic Inequality
A commonality among those which are considered minority groups is the experience of inequality.
Inequalities are socially structured and thus can impact multiple aspects of an individual’s life– not just, for example, their ability to get a job.
Racism: the belief that the physical and cultural characteristics associated with a group of people are inferior and thus unequal treatment of the group and its members is justified.
Racism can occur at both the individual and institutional level.
7
Race Impacts Life Chances in a Multitude of Ways
The process of Maintaining Inequality
A stereotype is developed and is circulated throughout a society via cultural channels such as popular media .
ClassismMaurianne Adams, Larissa E. Hopkins, and Davey ShlaskoThe.docxclarebernice
ClassismMaurianne Adams, Larissa E. Hopkins, and Davey Shlasko*The toll taken by the 2008 recession has focused public attention onto issues of class, eco-nomic status, and classism. People notice the glaring disparities between CEO and worker compensation, and between bank bailouts and personal bankruptcies or foreclosures, and wonder why executive bonus contracts are sacrosanct while union contracts and worker health beneits and pensions are stripped.The authors of this chapter have noticed that in this climate, our students and workshop participants are more open to exploring economic injustice in the U.S. and globally, and to acknowledge the impacts of global and local economic forces on themselves and their families. Beliefs that are core to the U.S. class system—such as belief in universal upward mobility, meritocracy, and the reachable “American Dream”—are now being questioned.In this chapter, we take a social justice approach to class and classism in the U.S., which pays serious attention to the historical legacies of economic injustice from the colonial period moving forward. We note some ways in which class-based oppression and race-based oppression have been entangled, and explore contemporary manifestations of class and classism that represent today’s version of those legacies, reproduced throughout U.S. insti-tutions and normalized in everyday life. Based on the historical legacies, the complex sys-temic manifestations, and the intersections with other social justice issues, we frame a social justice approach to teaching and facilitating about classism. Materials and activities that support our social justice approach can be found on the website for this chapter.OUR APPROACH: CORE CONCEPTS IN A SOCIAL JUSTICE APPROACH TO CLASS AND CLASSISMIn this chapter, we describe our approach to class and classism and then examine the soci-etal and cultural dynamics of class inequality, the reproduction of those dynamics at the institutional level, within groups and relationships, and as internalized through socializa-tion. In order to make sense of the long-term economic inequities in our cultural, social, and political systems, a class analysis must address all three levels, and explore the sources as well as the indicators of economic difference.Our approach to class and classism is shaped by the core concepts described in the intro-ductory Chapter 1, such as power and powerlessness, privilege and disadvantage, the levels of oppression, the Five Faces of Oppression, and socialization. Our approach is addition-ally shaped by an analysis of the myth of meritocracy and by attention to intersectionality.SOCIAL JUSTICE DEFINITIONS NEEDED FOR CLASS AND CLASSISMDeinitions of class are wide-ranging and contested, based on differences in theoretical ori-entation and in personal experiences. Some writers deine class on the basis of occupational | ADAMS, HOPKINS, AND SHLASKO214status (blue collar or white collar, professional or hourly, levels within ...
Escalating American Consumerism 2015 UPDATEDerek M. Lough
This document provides a literature review on the effects of escalating consumerism in America. It discusses how consumerism has affected the family unit, healthcare, and politics. Consumerism rose dramatically in the 1950s as a means to fuel economic growth. Advertising shifted to linking consumer goods with identity and personal fulfillment. This contributed to defining social status by what people purchased. Over time, even those in poverty were drawn into rampant consumption through ubiquitous advertising. The prioritization of acquiring goods has weakened family bonds and traditional values, influenced healthcare to focus on profit over wellness, and impacted politics through corporate lobbying and growing inequality.
An Analysis Of Poverty In Hmong American CommunitiesSteven Wallach
This chapter analyzes poverty in Hmong American communities in California. It reviews theories on the transmission of poverty, such as the "culture of poverty" theory and structural explanations. The author conducted research to examine how Hmong Americans understand poverty, the strategies families use to cope with economic hardship, and the factors that make poverty persistent. The author argues that conditions of poverty are better explained by "segmented assimilation theory" than by a "culture of poverty." This theory suggests that key institutions shape individuals' opportunities, and understanding these contexts is important for explaining immigrant outcomes. The study aims to provide new insights into poverty within Hmong American communities.
Sociological imagination, social work, human rights and social justice with r...Bimal Antony
A Sociological Imagination is crucial for a Social Work practice based on Human Rights and Social Justice with reference to The Rise and Demise of the Welfare State.
This presentation is by a student in the University of Illinois Great Cities Institute Certificate of Nonprofit Management Program class on nonprofits and civic engagement. Tom Tresser is the instructor.
This chapter discusses sociological explanations for juvenile delinquency, specifically social strain theory and cultural transmission theory. It outlines Robert Merton's theory of anomie, which proposes that social strain arises from a discrepancy between culturally approved goals (like success and wealth) and the legitimate means to achieve them. This can lead to anomie, or normative confusion. Merton's typology identifies five modes of adaptation: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. Innovation involves using illegitimate or criminal means to achieve goals, and is considered a deviant response that may explain delinquent behavior. The chapter aims to help readers understand these sociological perspectives on delinquency and how they view behavior as
1. Grade Required
Exam Number: 334
JGD715
Class: Marginalization Sociology
Title: Marginalization Theories and the American Homeless
Characters in main text (inc. spaces): 34,246
Autumn Semester 2014
2. Index
Introduction 1
Definition of the Underclass 1
The American Dream 2
The Chronically Homeless as American Underclass 3
Defining Short-Term Homelessness 4
The Actor in Marginalization Theories 6
The Street Paper Model Proposal to Reduce 9
Marginalization of Homeless
Discussion: How Effective is the Street Paper Model? 12
Success Related to the Welfare State 13
Conclusion 14
Bibliography 16
Solemn Declaration 17
3. 1
Marginalization Theories and the American Homeless
Introduction
In general terms, the underclass is a subset group of individuals that are
considered to be the lowest social class in a society and the farthest away from social
integration. Literature about the sociology of marginalization focuses on issues
surrounding the underclass. The homeless individual in the majority of modern societies
epitomizes an image of the underclass for various reasons. This essay will analyze
stereotypes and demographic characteristics of the homeless in order to explain why this
subgroup is at serious risk of marginalization, especially within modern American
society. Marginalization theories will be discussed, and then accompanied by a proposed
model for the de-marginalization and reintegration of the homeless underclass.
Definition of the Underclass
By the end of the 19th century, three social classes emerged as a result of the
Industrial Revolution’s effect on reshaping society structure (Beck, 1991:87). This
underclass of Industrial society reflected characteristics of the “lumpen proletariat”, a
term coined and expanded by Marx (1998). The term ‘underclass’ took shape in
industrialized culture in order to describe a person that failed to contribute in a way
considered to be ‘valuable’ by the labor-centric society. Here, the underclass was
described as a subordinate group – a burden weighing down on societal progress and full
economic prosperity. The word “poverty” is also a characteristic used to describe
someone that may be considered a burden on society because of his or her dependence on
the welfare state. Thus, “poverty” is a characteristic that is commonly associated with the
underclass (see Abrahamson, 1998). But Mortensen (1995) argued that poverty is not the
only characteristic associated with the underclass, and that important behavioral traits
must also be considered (173).
Failure to make a meaningful contribution to the workforce (unemployment) was
also associated with the original appearance of the underclass in industrialized society.
Furthermore, the sociological theories of Moller (1995) and Lind (1995) argue that
employment is a key aspect of an individual’s integration in society. Here, the
4. 2
individual’s employment manifests a sense of personal connection to the welfare of
society as a whole. This contribution to the workforce may then successfully integrate the
individual by virtue of one’s adherence to societal norms. Furthermore, the employment
of the individual reflects personal responsibility for oneself, simultaneously excluding the
individual from categorization as a burden on society’s welfare state. Unemployment and
poverty represent a disruption in the harmony between the individual interactions with
society. As a consequence, the underclass may likely experience exclusion or repulsion
from societal “in-rootness” due to factors that will be discussed in more detail later on.
The American Dream
Unemployment and poverty are not the only characteristics associated with the
underclass in every single modern-day society around the world. Yet modern American
society reveals a unique case in which these two characteristics are indeed deterministic
factors attached primarily to the underclass. This phenomenon may be attributed to the
complex ways that the notion of the American Dream has shaped the nation’s history and
plays out in today’s modern society.
Rooted within the 1776 U.S. Declaration of Independence, the American Dream
is a national ethos that has exhibited significant influence over the evolution and structure
of American society. The American Dream embodies the core belief that every individual
citizen has equal opportunity for prosperity, success, and upward social mobility
achieved through hard work. This notion manifests a social structure where employment,
success, and financial freedom are intrinsically linked together at the heart of society.
Contribution to the labor market (employment) enables societal integration via
participation in societal norms attributed to pursuit of the American Dream. Society’s
shared belief in the American Dream suggests that opportunity for prosperity and
integration varies as a function of the individual’s “hard work” and ability to achieve –
terms that also carry heavy associations with employment and financial success.
In a society largely motivated and driven by a prosperous capitalist market, the
American Dream transforms the terms “unemployment” and “poverty” into deterministic
characteristics that are inevitably attached to the American underclass. American writer
and historian, James Truslow Adams, defined the American Dream as the notion that,
5. 3
regardless of one’s social class, “life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone,
with opportunity for each according to ability of achievement” (Adams, 1931; cited by
Library of Congress). Although this national ethos does allow for fluidity across social
class, the characteristics of unemployment and poverty blatantly oppose the societal
structure governed by the notion of the American Dream.
Here, the underclass is suddenly faced with intensified social discrimination due
to the fact that society equates prosperity and social integration with one’s “hard work”
and “ability to achieve”. Through the eyes of governing social structures, unemployment
and poverty are perceived as an individual’s deviance from social norms, the personal
failure to meet societal expectations, and their failure to persevere. The characteristics of
“employment” and “wealth” associated with pursuit of the American Dream infiltrate
even the most basic forms of integration, and consequently marginalization as well.
Anderson (cited in Kristensen 2000) points at three basic marginalization forms (labor
market, social, and political marginalization) founded on the three pillars of the social
realm in modern western society (1996;8). The American Dream mentality is so
engrained in American structure that it has become absorbed into every facet of society,
encompassing the labor market, social, and political realms.
The Chronically Homeless as American Underclass
It is important to establish the differences between “short-term (transitional or
episodic) homelessness” and “chronic homelessness” in order to analyze the sociological
importance within such a diverse group of people.
Most researchers agree that the number of chronically homeless adults constitutes
as a small percentage (18%) of the overall homeless population in America (Caton,
Wilkins, & Anderson; 2007). The National Symposium on Homelessness Research
(2007) defined chronic homelessness as “a homeless individual with a disabling
condition” who has experienced either continuous or multiple episodes of homelessness
in more than one year’s time. These “disabling conditions” often include severe and
persistent mental illness and substance abuse, HIV/AIDS, and physical disability (Kuhn
& Culhane, 1998; Burt et al., 2001; Kertesz et al., 2005). These characteristics of the
chronically homeless are also found in two of the categories used by Jencks (1989) to
6. 4
describe the underclass: the ‘moral underclass’ who treat social norms as ‘impractical or
irrelevant’ (1989:15), and the ‘educational underclass’ who lack the knowledge or
training to participate in the workforce. Thus, ‘the moral underclass’ would be used to
describe the chronically homeless individual with disabling conditions such as mental
illness or substance abuse - conditions which prevent adherence to what is considered
socially normal. The ‘educational underclass’ would then describe the chronically
homeless suffering from physical disability, HIV/AIDS, and again, mental illness –
conditions of the body and mind that prevent adequate skills required to participate in the
workforce.
Caton (2005) states that, in addition to serious disability, the chronically homeless
are also compromised by persistent unemployment that consequently results in a
dependence on the welfare state for things such as health care, sustenance, and daily
provisions. Furthermore, characteristics of older age, past or current unemployment, a
lack of earned income, and arrest history are directly correlated with longer durations of
homelessness (Caton et al., 2005). This demographic data is also described by sociologist
Wilson (1987:8) who defines the underclass by: the inability to participate in the
mainstream occupational system in America, including lack of skill, long term
unemployment, and long term periods of poverty and/or dependence on the welfare state.
Because the American Dream mentality encompasses all social realms (labor market,
social, and political), the chronically homeless´ failed adherence to this social norm leads
to their categorization as underclass.
Defining Short-Term Homelessness
In American society, individuals experiencing “short-term” homelessness
constitute the largest majority (82%) of the overall homeless population at any one point
in time (N.A.E.H). Short-term homelessness presents a marginalization phenomenon that
is much more complex due to the greater diversity of individuals within this group.
Nonetheless, individuals experiencing short-term homelessness are also characterized as
underclass, placing them at serious risk of marginalization. Although short-term
homelessness accounts for the majority of homelessness occurring at any one point in
time, research pertaining to this subgroup is rare and is seldom comprehensive or
7. 5
longitudinal in nature. This biased focus in research may be related to the chronically
homeless´ significantly larger dependence on the welfare state and the associated
economic burden on society. Therefore, one must use case studies about short-term
homelessness as a reflection of the overarching sociological situation at play.
Short-term homelessness often times occurs due to an unfortunate series of events
where the individual is left without any personal resources. This may result from a
variety of situations including: youth’s expulsion from the family home, an individual’s
release from jail, sudden loss of job, escape from domestic abuse, or a medical
emergency that has starved an individual of all financial resources (N.A.E.H). The most
deterministic factor preventing short-term homelessness from becoming chronic is the
individual´s social ties with family and community that may be willing to “take them in”
if hit with hard times (Kuhn & Culhane, 1998). The term “poverty” can be used to
describe those experiencing short-term homelessness due to the fact that they cannot
support themselves completely without dependence on the welfare state or social groups.
In contrast to chronic homelessness, these individuals are rendered homeless due to
situational phenomena and therefore, “unemployment” may or may not fully apply.
Despite the situational differences associated with chronic and short-term
homelessness, poverty and unemployment are collectively used to label these two
subgroups as underclass. Studies looking at the public opinion on homelessness also
support this idea and show that popular American media largely takes a “conservative
frame that draws heavily on the individualism underlying the myth of the American
Dream” (Huckin, 2002;360). In Huckin´s study (2002) that accounted for media
published in all major U.S. newspapers within the span of one month, four genres related
to homelessness emerged: causes of homelessness, effects of homelessness, public
responses to the problem, and demographic data about homelessness. Huckin concluded:
This inventory indicates that current [early 1999] public discourse in the
U.S. characterizes homelessness as follows: it is caused mainly by
substance abuse, mental illness, and poverty; it affects large numbers of
not only single men, but also families and children; and it is associated
with crime, violence, and vagrancy (359).
Notice how Huckin’s analysis reflects the public´s overall failure to differentiate between
characteristics of short-term versus chronic homelessness. With the American Dream
8. 6
mentality, those who are perceived to have failed to take advantage of the ´land of
opportunity’ only have themselves to blame. Here, the American Dream mentality
prevents the outside observer from recognizing the drastic demographic differences
between chronic and short-term homelessness. Society labels this group as “the other”
and promotes an enhanced sense of differentiation between the homeless and sheltered,
placing the homeless population at risk of marginalization.
The Actor in Marginalization Theories
The homeless in America represent an underclass group at serious risk of
marginalization due to a hotchpotch of relations between demographic data, stereotypes,
and crude generalizations established in public opinion. In order to examine
homelessness as a marginalization phenomenon, marginalization theories will be
discussed and then applied within the context of American homelessness.
Kristensen (cited from Townsend, 1979;Germani, 1980) defines marginalization
as a process that is unwanted by the individual. The phenomenon is characterized by an
exclusion from participation within some field of the societal life (praxis), which is
considered both central for the given society (objective importance), and for the
individual (subjective importance) (2000:3). Finally, marginalization is “incomplete
participation within one or more life fields” where the actor is neither excluded from one
particular field (praxis), nor from all fields completely (2000:6). Especially true in the
individual´s homeless situation, Svedberg (1995) emphasizes that complex interactions
between actor and structure coalesce in the marginalization phenomenon, and therefore,
cannot be explained simply by individual choice or involuntarism (1995;44).
Kristensen´s essay and the theories that she includes in her argument make a
weighted analysis comparing the actor to various social spaces within society, taking into
account all social dimensions involved in marginalization. The following marginalization
theories are founded on the belief that humans are social creatures by nature, and that
because of this; the individual (actor) is fundamentally always interacting and
communicating with society in some way (Frisby 1992:7). The actor’s contact and
9. 7
communication can take on various forms, leaving room for potential upwards,
downwards, and/or “neutral” changes in social mobility over time (Galicki
2000;2005;2006). Simmel (1908) described marginalization of the poor as “partial or
incomplete participation” with a given praxis on the basis of incomplete economic
activity – societal participation only by virtue of inclusion within an adhering social
group, such as a church or family unit (cited by Kristensen, 2000:6).
On the other hand, Park (1952) proposed that actors move to and move from
praxis, where praxis is understood as any specific social association, group, or
community (cited in Galicki 2002;2005;2006). Because the praxis functions as a
subgroup within the governing structure of society, relative social norms and values are
also associated with the structure of specific praxis. Therefore, ‘moving to’ and ‘moving
from’ practices determine the actor’s participation in certain praxis while also potentially
leading to marginalization of the actor from other praxis. Germani (1980) provides a
definition of marginalized groups identical to previous descriptions of the social
underclass. Here, marginalization is directly correlated with an individual’s failure to
participate in certain praxis where their participation is expected, as determined by and
according to social norms.
Tom Broch’s (1979) Constructive Theoretical Pluralism (CTP) is useful in the
analysis of marginalization situations because it concentrates focus on the actor’s
communication with the societal structure (rules and resources) as the primary driving
force behind marginalization. Broch’s CTP model identifies four general interaction
fields of the social reality: the social (formal), existential, civilizing, and historical (cited
in Galicki 2002;2005;2006). These fields of social reality are distinguishable by the way
that the actor is forced to take action and the respective communication required in the
given marginalization situation.
Therefore, direct actor-structure communication has an effect on all four types of
marginalization. Yet, only with the historical marginalization (hm) type does this
communication factor play a crucial and directly relevant role in the marginalization
phenomenon (cited in Galicki 2002;2005;2006). Citizenship and contribution to the
workforce are attaching practices that integrate the actor within society via creation of a
direct link between actor and structure. Therefore, poverty and unemployment
10. 8
(characteristics associated with the American underclass) function as detaching practices
in which the actor ‘moves from’ participation in social norms, while also ‘moving to’ the
praxis of underclass dependence on the welfare state. Failure to participate in the
workforce in a complete way prevents the individual from gaining social recognition or
integration, putting them at serious risk of marginalization.
The marginalization theories that have been proposed thus far require that one
accept conceptions of society that are “either directly grounded in or presuppose the
concept of interaction or reciprocal effect” (Frisby; 1992;7). In other words, the theories
of Park, Germani, and Broch demand that the individual must act on the stage that is
society because one cannot exist without the other for we are social creatures by nature.
Therefore, social detaching and possible marginalization must exist in each epoch and
will increase in complexity as a variable of modernity (cited in Frisby 1992). With
increased complexity comes enhanced differentiation across social realms, consequently
pushing “deviant” groups more towards marginalization and exclusion. This is especially
the case in modern American society where the homeless underclass individual struggles
to make any meaningful contact or communication with social entities. Bridge vendor
Linda Bozant explains, “No one listens to us because they assume that we are either lazy
or on drugs!” (The Bridge interviews, 2014). Homelessness in America therefore
represents an extreme case of marginalization where the individual actor cannot
communicate in any significant way with the society structure required in order to move
oneself from their marginalized situation.
Sociologists such as Wiese and Svedburg propose marginalization theories that
situate the actor’s movement and interaction within society on a much more
individualized, micro scale. Svedburg (1995) argued for a spectrum of social interaction
where the actor could be located anywhere between “rooted-in” group (far left),
“marginal” group (middle), or “excluded” (far right) (cited in Kristensen 2000:7).
Svedburg’s theory represents a less sophisticated version of Broch’s marginalization
typology in that it fails to fully address the individual’s complex social reality in modern
day society. According to Svedburg, the American homeless population is an underclass
11. 9
group situated on the right-hand side of the axis somewhere between “marginal” and
“excluded”.
Wiese suggested that society is an illusion and that human interactions are the
only phenomenon at play, representing a much narrower perception of marginalization
(cited in Kristensen 2000). According to Wiese, two basic phenomena exist and relate to
all human interactions: 1) the individuals come close to each other (attaching) and 2)
move away from each other (detaching). By using communication and contact, the
individual can move away from detaching processes (characterized by isolation,
unfamiliarity, differentiation, and hostility) to achieve attaching processes (characterized
by tolerance, compromise, adaptation, leveling, and unity) (cited in Galicki
2002;2005;2006).
Because society is an illusion, the individual’s practices relate only to the
participation in “group affiliations”. Here, attaching and detaching processes cannot be
equated with integration and differentiation. This is because attaching/detaching
processes do not relate to a whole, society, or social structure – they are terms used to
describe the individual’s social interactions (and not participation with certain praxis).
Wiese’s theory explains marginalization of the homeless as a social process related to
either detaching processes, a lack of attaching processes, or a combination of the two.
Practices using contact and communication would then enable the marginalized homeless
individual to move away from detaching processes and towards attaching processes.
Face-to-face (actor-to-structure) contact and communication is especially important given
the complexity of modern American society where differentiation and distance between
social realms is enhanced (Simmel 1908; cited in Frisby 1992). Because the individual
actor cannot hope to significantly change the state of society, one can only take measures
to change his own social situation. The street paper model provides a viable solution to
move the actor along the marginalization spectrum by addressing key factors contributing
to the phenomenon.
The Street Paper Model Proposal to Reduce Marginalization of Homeless
In very basic terms, a “street paper” is a newspaper or magazine sold by
individuals that are experiencing homelessness and/or poverty, and typically feature
12. 10
content related to issues surrounding these characteristics of the underclass. The street
paper organizations produce timely publications in order to provide the homeless with a
resource for employment, self-empowerment, and a voice within the given community
(INSP, 2014). After completing vendor training and certification, the homeless individual
may then purchase papers at a fraction cost of the selling value. The sales of the paper
allow the vendor to keep 75-90% of their profits (depending on the organization) while
also promoting self-empowerment through self-employment in the homeless individual.
The street paper model is a “hand up”, not a “hand out” and promotes relationships
between customers (community members) and homeless vendors. By analyzing the
contributing factors in marginalization theories, one will understand why the street paper
model may be used as a means to escape marginalization situations within specific
societal context.
According to Park (1952), a homeless individual’s participation with the street
paper model would function as a ‘moving to’ practice, eventually leading to social
reintegration back into society. The street paper organization and community would
function as praxis in itself, governed by social structures and values that mimic those
found in the society at large. Here, it is important that the publication content also
represents adherence to social norms (anti-drug etc.). Although the street paper vendors
are publically recognized as homeless individuals, their employment with the street paper
organization functions as a ‘moving to’ practice in realigning their individual image with
social norms and expectations associated within the American Dream framework (Park,
1952; Germani, 1980). The vendor’s employment also functions as a ‘moving from’
practice which distances the individual from negative associations related to the praxis of
homelessness (i.e. panhandling, begging, substance abuse). Self-employment with the
paper breaks down the stereotype that homelessness is caused by an individual’s laziness,
failure to persevere, and a personal decision to depend on the welfare state. Participation
in the labor market demonstrates the individual’s attempt to alleviate their dependence on
the welfare state.
The vendor’s unique contribution to the workforce through the sales of the paper
may also function as an attaching process. In regards to Broch’s historical
13. 11
marginalization associated with homelessness, sales of the paper put the homeless actor
in contact with both the societal structures (rules and resources) and also with in-rooted
actors in society (community members). StreetSense vendor, Jake Ashford, explains,
“You know, as far as with the paper, it gives me a change to meet the working class
people” (Dankey & Wiegand, 1998). As cited by Galicki (2002;2005;2006), the
communication factor associated with marginalization types is the main driving force
behind an actor’s fulfillment of the attaching/move-to process. Contact by means of
employment and active citizenship enable the homeless vendor to gain social recognition
and increase the likelihood of “upwards” social mobility.
Homelessness in America represents an extreme case of marginalization where
the homeless individual is limited from making any meaningful communication with the
in-rooted members of society (Kristensen 2000). Meaningful communication is limited
and often disregarded due to associations between homelessness and deviancy. Because
of this, the marginalization situation approaches exclusion and thus, widens the
sociological gap between the homeless and sheltered individual. Consequently, the in-
rooted individual experiences increasing difficulty to sympathize with the homeless
situation. Here, the street paper model represents a perfect solution in that it provides a
platform for contact and communication – crucial factors required for an actor to move
away from marginalization.
First, the street paper itself provides an outlet for expression where the voice of
the homeless may be published and heard by large numbers of in-rooted society members
(customers). Successful street paper organizations such as Chicago’s Streetwise boast
circulation numbers of 338,000 annually (Streetwise, 2012). The stories written by
homeless authors help to give a face to homelessness and promote empathy by
highlighting the marginalization phenomenon, a condition experienced at all levels of
social stratification (Giddens, 2001). Consequently, the sociological differentiation
between groups is minimized, which promotes an enlightened and sympathetic
perception of the homeless situation. Here, sociological barriers between the homeless
and sheltered are broken down. First-hand accounts of homelessness may change the
public’s perspective by calling attention to potential flaws in the welfare state that may
14. 12
contribute to homelessness. Examples include a lack of jobs, low-income housing
options, resources for the mentally ill, and a fully functioning health care system. Thus,
the street paper encourages the public to look at marginalization phenomenon with a
sociological perspective and to consider all factors that may contribute to homelessness.
The vendor-customer exchange is also a crucial factor in that it provides
opportunity for the homeless individual to build good quality contacts within the society
structure. The vendor-customer exchange represents a platform where both individuals
may interact on safe and equal grounds, allowing quality relationships (contacts) to
blossom through face-to-face communication. Establishing good contact and
communication with the society structure increase the individual’s opportunity for
employment and access to resources via in-rooted individuals or social organizations.
Here, the individual must be open to the idea of reintegration back into society and must
actively pursue this goal. No organization or model can change a person’s situation if
they do not want to, or simply cannot, change it themselves.
Discussion: How effective is the Street Paper Model?
Here, it is important to analyze the street paper model on a micro-scale in relation
to the single individual. Although employment through a street-paper organization is
effective in reducing marginalization of the homeless in theory, this model is not fully
comprehensive for escaping the homelessness situation, especially in cases of chronic
homelessness. Thus, efforts to reduce the marginalization situation of the homeless
cannot be fully successful until the individual literally transitions from ‘homelessness’ to
‘sheltered’.
With most street paper organizations, sales of the street paper cannot provide the
vendor with enough income to cover daily living expenses in addition to the substantial
savings required to secure permanent housing and transition out of homelessness.
Because many homeless individuals could make more money by panhandling and
begging (Danky & Wiegand, 1998), the long-term benefits associated with the street
paper model (social contact, community, and reintegration) do not outweigh the short-
term demand for daily survival needs. Here, the individual is faced with a paradoxical
15. 13
situation where one’s survival needs and efforts to reduce marginalization will inherently
collide.
For the individual that is homeless by choice, the street paper model provides no
social or financial benefit. In the case of short-term homelessness, the short-term benefits
of the street paper model (rapid employment and income) are enough to escape
homelessness and consequent marginalization. This is due to the fact that preexisting
social ties are maintained in short-term situations. Thus, social mobility is enabled
through self-empowerment. In the case of chronic homelessness, mental/physical
disability and substance abuse may prevent the individual from utilizing the street paper
model to the full extent required for reintegration. The existence of chronic homelessness
in America reflects a failure within the welfare state to provide adequate care and help for
the physically and mentally ill living in poverty and also those that are financially at-risk.
This is a substantial fault within American welfare state that no street paper organization
could ever fully address or resolve.
Success Related to the Welfare State
Although the street paper model is successful in addressing the overarching social
factors contributing to the marginalization of the homeless, full reintegration of homeless
individuals calls for a more holistic, comprehensive social formula. So it is important to
also consider the operational role of the welfare state.
The success of a city’s street paper is strongly correlated with the social structures
already in place meant to address homelessness. This theory helps to explain why certain
street papers succeed over others. First of all, the resources and support that the welfare
state is able to provide for the homeless is heavily dependent on government funding and
political influence in America. Research shows that the majority of government funding
from the past ten years allotted for addressing homelessness went to transitional or
permanent housing programs (N.A.E.H.). These efforts manifest biased longitudinal data
and simultaneously place a bandage over the real problem at hand. Government programs
involving these housing solutions fail to reduce the homeless population in more effective
ways through preventative measures.
16. 14
As proposed by Danish sociologist Gosta Esping-Andersen (1990), the American
welfare state is characterized as a stereotypical Liberalist model. This model describes a
welfare state that is based on capitalist market dominance and private provisions, where
social insurance is minimal and social stratification extremely high (Esping-Andersen,
1990). In Liberalist models such as the American welfare state, the homeless individual
receives little support from governing social structures. Welfare responsibility is placed
on the individual, which fully depends on employment and social status. Interestingly
enough, street paper vendors in Liberalist welfare states experience significantly less
success than their counterparts in Social Democratic welfare states such as the Danish
system (cited in INSP). By analyzing employment rates in street paper organizations and
circulation (sales) of the paper, one begins to understand that marginalization theories are
only successful when applied to societies that are inherently set up to favor reintegration.
Because the American Dream framework is pervasive in both the welfare state and social
stratification, the general (in-rooted) public will blindly perceive homelessness as a
choice or place blame on the individual unless social mentality is changed.
Mead (1986, cited in Andersen and Larsen, 1995) proposes a solution for
addressing the problems of the underclass (homeless) by making changes in social policy
itself. Mead (lbid.) argues that the implementation of new policies should be means-
tested in order to determine the most effective approach to integration. In regards to
marginalization theories, future research should focus on changes in social policies
according to the associated welfare state. Such changes in social policy in America may
include a focus on increasing resources for the mentally and physically disabled
underclass, job placement initiatives, and supportive programs for individuals that are
financially at-risk. More importantly, proposed changes in social policy must decrease
social stratification and de-stigmatize homelessness. Perhaps recent economic decline
will bring about a new epoch in America where marginalization is less extreme.
Conclusion
Marginalization theories may be used to analyze homeless American citizens as
part of the underclass. Due to the comprehensive influence of the American Dream on
modern society, the homeless underclass is subject to marginalization for reasons
17. 15
associated with poverty and unemployment. The street paper model offers a strong
proposal to achieve social reintegration because of the ways that it is able to address
social phenomena described in marginalization theories. Given the relative success of the
street paper model in regards to full social reintegration, a more comprehensive and
holistic approach must also consider the welfare state. Future research is required in order
to expand marginalization theories so that they may be realistically applied in Liberalist
welfare states where extreme and complicated social stratification damages social
progress.
18. 16
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