During the First Millennium BCE (Dynasties 21-30), what it meant to be ‘king’ or ‘pharaoh’ seems to have changed. This was a time when Egypt was often split into south and north – or even more fragmented than that – and it was subject to influence from various groups of foreigners. While the kings who were recognised by Manetho were generally based in the north, Thebes, in the south, repeatedly produced powerful local individuals who claimed the kingship, or wielded equivalent authority. Some who claimed kingship barely left a trace in the records and were perhaps not so influential; others who didn’t claim kingship seem to have been far more influential and wealthy, causing us to ask what it really meant to be ‘king’ during this era. This is the story of the powerful Chief Priests of Dynasty 21, Theban kings, Libyan Chiefs, and the owners of the three largest and most spectacular tombs anywhere in the country – Harwa, Montuemhat and Padiamunope of Dynasties 25 and 26.

1. KINGS IN THEBES?
Dr Chris Naunton
chrisnaunton.com/online-lectures/

2. BM 91026
The ‘Rassam
Cyclinder’
From the library of
Ashurbanipal.
Inscriptions in
Akkadian record
campaigns against
Egypt in the 7th cen
BCE (Dyn 25).
Images © The Trustees of the British Museum

3. Includes a list of
rulers within
Egypt who were
appointed or
confirmed in
office after the
Assyrians had
defeated the
Kushite Dyn 25
kings in 671 BCE.

4. List includes a
‘king of Thebes’…

5. ‘Mantimanhe’ =
Montuemhat

6. MONTUEMHAT
Fourth Priest of Amun,
Mayor of Thebes,
Overseer of Upper
Egypt
‘King of Thebes’?
Statue: Cairo CG 42236

7. HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND

8. TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY

9. END OF THE NEW KINGDOM
AND TRANSITION TO THE TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY
Split in the country – north and south, kings and chief priests
Equivalence of kings and priests
Rise in importance of Amun vis-à-vis the king
Boundary between the two territories in region of Faiyum
Lines connected e.g. by marriage and eventually come
together
End of the use of the Valley of Kings, decline in monumental
tomb construction

11. Herihor and Amun-Ra
Temple of Khonsu, Karnak

12. nb t3wy
(Hm-nTr tp n Imn)
nb xaw
(s3 Imn Hr-@r)
The Lord of the Two Lands
Chief Priest of Amun
Lord of Arisings
The Son of Amun, Herihor

13. WHAT MAKES A ‘KING’?
Titulary
King (of Upper and Lower Egypt)
Son of Ra
Lord of the Two Lands
Lord of Arisings
Etc…

14. WHAT MAKES A ‘KING’?
Titulary
King (of Upper and Lower Egypt)
Son of Ra
Lord of the Two Lands
Lord of Arisings
Etc…

15. WHAT MAKES A ‘KING’?
Trappings of kingship, regalia, iconongraphy
Position and role vis-à-vis the gods
Temple building / decoration
Pinudjem I
Herihor
Menkheperre

16. WHAT MAKES A ‘KING’?
Control of government
- Temple, armies, Nubia, granaries, treasury, judiciary (vizier)
Titles of the ‘Chief Priest’ Piankh:

17. WHAT MAKES A ‘KING’?
Regnal dates
Theban datelines never refer to the Tanite(?) king they
relate to…
Dates are generally presumed to relate to Tanite kings
but may in fact relate to Theban ‘kings’…

18. TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY
…Egypt reunified

19. Hedjkheperre Setepenre
Sheshonq I
945 – 925 BCE
Son of the Great Chief of
the Ma, Sheshonq A
L: Brooklyn Museum
33.586

20. Device to ensure control of the south from outset of
Dyn 22: Installation of son as Chief Priest of Amun
• Iuput A, son of Shoshenq I
• Shoshenq C, Iuwlot, Nesibanebdjedet III - sons of Osorkon I
• Harsiese B, son of Shoshenq II(?)
• Nimlot C, son of Osorkon II
• Takelot F, son of Nimlot C

21. INSTALLATION OF SON AS CPA FROM OUTSET OF DYN 22
Iuput A, son of Shoshenq I
Shoshenq C, Iuwlot, Nesibanebdjedet III - sons of Osorkon I
Harsiese B, son of Shoshenq II(?)
Nimlot C, son of Osorkon II
Takelot F, son of Nimlot C

22. On the death of Nimlot C a political struggle
between two Chief Priests:
‘Prince’ Osorkon, son of
Hedjkheperra Takeloth II
Harsiesi (B), loyal to Usermaatra
Setepenamun Pedubast I
– narrated in the
‘Chronicle of Prince Osorkon’
(‘Bubastitie Portal’, First Court, Karnak)

23. LEAHY (& ASTON):
The Chief Priest of Amun Takeloth F, grandson of Osorkon II
became King Takeloth II
This king was not part of the 22nd Dyn but a Theban / Upper
Egyptian line.
His son, the Chief Priest of Amun ‘Prince Osorkon’ (of the
‘Chronicle’) later became king Osorkon III.

24. Date Leontopolis 22nd Dynasty Takeloth II / Osorkon III line U Eg Opponents of Takeloth II Hermopolis
865 Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon II
860
855
850
845
840
835 Hedjkheperre Setepenre Takeloth II
830 Usermaatre Shoshenq III Sibast
825 Usermaatre Setepenamun Pedubast
Sibast / Siese
820
815
810 Usermaatre Setepenamun Iuput I
805
800 Usermaatre Meriamun Shoshenq
VI
795 Hedjkheperre Shoshenq IV Sibast Usermaatre Setepenamun Osorkon III
790
785
780 Usermaatre Setepenre/amun Pimay
775 Akheperre Sheshonq V
770 Usermaatre Setepenamun Takeloth III
765
760 Hedjkheperre Shoshenq VIa Siese
755
750 Rudamun
745
740 23rd Dynasty
735 Sehetepibre Pedubast
730 Usermaatre
Setepenamun Iuput
II Si-Bast
Osorkon IV Peftjauawybast Nimlot
Later
Dyn 22
& Dyn 23
(Leahy)

25. Theban king
Hedjkheperre
Setepenamun Harsiesi
(A) Meryamun
(temp. Osorkon II)
L: Sarcophagus lid,
Egyptian Museum
R: CG 42208,
Nakhtefmut mentions
Harsiesi & Osorkon II

26. Tomb of Harsiesi
OIP 66. Post-
Ramessid
Remains. The
Excavation of
Medinet Habu,
Volume 5. Uvo
Hölscher.
Originally
published in
1954.
Via oi.Chicago.edu

27. Tomb of Harsiesi
OIP 66. Post-
Ramessid
Remains. The
Excavation of
Medinet Habu,
Volume 5. Uvo
Hölscher.
Originally
published in 1954.
Via oi.Chicago.edu

28. Piye Stela: shows that by the time
of Piye’s invasion (c. 720 BCE)
there were local kings
everywhere…

29. ‘Victory’ or ‘Triumphal’ Stela of Piye. Cairo, JE 48862

30. Great Chief of the Ma, Akanosh
Great Chief of the Ma, Djedamuniuefankh
iry-pat Pediese
H3ty-a Patjenfy
H3ty-a Pamai
‘Victory’ or ‘Triumphal’
Stela of Piye. Cairo,
JE 48862
King (nsw) Nimlot
King (nsw) Osorkon
King (nsw) Iuput
King (nsw)
Peftjauawybast
King of Upper and Lower
Egypt (nsw bity) Piye

31. No king or other ruler in Thebes is
mentioned
 Thebes was already under the
Kushites’ control

32. Rassam Cylinder suggests a
similar situation a few
decades later (671 BCE)…

33. Rassam Cylinder
© The Trustees
of the British
Museum. Text
Pritchard, ANET
671 BCE: Assyria
imposed a yearly
tribute from the
cities of Lower
Egypt, re-named
towns and
appointed new
administrators

34. Dream Stela of Tantamani
(664/3 BCE) provides further
evidence…

35. Dream Stela of Tantamani
Disc at Gebel Barkal, now in the Nubia
Museum, Aswan
Tantamani victorious at Memphis
T then laid siege to the Lower Egyptian towns
but without engaging them in battle.
iry-pat H3ty-a of Per-Soped, Pekrur:
““Let us go to our cities that we may
command our subjects and bring our dues to
the Residence.”
So His Majesty <let> them go (back) to their
cities, and they were (left) alive.

36. ‘Victory’ or ‘Triumphal’ Stela of Piye. Cairo, JE 48862
Piye Stela shows that some of these
rulers called themselves kings
(nsw), while others did not
Clearly the idea of multiple kings
contravenes the long-held idea of
there being a single pharaoh to rule
all Egypt
We can suggest therefore that the
idea of being king (nsw if not nsw
bity) had lost some of its
meaning at this point(?)

37. Although they did not call themselves
nsw did the important Theban officials of
the day have similar authority?

38. THEBES
…AND TOMBS

39. ‘Mantimanhe’ =
Montuemhat

40. MONTUEMHAT
Fourth Priest of Amun,
Mayor of Thebes,
Overseer of Upper
Egypt
‘King of Thebes’?
Statue: Cairo CG 42236

41. Robert Hay
Archive.
©British Library
Board, add ms
29821 113

43. Theban Necropolis. Asasif (foreground)

49. Padiamunope,
TT 33
Harwa, TT 37
Montuemhat, TT 34

50. Padiamunope
TT 33
Harwa, TT 37
Montuemhat, TT 34
Plan after Eigner,
Monumentalen
Grabbauten der Spätzeit

51. KINGS IN THEBES?
Dr Chris Naunton
chrisnaunton.com/online-lectures/

52. Padiamunope
TT 33
Harwa, TT 37
Montuemhat, TT 34
Plan after Eigner,
Monumentalen
Grabbauten der Spätzeit

54. https://www.harwa.it/

55. TT 33
TOMB OF PADIAMUNOPE

56. TT 33
22 rooms
322m total length, 1060m2 in area
(KV 7 / Ramesses II, VKs = 868m2)
Johannes Duemichen published three
volumes (1884-94) but only 18% of the
decoration on the walls
Work v difficult due to the bats and guano
 sulphurous smell
Plan & sections:
https://tombett33.hypotheses.org
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

57. TT 33
Maspero blocked entry to rooms 4 – 22 to
try to exterminate the bats (c. 1900).
Rooms 1-3 became storage rooms for 2,000
antiquities.
The tomb therefore became inaccessible
until 2005 when a French / Egyptian project
led by Prof Claude Traunecker arranged for
the rooms to be cleared and the tomb
opened again for new research – ongoing
ever since.
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

58. TT 33
Tomb remains very little known…
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

59. TT 33, Tomb of Padiamunope
HUGE girdle wall

60. TT 33, exterior

61. TT 33
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

62. TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

63. TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
1st Pillared
Hall
Ritual of the
Hours of the Day
Ritual of the
Hours of the Night
EAST
WEST

64. Second Pillared Hall
TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
Deceased with Anubis

65. Second Pillared Hall
Decorated w texts & images relating to
rituals performed in between death and
burial e.g. ‘ritual of opening of the mouth’
(Above: KV 62, Tutankhamun)
TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
2nd Pillared
Hall

66. Second Pillared Hall
TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
Deceased with Anubis

67. Second Pillared Hall
TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa
Deceased with Anubis
…but now rejuvenated

68. TT 37,
Tomb of Harwa,
Osiris Hall

69. TT 33
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

70. TT 33
6-9: reminiscent of royal tombs in the VKs,
descending passageway evokes journey
down into the underworld
TT 33
KV 23,
Ay
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

71. TT 33
6-9: ends with a vaulted chamber featuring
the judgement scene
Papyrus of Ani, BM EA 10470,3.
© The Trustees of the British Museum:
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

72. TT 33
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

73. TT 33
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
10-11 – pyramid texts – drawing on the 5th
/ 6th Dyn pyramid model.
Large stone massif in the centre stands in
for the sarcophagus
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

74. Pyramid of
Unas, Saqqara
Pyramid Texts

75. TT 33
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

76. TT 33
Intersection between 12 and 13: image of
P holding a stick and welcoming visitors.
Titles to R of his figure, to the L a short text
in 4 columns…
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

77. “O living ones
O those who are upon the Earth
Those who are born and those who will be born
(in the future)
Those who come as followers of Montu, Lord of
Thebes
Those who walk through the necropolis in order
to entertain oneself…
Those who seek all kinds of formulas

78. May they enter to this tomb
In order that they may see what is in it
Amun-Re, Lord of the thrones of the two lands is
living for you
(if you) adore the god, recite the offering formula
in order to make this monument to complete,
May you make grow that which decays.”
Translation: Traunecker in Thebes in The First
Millennium (2014)

79. TT 33
Corridor (13) surrounding a square massif
In the centre a ‘cenotaph’ / model tomb of
Osiris. Square, 30 cubits on each side, 15
doors, corners protected by gods with
arms outstretched
Images from:
Traunecker
in Thebes in
The First
Millennium
(2014)

80. Image: https://tombett33.hypotheses.org/

81. L-R: Cenotaph in plan; false door; niche.
From Piankoff in BIFAO 46 (1947)

82. TT 33
Decoration on the outer walls comprises
lit. compilations of Padiamunope - books
of: Gates, Amduat, Litany of Re, Night,
Earth, Nut.
Image: amduat, KV 35, Amenhotep II
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

83. TT 33
Corridor (13) was extended to incorporate
all the required texts
Final section (13,3) was shorter than the
main corridor section but the ground rises
and ceiling slopes downwards to create the
illusion of a longer passage
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

84. TT 33
This section of the corridor turns to the N v
deliberately – the texts all converge here
and above the niche is another text saying
that P is embarking on a solar boat.
He is therefore going to join the
circumpolar stars which revolve around the
northern celestial pole.
Aside from the first three rooms the entire
tomb is oriented in this direction for this
reason.
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

85. TT 33
‘Cenotaph’ may also represent a model of
the tomb of Osiris
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

86. TT 37,
Tomb of Harwa
Tomb of Osiris
(surrounded by water?)
TT 37,
Tomb of
Harwa

87. Osireion, Abydos

88. TT 33
TT 33, Tomb of Padiamunope
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33,
Tomb of
Padiamunope

89. TT 33, Tomb of Padiamunope
5 main sections:
Classic 25th / 26 dynasty tomb (rooms 1-3)
New Kingdom model: 1) introductory
rooms (4-5); 2) Theban Royal tomb (6-9)
Old Kingdom tomb model (10–11)
Osirian Underground temple and Stone
library (12-14)
Burial compartments (17-22)
TT 33

90. Am duat, 5th hour
Tomb of Osiris from which the sun’s corpse will be rejuvenated as a scarab
Cavern of Sokar, Lake of Fire

91. Am duat, 5th hour
Tomb of Osiris from which the sun’s corpse will be rejuvenated as a scarab
Cavern of Sokar, Lake of Fire

92. ‘KINGS’ OF THEBES?

93. MONTUEMHAT
…is the starting point

94. MONTUEMHAT
…is the starting
point here because
we know:
His family appears to
have come to
prominence at the same
time as the Kushites
(25th Dyn) took control
of Egypt

95. MONTUEMHAT
He was allied to the
Kushites through
marriage
- his wife, Udjarenes was
a granddaughter of the
Kushite pharaoh, Piye
Statue: Cairo JE 31884

96. The Rassam
Cylinder shows
he was
appointed or
confirmed in
authority by the
Assyrians…

97. The Rassam
Cylinder shows
he was
appointed or
confirmed in
authority by the
Assyrians…
(And they
believed him to
be the equal – as
a ‘king’ (Šarru) -
of other local
rulers…)

98. Montuemhat was the leading
figure at the time of the adoption
of the Saite Princess Nitocris as
heiress to the God’s Wife of Amun
- marks the transfer of allegiance
in Thebes to the Saite kings (26th
Dyn, 656 BCE)
Cairo, JE 36327
Year 9 Psamtek I, 656 BCE

99. He was still the leading authority in Thebes in year 14 of
Psamtek I (651 BCE)
The ‘Brooklyn Oracle Papyrus’ / ‘Saite Oracle Papyrus’
Brooklyn Museum 47.218.3a-j

100. The ‘Brooklyn Oracle
Papyrus’
L-R:
• Montuemhat
• M’s son, Nesptah (B)
• Chief Priest of Amun,
Harkhebi

101. Berlin 17271 - Montuemhat
Inscriptions inclue claim that he ruled
Upper Egypt from Elephantine to
Hermopolis

102. His tomb is
decorated with
cartouches of
Psamtek I

103. He was able to
initiate
construction
projects in the
Mut temple
complex at
Karnak –
normally the
prerogative of
the king or other
royalty
R: Contra-temple,
Mut Enclosure,
Karnak

104. In addition to a
large and complex
tomb he had at
least fifteen statues
and further
monuments of
various kinds.

105. He also had a long string of titles, showing that
he held a variety of roles within a variety of
different institutions, including:
Fourth Priest of Amun
Inspector of Priests in the House of Amun
Overseer of Priests
Scribe of the Temple of the House of Amun
Mayor or Governor of the City (of Thebes)
Overseer of Upper Egypt
Ruler of Foreign Lands
Great One of the Entire Land
Overseer of the Palace
Eyes & Ears of the King of Upper & Lower Egypt
Great One of the King

106. Large tomb, statues, long string of titles –
all things Montuemhat shared in common
with Harwa and Padiamunope.

107. Harwa
Cairo JE 37386
Montuemhat
Cairo JE 31884
Padiamunope
Cairo CG 48615

108. HARWA
Cairo JE 37386
Builder of the
first of the three
largest tombs in
the Asasif

109. Shabti of Harwa
Disc in TT 37 in 1997.
MAIL 1997 R 200
Made of fine linestone – v unusual.
Faience shabtis also known – combination is
common to kings
Image from:
https://www.harwa.it/eng/harwa/shabty.htm

110. Shabti of Harwa,
limestone.
Disc in TT 37 in 1997.
MAIL 1997 R 200
Holds the crook and flail
…of kingship.
Image from:
https://www.harwa.it/eng/
harwa/shabty.htm

111. Shabti of Harwa, limestone.
Disc in TT 37 in 1997.
MAIL 1997 R 200
Inscriptions refer to Harwa as ‘wr wrw’
= ‘great of the great ones’
Image from:
https://www.harwa.it/eng/harwa/shabty.htm

112. HARWA
(BM EA 32555)
First holder of
the title ‘Chief
Steward of the
God’s Wife’
(Holders of this
title would
become
preeminent in
Thebes in
Dyn 26)

113. HARWA
Owner of
at least 8
statues

114. HARWA
Long string of titles, including:
Chief Steward of the God’s Wife of Amun
Guardian of the Diadem of the God's Hand /
Divine Adoratress
Embalmer Priest of Anubis of the God's Wife
An official at the head of the officials
whom the king has distinguished A beyond his
fellows

115. Padimunope
Cairo CG 48615
Dated to the end of
the Twenty-fifth
Dynasty / beginning of
the Twenty-sixth(?)
(600s BCE)
Owner of at least 12
statues and an
enormous tomb…

116. Padimunope
Cairo CG 48615
Chief Lector Priest
Overseer of works of the king
Overseer of scribes of the divine book
Eyes and ears of the king
Scribe in charge of the royal archives

117. Padimunope
Cairo CG 48615
Was also present at the investiture of the
God’s Wife of Amun, Nitocris
‘King’ of Thebes?

118. Stone shabtis – common to all three… L-R:
Harwa: MAIL 1997 R
200. Image from:
https://www.harwa.it/
eng/harwa/shabty.htm
Montuemhat: BM
EA67742.
Padiamunope: BM
EA35045
© The Trustees of the
British Museum

119. …but also to Kalakhariimen
(Kushite):
BM EA74754
Udjarenes, Kushite wife
of Montuemhat:
BM EA68986
Shepenwepet II (God’s
Wife, also Kushite):
BM EA65806
(Also Karakhamun of TT
223 (South Asasif))
© The Trustees of the British Museum
L-R:

120. Shepenwepet II (BM EA65806)
…also holds the crook and flail.
BIG THANK YOU to Dr Meg
Gundlach for info & analysis!
© The Trustees of the British
Museum

121. wr wrw / ‘great of the great ones’?
Possibly the basis for the Assyrian Šarru = ‘king’
Other holders include Montuemhat…
But also his son Nesptah B.

122. Harwa, Montuemhat and Padiamunope have things in common:
Tombs
Statuary
Stone shabtis

123. Problem of predecessors / successors…
There is little / no continuity in the (principal) titles of the
three potential ‘kings’
Harwa: Chief Steward of the God’s Wife
Montuemhat: Fourth Priest of Amun, Mayor of Thebes,
Overseer of Upper Egypt
Padiamunope: Chief Lector Priest
Predecessors and successors in all these positions are known.

124. Problem of chronology…
We assume if the role of ‘king’ in Thebes existed then there
was only one holder at a time, and it was passed from
Harwa to Montuemhat and then Padiamunope in that
sequence.
But while Montuemhat was clearly in authority from 671
(latest) to 651 (earliest) we cannot clearly place the others.
Harwa can only be earlier due to his association with the
God’s Wife Amunirdis I who died during Dyn 25.
Padiamunope is probably later, especially if he was the Chief
Lector Priest at the investitutre of Nitocris

125. Problem of chronology…
It’s possible all three overlapped…

126. Problem of other
claimants…
God’s Wife of Amun
• Long thought to have
been appointed as the
king’s deputy in Thebes.
• Large ‘institutions
around her’
• Royal burial at Medinet
Habu
• Harwa owed wealth and
tomb to her?

127. Problem of other
claimants…
God’s Wife of Amun
But if the God’s Wife was
really the king’s deputy
why were successive royal
princesses allowed to
remain in office after the
25th and 26th Dyn
takeovers?

128. CONCLUSION
Politics and geography during Dynasties 21-25 were changing
and complex
Thebes was alternately in and out of pharaoh's control
Conditions in Dynasty 25 led to the rise of one, extraordinarily
influential figure (Montuemhat).
Was he a king?
In that he was never nsw, no he was not king.
In that he held power equivalent to others who were nsw, yes.

129. CONCLUSION
Harwa and Padiamunope?
Much harder to argue.
My view: insufficient evidence that they held the same authority
as Montuemhat.
We must not forget that the situation was ever-changing:
Libyan Period – Kushite – Assyrian invasions – Saite reunification

130. KINGS IN THEBES?
Dr Chris Naunton
chrisnaunton.com/online-lectures/