This document outlines the syllabus for a biochemistry course taught by Professor Jim Roesser. It introduces the topic of biochemistry and explains that it is important for fields like agriculture, medicine, history, and forensic science. The course will cover biological macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, as well as their composition, interactions, and recognition properties. It will also discuss the properties of water.
The document discusses inheritance patterns and genetic disorders. It provides examples of experiments studying inheritance in pea plants. Mendel's experiments on pea plants showed that offspring inherit traits from parents through alleles and that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive. The document also summarizes several genetic disorders and their inheritance patterns such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and PKU. It describes the genetic and environmental factors that influence these conditions.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It discusses how Mendel studied seven traits in pea plants through controlled crosses between pure-breeding lines. His results demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes or alleles) and showed dominance relationships. Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment. Later researchers confirmed Mendel's findings through experiments with pea plants.
Mendelian principles are good at predicting inheritance patterns for traits controlled by a single gene on an autosome. Examples include autosomal dominant and recessive disorders like cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease, etc. Mendelian principles do not apply as well to traits influenced by multiple genes or sex-linked traits.
The accountant provided tax advice to a client on December 1, 20X3 but would not be paid until January 15, 20X4. Under accrual accounting, the accountant should record the revenue in 20X3 because accrual accounting records revenue in the period the service is provided, regardless of when payment is received. Accrual accounting attempts to record the financial effects of transactions in the period they occur rather than when cash is exchanged.
This document provides an introduction to accounting. It defines accounting as a discipline that measures and communicates financial information about a business. It explains the accounting equation, the four core financial statements, and how to analyze business transactions by determining their impact on the accounting equation and each financial statement. Several examples of transaction analysis are provided and summarized.
This document outlines the topics to be covered in a biochemistry course taught by Professor Jim Roesser. The course will discuss the importance of biochemistry in fields like agriculture, medicine, history and forensic science. It will also examine the composition and interactions of biological macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, and how they carry out functions within living organisms. Students will learn about figures and tables illustrating key concepts like biomolecular structure, interaction and recognition.
Gas chromatography is a technique used to separate and analyze mixtures that rely on differences in volatility and affinity of compounds for a mobile and stationary phase. The key components of a gas chromatography system are a carrier gas, sample injection system, column, and detector. Factors like carrier gas type, column temperature, length, diameter, and stationary phase influence separation of compounds on the column. Common detectors include thermal conductivity, flame ionization, and electron capture detectors which have different properties in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, and response characteristics.
This document outlines the syllabus for a biochemistry course taught by Professor Jim Roesser. It introduces the topic of biochemistry and explains that it is important for fields like agriculture, medicine, history, and forensic science. The course will cover biological macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids, as well as their composition, interactions, and recognition properties. It will also discuss the properties of water.
The document discusses inheritance patterns and genetic disorders. It provides examples of experiments studying inheritance in pea plants. Mendel's experiments on pea plants showed that offspring inherit traits from parents through alleles and that some alleles are dominant while others are recessive. The document also summarizes several genetic disorders and their inheritance patterns such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and PKU. It describes the genetic and environmental factors that influence these conditions.
This document provides an overview of Gregor Mendel's experiments with pea plants that laid the foundations for genetics. It discusses how Mendel studied seven traits in pea plants through controlled crosses between pure-breeding lines. His results demonstrated that traits are inherited as discrete units (now called genes or alleles) and showed dominance relationships. Mendel's work established the laws of segregation and independent assortment. Later researchers confirmed Mendel's findings through experiments with pea plants.
Mendelian principles are good at predicting inheritance patterns for traits controlled by a single gene on an autosome. Examples include autosomal dominant and recessive disorders like cystic fibrosis, Huntington's disease, etc. Mendelian principles do not apply as well to traits influenced by multiple genes or sex-linked traits.
The accountant provided tax advice to a client on December 1, 20X3 but would not be paid until January 15, 20X4. Under accrual accounting, the accountant should record the revenue in 20X3 because accrual accounting records revenue in the period the service is provided, regardless of when payment is received. Accrual accounting attempts to record the financial effects of transactions in the period they occur rather than when cash is exchanged.
This document provides an introduction to accounting. It defines accounting as a discipline that measures and communicates financial information about a business. It explains the accounting equation, the four core financial statements, and how to analyze business transactions by determining their impact on the accounting equation and each financial statement. Several examples of transaction analysis are provided and summarized.
This document outlines the topics to be covered in a biochemistry course taught by Professor Jim Roesser. The course will discuss the importance of biochemistry in fields like agriculture, medicine, history and forensic science. It will also examine the composition and interactions of biological macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, and how they carry out functions within living organisms. Students will learn about figures and tables illustrating key concepts like biomolecular structure, interaction and recognition.
Gas chromatography is a technique used to separate and analyze mixtures that rely on differences in volatility and affinity of compounds for a mobile and stationary phase. The key components of a gas chromatography system are a carrier gas, sample injection system, column, and detector. Factors like carrier gas type, column temperature, length, diameter, and stationary phase influence separation of compounds on the column. Common detectors include thermal conductivity, flame ionization, and electron capture detectors which have different properties in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, and response characteristics.
This document discusses liquid chromatography techniques. It describes liquid chromatography as using a liquid mobile phase and liquid or solid stationary phase. It then summarizes classical liquid chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography. High performance liquid chromatography uses smaller particle sizes in the stationary phase, stronger pumps, and detectors to allow for faster separations and better resolution compared to classical liquid chromatography. The document outlines the basic components of an HPLC system including the solvent delivery system, pump, injection port, analytical column, and various detector types. It also discusses different modes of liquid chromatography like normal phase and reverse phase.
This document provides an introduction and overview of chromatography. It discusses how chromatography separates a complex mixture into individual components based on interactions between a mobile and stationary phase. Different types of chromatography are described based on variations in the stationary and mobile phases used, including gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), ion chromatography (IC), size exclusion, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), and affinity chromatography. Key terms used to describe chromatographic separations such as retention time, capacity factor, selectivity factor, resolution, number of theoretical plates, and plate height are also defined.
1) Solvent extraction is a technique used to separate components in a mixture based on differences in solubility between two immiscible liquid phases.
2) It involves transferring a solute from one liquid phase to another, such as transferring a compound from an aqueous phase to an organic phase like benzene.
3) The amount of solute extracted into each phase can be calculated using the partition coefficient K, which is a ratio of concentrations in the two phases at equilibrium.
Atomic spectroscopy is used for qualitative and quantitative elemental analysis. It involves converting a sample into atoms, exciting the atoms, and measuring their absorption or emission of light. There are three main types of atomic spectroscopy: absorption, emission, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Samples are atomized using different heat sources like flames, furnaces, or plasma which convert the sample into gas phase atoms. The temperature of the heat source impacts the population of atoms in ground, excited, and ionized states. Instrumentation includes an atomization source, sample cell, monochromator, and detector. Detection limits range from parts-per-million to parts-per-trillion depending on the element and method used.
This document summarizes the major components of instrumentation used in absorption and emission spectroscopy experiments. It discusses common light sources, wavelength selectors like monochromators and filters, sample containers, detectors such as phototubes and photodiode arrays, and examples of single beam and double beam spectrophotometers. Key components are the light source, wavelength selector to produce monochromatic radiation, sample holder, and detector to measure the detectable output over the wavelength region of interest.
Spectroscopy involves the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Spectroscopic methods are used to elucidate molecular structure and quantify inorganic and organic compounds. There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum used including X-ray, UV, visible, and IR. Important concepts include Beer's law, which states absorbance is proportional to concentration, molar absorptivity, and path length. Spectrophotometry is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis in areas such as determining unknown concentrations. Fluorescence also provides a sensitive technique where molecules emit light at longer wavelengths after absorbing radiation.
This document discusses redox titration methods. It describes the Winkler method for determining dissolved oxygen in waste water and determining whether bacteria present are aerobic or anaerobic. The Karl Fischer method for determining water content is also outlined, using iodine, sulfur dioxide, and pyridine dissolved in methanol to quantitatively reduce iodine in the presence of water. Common oxidizing agents used in redox titrations include potassium permanganate, potassium bromate, cerium(IV), and potassium dichromate. Sodium thiosulfate is also described as a moderately strong standard reducing agent often used in indirect iodometric titrations to determine oxidizing agents.
This document provides an overview of electrochemistry concepts including oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation numbers, balancing redox equations, and electrochemical cells. Key points are:
- Galvanic cells produce electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions while electrolytic cells use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions.
- The standard cell potential (E°cell) is equal to the cathode potential minus the anode potential. All reactions must be written as reduction reactions.
- The Nernst equation relates cell potential to concentration and allows calculation of equilibrium constants.
- Memorable equations include ΔG° = -nFE° and E°cell = E°cathode - E°anode.
This document discusses experimental error in physical measurements. Every measurement has some degree of uncertainty. There are two main types of error - systematic errors which have an assignable cause and tend to be consistent in one direction, and random errors which are natural and unpredictable. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value, while precision refers to the reproducibility of measurements. Proper evaluation of errors involves repetition of measurements, use of different methods, and statistical analysis to determine confidence intervals around results and identify outliers.
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) Volume of Ag+ solution = 25 mL
Moles of Ag+ = (0.0100 M) * (0.025 L) = 2.5 x 10-5 moles
2) Volume of EDTA solution = 15 mL
Moles of EDTA = (0.0200 M) * (0.015 L) = 3.0 x 10-5 moles
3) Ratio of Ag+ to EDTA is 1:1
Moles of AgEDTA formed = Minimum(Moles Ag+, Moles EDTA) = 2.5 x 10-5 moles
4) Kf' = α * Kf
* HCl is a strong acid and will titrate first
* Its equivalence point was at 35.00 mL of NaOH
* NaOH concentration is 0.100 M
* Moles of NaOH used = Volume x Concentration
= 0.03500 L x 0.100 mol/L = 0.003500 mol
* Moles of HCl = Moles of NaOH used = 0.003500 mol
* H3PO4 is a weak acid and will titrate second
* Its equivalence point was at 50.00 mL of NaOH
* Additional NaOH used = 50.00 mL - 35.00 mL = 15.00 mL
* Moles of additional Na
The document discusses different types of titrations including acid-base, oxidation-reduction, complex formation, and precipitation reactions. It defines key terms like indicator, equivalence point, and endpoint. Examples are provided for calculating concentration using titration data from reactions like acid-base titrations for chloride in urine and carbon monoxide determination. Steps are outlined for the Kjeldahl method to determine nitrogen content through acid digestion and titration.
This document discusses complex equilibrium in aqueous solutions involving multiple interacting species. It provides three examples of situations that can affect equilibrium: (1) when the solute interacts with itself or other species; (2) when the equilibrium constant is very small, requiring consideration of solvent contribution; and (3) in very dilute solutions where the solvent contribution is significant. Specific examples are worked through demonstrating how coupled equilibria and presence of other species can increase or decrease solubility compared to calculations considering only the main equilibrium reaction.
This document discusses how activity coefficients can explain the effect of inert salts on solubility and acid dissociation constants. It provides examples showing that a precipitate is more soluble and a weak acid dissociates more when the ionic strength is increased by adding an inert salt. This is because the activity coefficients of the ions are less than 1 and decrease with increasing ionic strength, making the activities higher than concentrations. The Debye-Huckel equation can be used to calculate activity coefficients based on ionic charge and strength.
This document provides information about the Quantitative Analysis (CHEM 309) course including the instructor, textbook, grade breakdown, class objectives, and chapter overview. The grade is based on tests (70%), final (20%), and homework (10%). Students are expected to attend every class, participate daily with a clicker, and complete homework each night. The course covers topics like acid-base chemistry, analytical techniques, chemical measurements, and error analysis. Concentration units like molarity, formality, molality, and ppm/ppb are also discussed.
This document contains several chemistry problems related to acids, bases, and pH calculations. It asks which weak acid would be the strongest in water between NH4+, HNO2, and HOCl based on their acid dissociation constants. It also asks about the conjugate base of HCO3- and whether KHCO3 produces an acidic, basic, or amphoteric solution in water. It provides several examples of calculating the pH of solutions containing HCl, NaF, acetic acid, HOCl, sodium acetate mixed with acetic acid, HClO4 with an organic acid, and sodium acetate on its own.
A buffer consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base. It resists changes in pH upon addition of small amounts of acid or base or upon dilution with water. Good buffers have a pH within 1 unit of the pKa and have reasonable concentrations of both components. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution given its concentrations and pKa. Examples are provided of how to prepare a buffer of a desired pH using a conjugate acid-base pair with a pKa close to the desired pH. Calculations of buffer pH are shown using given concentrations and pKa values.
This document summarizes key concepts in aqueous solution chemistry:
1) It reviews acid-base definitions and lists strong acids and bases. Common conjugate acid-base pairs like H3O+/OH- and NH3/NH4+ are also discussed.
2) Different types of equilibrium constants are defined, including the self-ionization constant of water Kw, solubility product constants Ksp, acid dissociation constants Ka, and base dissociation constants Kb.
3) Le Chatelier's principle is introduced and how chemical equilibria respond to disturbances like adding reactants or products. Example problems are provided to calculate solubilities using equilibrium constants.
Drug and gene delivery vehicles are biocompatible devices that can carry therapeutic components in the body. Synthetic vehicles include block copolymers, liposomes, dendrimers, and magnetic nanoparticles. Block copolymers form micelles with hydrophobic cores that can encapsulate drugs. Liposomes are phospholipid vesicles that can encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Dendrimers are nanoscale polymers that can be functionalized to target drugs. Magnetic nanoparticles can be used for drug delivery, hyperthermia cancer treatment, and as MRI contrast agents. These vehicles aim to improve drug bioavailability and targeting while decreasing toxicity.
This document discusses liquid chromatography techniques. It describes liquid chromatography as using a liquid mobile phase and liquid or solid stationary phase. It then summarizes classical liquid chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography. High performance liquid chromatography uses smaller particle sizes in the stationary phase, stronger pumps, and detectors to allow for faster separations and better resolution compared to classical liquid chromatography. The document outlines the basic components of an HPLC system including the solvent delivery system, pump, injection port, analytical column, and various detector types. It also discusses different modes of liquid chromatography like normal phase and reverse phase.
This document provides an introduction and overview of chromatography. It discusses how chromatography separates a complex mixture into individual components based on interactions between a mobile and stationary phase. Different types of chromatography are described based on variations in the stationary and mobile phases used, including gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC), ion chromatography (IC), size exclusion, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), and affinity chromatography. Key terms used to describe chromatographic separations such as retention time, capacity factor, selectivity factor, resolution, number of theoretical plates, and plate height are also defined.
1) Solvent extraction is a technique used to separate components in a mixture based on differences in solubility between two immiscible liquid phases.
2) It involves transferring a solute from one liquid phase to another, such as transferring a compound from an aqueous phase to an organic phase like benzene.
3) The amount of solute extracted into each phase can be calculated using the partition coefficient K, which is a ratio of concentrations in the two phases at equilibrium.
Atomic spectroscopy is used for qualitative and quantitative elemental analysis. It involves converting a sample into atoms, exciting the atoms, and measuring their absorption or emission of light. There are three main types of atomic spectroscopy: absorption, emission, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Samples are atomized using different heat sources like flames, furnaces, or plasma which convert the sample into gas phase atoms. The temperature of the heat source impacts the population of atoms in ground, excited, and ionized states. Instrumentation includes an atomization source, sample cell, monochromator, and detector. Detection limits range from parts-per-million to parts-per-trillion depending on the element and method used.
This document summarizes the major components of instrumentation used in absorption and emission spectroscopy experiments. It discusses common light sources, wavelength selectors like monochromators and filters, sample containers, detectors such as phototubes and photodiode arrays, and examples of single beam and double beam spectrophotometers. Key components are the light source, wavelength selector to produce monochromatic radiation, sample holder, and detector to measure the detectable output over the wavelength region of interest.
Spectroscopy involves the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter. Spectroscopic methods are used to elucidate molecular structure and quantify inorganic and organic compounds. There are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum used including X-ray, UV, visible, and IR. Important concepts include Beer's law, which states absorbance is proportional to concentration, molar absorptivity, and path length. Spectrophotometry is used for qualitative and quantitative analysis in areas such as determining unknown concentrations. Fluorescence also provides a sensitive technique where molecules emit light at longer wavelengths after absorbing radiation.
This document discusses redox titration methods. It describes the Winkler method for determining dissolved oxygen in waste water and determining whether bacteria present are aerobic or anaerobic. The Karl Fischer method for determining water content is also outlined, using iodine, sulfur dioxide, and pyridine dissolved in methanol to quantitatively reduce iodine in the presence of water. Common oxidizing agents used in redox titrations include potassium permanganate, potassium bromate, cerium(IV), and potassium dichromate. Sodium thiosulfate is also described as a moderately strong standard reducing agent often used in indirect iodometric titrations to determine oxidizing agents.
This document provides an overview of electrochemistry concepts including oxidation-reduction reactions, oxidation numbers, balancing redox equations, and electrochemical cells. Key points are:
- Galvanic cells produce electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions while electrolytic cells use electrical energy to drive non-spontaneous reactions.
- The standard cell potential (E°cell) is equal to the cathode potential minus the anode potential. All reactions must be written as reduction reactions.
- The Nernst equation relates cell potential to concentration and allows calculation of equilibrium constants.
- Memorable equations include ΔG° = -nFE° and E°cell = E°cathode - E°anode.
This document discusses experimental error in physical measurements. Every measurement has some degree of uncertainty. There are two main types of error - systematic errors which have an assignable cause and tend to be consistent in one direction, and random errors which are natural and unpredictable. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true value, while precision refers to the reproducibility of measurements. Proper evaluation of errors involves repetition of measurements, use of different methods, and statistical analysis to determine confidence intervals around results and identify outliers.
Here are the steps to solve this problem:
1) Volume of Ag+ solution = 25 mL
Moles of Ag+ = (0.0100 M) * (0.025 L) = 2.5 x 10-5 moles
2) Volume of EDTA solution = 15 mL
Moles of EDTA = (0.0200 M) * (0.015 L) = 3.0 x 10-5 moles
3) Ratio of Ag+ to EDTA is 1:1
Moles of AgEDTA formed = Minimum(Moles Ag+, Moles EDTA) = 2.5 x 10-5 moles
4) Kf' = α * Kf
* HCl is a strong acid and will titrate first
* Its equivalence point was at 35.00 mL of NaOH
* NaOH concentration is 0.100 M
* Moles of NaOH used = Volume x Concentration
= 0.03500 L x 0.100 mol/L = 0.003500 mol
* Moles of HCl = Moles of NaOH used = 0.003500 mol
* H3PO4 is a weak acid and will titrate second
* Its equivalence point was at 50.00 mL of NaOH
* Additional NaOH used = 50.00 mL - 35.00 mL = 15.00 mL
* Moles of additional Na
The document discusses different types of titrations including acid-base, oxidation-reduction, complex formation, and precipitation reactions. It defines key terms like indicator, equivalence point, and endpoint. Examples are provided for calculating concentration using titration data from reactions like acid-base titrations for chloride in urine and carbon monoxide determination. Steps are outlined for the Kjeldahl method to determine nitrogen content through acid digestion and titration.
This document discusses complex equilibrium in aqueous solutions involving multiple interacting species. It provides three examples of situations that can affect equilibrium: (1) when the solute interacts with itself or other species; (2) when the equilibrium constant is very small, requiring consideration of solvent contribution; and (3) in very dilute solutions where the solvent contribution is significant. Specific examples are worked through demonstrating how coupled equilibria and presence of other species can increase or decrease solubility compared to calculations considering only the main equilibrium reaction.
This document discusses how activity coefficients can explain the effect of inert salts on solubility and acid dissociation constants. It provides examples showing that a precipitate is more soluble and a weak acid dissociates more when the ionic strength is increased by adding an inert salt. This is because the activity coefficients of the ions are less than 1 and decrease with increasing ionic strength, making the activities higher than concentrations. The Debye-Huckel equation can be used to calculate activity coefficients based on ionic charge and strength.
This document provides information about the Quantitative Analysis (CHEM 309) course including the instructor, textbook, grade breakdown, class objectives, and chapter overview. The grade is based on tests (70%), final (20%), and homework (10%). Students are expected to attend every class, participate daily with a clicker, and complete homework each night. The course covers topics like acid-base chemistry, analytical techniques, chemical measurements, and error analysis. Concentration units like molarity, formality, molality, and ppm/ppb are also discussed.
This document contains several chemistry problems related to acids, bases, and pH calculations. It asks which weak acid would be the strongest in water between NH4+, HNO2, and HOCl based on their acid dissociation constants. It also asks about the conjugate base of HCO3- and whether KHCO3 produces an acidic, basic, or amphoteric solution in water. It provides several examples of calculating the pH of solutions containing HCl, NaF, acetic acid, HOCl, sodium acetate mixed with acetic acid, HClO4 with an organic acid, and sodium acetate on its own.
A buffer consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base. It resists changes in pH upon addition of small amounts of acid or base or upon dilution with water. Good buffers have a pH within 1 unit of the pKa and have reasonable concentrations of both components. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation can be used to calculate the pH of a buffer solution given its concentrations and pKa. Examples are provided of how to prepare a buffer of a desired pH using a conjugate acid-base pair with a pKa close to the desired pH. Calculations of buffer pH are shown using given concentrations and pKa values.
This document summarizes key concepts in aqueous solution chemistry:
1) It reviews acid-base definitions and lists strong acids and bases. Common conjugate acid-base pairs like H3O+/OH- and NH3/NH4+ are also discussed.
2) Different types of equilibrium constants are defined, including the self-ionization constant of water Kw, solubility product constants Ksp, acid dissociation constants Ka, and base dissociation constants Kb.
3) Le Chatelier's principle is introduced and how chemical equilibria respond to disturbances like adding reactants or products. Example problems are provided to calculate solubilities using equilibrium constants.
Drug and gene delivery vehicles are biocompatible devices that can carry therapeutic components in the body. Synthetic vehicles include block copolymers, liposomes, dendrimers, and magnetic nanoparticles. Block copolymers form micelles with hydrophobic cores that can encapsulate drugs. Liposomes are phospholipid vesicles that can encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. Dendrimers are nanoscale polymers that can be functionalized to target drugs. Magnetic nanoparticles can be used for drug delivery, hyperthermia cancer treatment, and as MRI contrast agents. These vehicles aim to improve drug bioavailability and targeting while decreasing toxicity.
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.1 Anatomy of an amino acid. Except for proline and its derivatives, all of the amino acids commonly found in proteins possess this type of structure. See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole.com/ggb3
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.2 The -COOH and -NH3 + groups of two amino acids can react with the resulting loss of a water molecule to form a covalent amide bond. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be reproduced without permission.) See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole.com/ggb3
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.2 The _-COOH and _-NH3 _ groups of two amino acids can react with the resulting loss of a water molecule to form a covalent amide bond. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be reproduced without permission.) See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole.com/ggb3
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.2 The _-COOH and _-NH3 _ groups of two amino acids can react with the resulting loss of a water molecule to form a covalent amide bond. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be reproduced without permission.) See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole.com/ggb3
FIGURE 4.3 The 20 amino acids that are the building blocks of most proteins can be classified as (a) nonpolar (hydrophobic); (b) polar, neutral; (c) acidic; or (d) basic. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be produced without permission.)
FIGURE 4.3 The 20 amino acids that are the building blocks of most proteins can be classified as (a) nonpolar (hydrophobic); (b) polar, neutral; (c) acidic; or (d) basic. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be produced without permission.)
(a) nonpolar (hydrophobic)
(a) nonpolar (hydrophobic)
(b) polar, neutral
(b) polar, neutral
(c) acidic
(d) basic
FIGURE 4.4 The structures of several amino acids that are less common but nevertheless found in certain proteins. Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline are found in connective-tissue proteins, pyroglutamic acid is found in bacteriorhodopsin (a protein in Halobacterium halobium), and aminoadipic acid is found in proteins isolated from corn.
FIGURE 4.4 The structures of several amino acids that are less common but nevertheless found in certain proteins. Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline are found in connective-tissue proteins, pyroglutamic acid is found in bacteriorhodopsin (a protein in Halobacterium halobium), and aminoadipic acid is found in proteins isolated from corn.
FIGURE 4.4 The structures of several amino acids that are less common but nevertheless found in certain proteins. Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline are found in connective-tissue proteins, pyroglutamic acid is found in bacteriorhodopsin (a protein in Halobacterium halobium), and aminoadipic acid is found in proteins isolated from corn.
FIGURE 4.4 The structures of several amino acids that are less common but nevertheless found in certain proteins. Hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline are found in connective-tissue proteins, pyroglutamic acid is found in bacteriorhodopsin (a protein in Halobacterium halobium), and aminoadipic acid is found in proteins isolated from corn.
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.6 The ionic forms of the amino acids, shown without consideration of any ionizations on the side chain. The cationic form is the low pH form, and the titration of the cationic species with base yields the zwitterion and finally the anionic form. (Illustration: Irving Geis. Rights owned by Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Not to be reproduced without permission.) See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole.com/ggb3
FIGURE 4.7 Titration of glycine, a simple amino acid. The isoelectric point, pI, the pH where glycine has a net charge of 0, can be calculated as (pK1 _ pK2)/2.
ACTIVE FIGURE 4.8 Titrations of glutamic acid and lysine. Test yourself on the concepts in this figure at http://chemistry.brookscole .com/ggb3
Titrations of glutamic acid and lysine.
Titrations of glutamic acid and lysine.
ACTIVE FIGURE 4.9 Typical reactions of the common amino acids (see text for details). Test yourself on the concepts in this figure at http://chemistry.brookscole. com/ggb3
Typical reactions of the common amino acids.
Typical reactions of the common amino acids.
Typical reactions of the common amino acids.
Typical reactions of the common amino acids.
Typical reactions of the common amino acids.
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.12 Enantiomeric molecules based on a chiral carbon atom. Enantiomers are nonsuperimposable mirror images of each other. See this figure animated at http://chemistry.brookscole .com/ggb3
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.13 The configuration of the common L-amino acids can be related to the configuration of L(_)-glyceraldehyde as shown. These drawings are known as Fischer projections. The horizontal lines of the Fischer projections are meant to indicate bonds coming out of the page from the central carbon, and vertical lines represent bonds extending behind the page from the central carbon atom. See this figure animated at http://chemistry. brookscole.com/ggb3
ANIMATED FIGURE 4.14 The stereoisomers of isoleucine and threonine. The structures at the far left are the naturally occurring isomers. See this figure animated at http://chemistry. brookscole.com/ggb3
The stereoisomers of isoleucine.
The stereoisomers of threonine.
FIGURE 4.15 The ultraviolet absorption spectra of the aromatic amino acids at pH 6. (From Wetlaufer, D. B., 1962. Ultraviolet spectra of proteins and amino acids. Advances in Protein Chemistry 17:303–390.