The document summarizes a study that evaluated the ability of micropatterned surfaces to reduce bacterial transfer compared to unpatterned surfaces in a simulated clinical environment. Physician volunteers participated in a scenario where they encountered a mannequin inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus. Micropatterned or unpatterned films were placed on surfaces including a code cart, defibrillator button, and medication vial. Bacterial load was quantified from the surfaces. The micropatterned surfaces resulted in larger log reductions of bacteria compared to the unpatterned surfaces, demonstrating reduced bacterial transfer. Principal component analysis showed bacterial load was highly correlated between the code cart and defibrillator button. The micropatterned surfaces reduced bacterial
"Beds of Roses" Reducing HCAI Conference June, 2014conorstapleton
- Nurses are often responsible for cleaning patient environments and equipment, but studies show cleaning is often inadequate, with many surfaces missed. Extra cleaning can significantly reduce healthcare associated infections.
- Pillows and mattresses may harbor pathogens if not properly disinfected between patients. Studies have found high contamination rates of pillows with pathogens like MRSA. Clear guidelines are needed for decontamination of beds and pillows.
- Responsibility for cleaning is often unclear or divided between nurses and housekeeping. A pictorial manual clearly outlining cleaning duties can help address this. Overall, more attention to monitoring and improving environmental cleaning is still needed.
This study analyzed 280 samples collected from the hands and mobile phones of 140 healthcare workers at a tertiary hospital to assess the role of poor hand hygiene and mobile phone use in transmitting hospital-acquired infections. Bacterial growth was detected in 220 samples, with pathogenic organisms found in 75 samples. Escherichia coli was the most common isolate, followed by Klebsiella species. Several isolates were found to be methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producers. The results suggest that healthcare workers' hands and mobile phones can transmit pathogenic bacteria in hospitals and may contribute to the spread of antimicrobial resistance.
Larval therapy uses fly larvae to debride wounds and promote healing. It has been used for hundreds of years and research is increasing due to antibiotic resistance. Larval therapy debrides wounds, kills bacteria including MRSA through ingestion and secretions, and promotes granulation. However, the yuk factor of seeing maggots in wounds limits its acceptance. Further large studies are still needed to fully understand larval therapy's mechanisms and advantages compared to other treatments.
A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of common disinfectants used in poultry facilities at reducing bacterial and fungal populations when applied to floors that contain soil and organic matter. Four disinfectants were evaluated in both field trials conducted in commercial broiler houses and laboratory trials using inoculated soil. Floor plots were treated with the disinfectants and sampled over time to analyze bacterial, yeast, mold and pathogen levels. The results showed that disinfectant type, application rate, exposure time and presence of organic matter can impact microbial reductions on floor surfaces. Significant reductions were observed for most disinfectants tested in both field and laboratory trials.
Mosquitocidal property of leaf extract of bougainvillea spectabilis (Nictagin...researchanimalsciences
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the mosquitocidal properties of leaf extracts from Bougainvillea spectabilis against Aedes aegypti. Leaf extracts were tested on egg hatchability, larval and pupal mortality. A relationship was observed between extract dose and mortality rates, with mortality increasing at higher doses. Based on probit analysis, the LC50 values for egg, larval and pupal stages ranged from 31 mg/l for eggs to 2637 mg/l for pupae, indicating the extract is toxic to all development stages. The results suggest B. spectabilis leaf extracts have potential for use in mosquito control programs targeting Aedes aegypti.
This study evaluated the indoor air quality of seven wards at Daeyang Luke Hospital in Malawi. Air samples were collected from the wards using settle plates exposed for 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The samples were incubated to determine bacterial and fungal colony-forming units per cubic meter (CFU/m3) of air. Bacterial CFU/m3 ranged from 366 to 3495 across wards, while fungal CFU/m3 ranged from 786 to 3993. The emergency ward and female surgical ward had the highest bacterial and fungal levels respectively. Most wards exceeded recommended indoor air quality guidelines. The results indicate that indoor environmental factors at the hospital favor bacterial and fungal growth,
This document discusses a study that investigated the antifungal and anti-mycelium activities of biogenic silver, copper, zinc oxide, and gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were tested against four fungal strains (Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum). The minimum inhibitory concentrations of silver, copper, and zinc oxide nanoparticles were determined to be ≤8 μg/ml for the non-spore forming fungi and ≤16 μg/ml for the spore forming fungi. Anti-mycelium effects were observed for A. niger and F. oxysporum, with silver nanoparticles showing the highest effect at 72.8%. The
"Beds of Roses" Reducing HCAI Conference June, 2014conorstapleton
- Nurses are often responsible for cleaning patient environments and equipment, but studies show cleaning is often inadequate, with many surfaces missed. Extra cleaning can significantly reduce healthcare associated infections.
- Pillows and mattresses may harbor pathogens if not properly disinfected between patients. Studies have found high contamination rates of pillows with pathogens like MRSA. Clear guidelines are needed for decontamination of beds and pillows.
- Responsibility for cleaning is often unclear or divided between nurses and housekeeping. A pictorial manual clearly outlining cleaning duties can help address this. Overall, more attention to monitoring and improving environmental cleaning is still needed.
This study analyzed 280 samples collected from the hands and mobile phones of 140 healthcare workers at a tertiary hospital to assess the role of poor hand hygiene and mobile phone use in transmitting hospital-acquired infections. Bacterial growth was detected in 220 samples, with pathogenic organisms found in 75 samples. Escherichia coli was the most common isolate, followed by Klebsiella species. Several isolates were found to be methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producers. The results suggest that healthcare workers' hands and mobile phones can transmit pathogenic bacteria in hospitals and may contribute to the spread of antimicrobial resistance.
Larval therapy uses fly larvae to debride wounds and promote healing. It has been used for hundreds of years and research is increasing due to antibiotic resistance. Larval therapy debrides wounds, kills bacteria including MRSA through ingestion and secretions, and promotes granulation. However, the yuk factor of seeing maggots in wounds limits its acceptance. Further large studies are still needed to fully understand larval therapy's mechanisms and advantages compared to other treatments.
A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of common disinfectants used in poultry facilities at reducing bacterial and fungal populations when applied to floors that contain soil and organic matter. Four disinfectants were evaluated in both field trials conducted in commercial broiler houses and laboratory trials using inoculated soil. Floor plots were treated with the disinfectants and sampled over time to analyze bacterial, yeast, mold and pathogen levels. The results showed that disinfectant type, application rate, exposure time and presence of organic matter can impact microbial reductions on floor surfaces. Significant reductions were observed for most disinfectants tested in both field and laboratory trials.
Mosquitocidal property of leaf extract of bougainvillea spectabilis (Nictagin...researchanimalsciences
The document summarizes a study that evaluated the mosquitocidal properties of leaf extracts from Bougainvillea spectabilis against Aedes aegypti. Leaf extracts were tested on egg hatchability, larval and pupal mortality. A relationship was observed between extract dose and mortality rates, with mortality increasing at higher doses. Based on probit analysis, the LC50 values for egg, larval and pupal stages ranged from 31 mg/l for eggs to 2637 mg/l for pupae, indicating the extract is toxic to all development stages. The results suggest B. spectabilis leaf extracts have potential for use in mosquito control programs targeting Aedes aegypti.
This study evaluated the indoor air quality of seven wards at Daeyang Luke Hospital in Malawi. Air samples were collected from the wards using settle plates exposed for 30, 60, and 90 minutes. The samples were incubated to determine bacterial and fungal colony-forming units per cubic meter (CFU/m3) of air. Bacterial CFU/m3 ranged from 366 to 3495 across wards, while fungal CFU/m3 ranged from 786 to 3993. The emergency ward and female surgical ward had the highest bacterial and fungal levels respectively. Most wards exceeded recommended indoor air quality guidelines. The results indicate that indoor environmental factors at the hospital favor bacterial and fungal growth,
This document discusses a study that investigated the antifungal and anti-mycelium activities of biogenic silver, copper, zinc oxide, and gold nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were tested against four fungal strains (Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum). The minimum inhibitory concentrations of silver, copper, and zinc oxide nanoparticles were determined to be ≤8 μg/ml for the non-spore forming fungi and ≤16 μg/ml for the spore forming fungi. Anti-mycelium effects were observed for A. niger and F. oxysporum, with silver nanoparticles showing the highest effect at 72.8%. The
A double-blind study was designed to confirm the antibacterial effect of Pure Bee Venom (PBV) and access the efficacy of cosmetics containing PBV in subjects with acne vulgaris.
Effects of cosmetics containing purified honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) venom on acne vulgaris
This study investigated permethrin resistance in malaria vectors in southern Malawi. Over 700 mosquitoes were collected from 9 sites near Majete Wildlife Reserve. Bioassays on over 500 mosquitoes found 78.4% mortality in Anopheles arabiensis exposed to permethrin, suggesting resistance, but 97.3% mortality in An. quadriannulatus. Genetic testing of over 250 mosquitoes found no evidence of the kdr mutations Vgsc-1014S or Vgsc-1014F, suggesting other resistance mechanisms may be involved. The study highlights the need for ongoing vector surveillance to guide malaria control efforts.
ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND PLASMID PROFILE OF SALMONELLA TYPHI FROM DOOR H...Paul Tsaku
This study aims to isolate Escherichia coli from door handles at Nasarawa State University and Federal Polytechnic in Nigeria, determine the antibiotic susceptibility and resistance factors of any E. coli isolates, which will help assess the risk of antibiotic resistant bacteria spreading among the student population and identify ways to improve hygiene practices. Samples will be collected from door handles on campus and tested for E. coli, which will then undergo antibiotic susceptibility testing, analysis of resistance genes and plasmids, and tests to evaluate the transfer of resistance.
An assessment of medicinal cocus nucifera plant extracts as natural antibioti...Alexander Decker
1. The study assessed the antimicrobial properties of Cocus nucifera plant extracts against five bacterial strains using the agar well diffusion method.
2. Ethanol extracts of C. nucifera roots showed the highest antimicrobial activity, with zones of inhibition ranging from 5.55mm to 13.08mm. The highest activity was seen against Escherichia coli.
3. Phytochemical analysis of C. nucifera root extracts revealed the presence of compounds such as saponins, tannins and flavonoids that are associated with antimicrobial effects and support the traditional use of this plant to treat infectious diseases.
Combined effect of solar drying and gamma radiation on the microbiological qu...Nii Korley Kortei
This study evaluated the combined effect of solar drying and gamma irradiation on the microbiological quality of dried oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) stored at room temperature. Mushrooms were dried using a solar dryer to 12-14% moisture content. Samples were then gamma irradiated at doses from 0-2 kGy. Initial microbial counts for total viable count, Bacillus cereus, yeasts and molds ranged from 1.2-5.3, 0.95-1.4, 0-1.39, and 0-0.8 log CFU/g, respectively. Solar drying and irradiation resulted in an average 0.55 and 0.38 log reduction of total viable count
IRJET- Screening the Antibacterial Activity of Scutellaria Baicalensis Agains...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the antibacterial activity of Scutellaria baicalensis, a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, against both human and animal pathogens. The study found that methanol extracts of S. baicalensis exhibited the highest zone of inhibition against Vibrio cholerae, a pathogen of both humans and shrimp. Overall, the results indicate that S. baicalensis possesses compounds with good antibacterial activity and has potential for use as an alternative to antibiotics in both human and aquaculture applications.
ESNano_Environmental impacts of reusable nanoscale silver-coated hospital gow...Hanna Huling
This paper summarizes a study comparing the environmental impacts of reusable hospital gowns coated with nanoscale silver to single-use disposable gowns. The study models the life cycle impacts of a commercial nanosilver treatment applied to reusable polyester gowns using a proprietary process. Key findings include that the environmental impacts of the nanosilver-enabled reusable gowns are equal to disposable gowns after 12 wearings. The results suggest nanosilver textiles could reduce the environmental impact of hospitals while preventing infection.
A newly invented antibacterial in decontamination of reusable hospital a deviceAlexander Decker
This document describes a study that tested the effectiveness of a newly invented antibacterial solution for decontaminating reusable medical devices. 18 used medical devices were collected from an intensive care unit and decontaminated using different concentrations and contact times of Sidr tree leaf extract, hydrogen peroxide, and their combination. Mixing 62.5 g/L Sidr extract with 1.5% hydrogen peroxide was found to effectively eradicate contamination from the devices after 30 minutes of contact. The new antibacterial agent shows potential for decontaminating reusable medical equipment through its ability to eliminate bacteria from contaminated devices within 30 minutes.
This document summarizes research on how maggots combat infection in wounds. It discusses how maggots likely kill bacteria through multiple mechanisms, including ingesting bacteria in their digestive tract and secreting potent antibacterial factors. Recent research has found two discrete antibacterial factors secreted by maggots, including a potent factor under 500 Da that is effective against MRSA. This research improves understanding of maggot secretions' antibacterial properties and their clinical potential for treating antibiotic-resistant infections.
Implications of Robotic Walkway Cleaning for Hoof Disorders in Dairy CattleIJERA Editor
Infectious hoof disorders are a serious challenge for dairy production since they cause pain and discomfort in cows and can compromise the competitiveness of dairy farming. Robot scrapers are capable of frequently removing liquid manure from slatted floors and can contribute to improved hygiene of walkways. The aim of this study was to observe the implications of the robotic cleaning of walking areas for infectious hoof disorders in dairy cattle. A large herd ranging from 1,247 to 1,328 Holstein Friesian cows was monitored in two six-month periods in 2012 and in 2013. All animals were housed in a cubicle housing system with slatted floors in which walkways were cleaned using robot scrapers in 2013 but not in 2012. Statistical analysis was carried out with either the Chi-square test or the Fisher’s exact test in R. Results indicated that the presence of infectious hoof disorders declined after robot scrapers were used for the cleaning of walkways. While in the first investigation period 648 animals suffered from infectious hoof diseases, in the second period only 340 animals were affected. This study stresses the significance of environmental hygiene to improve hoof health in dairy cattle.
Comparison of Ziehl Neelsen Microscopy with GeneXpert for Detection of Mycoba...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
1) Maggot therapy employs sterile fly larvae to promote wound healing through debridement, disinfection, and stimulation of wound healing.
2) Maggots secrete antibacterial factors that combat wound infections, including potential agents active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
3) Maggots may enhance wound healing through physical stimulation of tissue, secretion of allantoin and ammonia to increase pH, and stimulation of growth factors involved in proliferation and remodeling of extracellular matrix.
Prevalence of Moraxella ovis Infection in Goats under the Ladang Angkat Progr...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the survival (mean time to failure) of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae when exposed to different concentrations of extracts from Annona muricata (soursop) seeds. Larvae were exposed to concentrations ranging from 10-1000 ppm of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions of the seed extract. Survival analysis found the n-hexane fraction at a concentration of 183,476 ppm produced the highest larval mortality rate and was therefore the most effective concentration for killing mosquito larvae. According to toxicity criteria, this concentration fell into the "moderately toxic" category.
Mosquito larvicidal activity of leaf and seed extracts of Lantana camara on A...researchanimalsciences
Background and Objectives: This paper reports the toxicity of Lantana camara to developmental stages of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Aqueous extracts of leaf and seed of the plant were also tested for their effect on the hatchability of mosquito egg and age at pupation and emergence.
Methods: Different concentrations of aqueous leaf and seed extract were prepared. The data of mortality rate were subjected to finney’s method of probit analysis. The plant was also tested for their effect on the hatchability of mosquito eggs.
Results: Percent log LC50 / 24 h values of the leaf and seed extracts of L. camara to IV instar larvae were 2.25 and 2.25 respectively. Percent hatchability of mosquito eggs was remarkably reduced when treated with higher concentration of the toxicants. Extended time of pupation and emergence was observed for the larvae reared in different concentrations of the plant extract.
Conclusion: The results suggested that leaf and seed extract of Lantana camera possessed remarkable larvicidal, ovicidal, and prolonged time of pupation and adult emergence against Aedes aegypti.
Article Citation:
Sathya K, Mohanraj RS, Dhanakkodi B .
Mosquito larvicidal activity of leaf and seed extracts of Lantana camara on Aedes aegypti.
Journal of Research in Animal Sciences (2012) 1(2): 040-047.
Full Text:
http://janimalsciences.com/documents/AS0013.pdf
Protein was extracted from muscles of Channa striatus and attempts were
made to evaluate in vitro antibacterial activity against clinical bacterial isolates. The
higher concentration of protein (100μg/ml) extracts exhibited a pronounced activity
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (21 mm), Proteus vulgaris (19 mm), Citrobacter sp
(19 mm), Klebsiella pneumoniae (18 mm), Micrococcus sp (17 mm), Bacillus subtilis (16
mm), Staphylococcus aureus (15 mm), E. coli (14 mm) and Serratia marcescens (5
mm). The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration
were found to be 20-40 μg/ml and 80-100 μg/ml respectively for the extracts of
Channa striatus protein against test organisms. This study confirms that C. striatus fish
protein extracts possess antibacterial activity against a wide range of microbes and
justified that it could be used in the traditional medicine as a remedy for the
treatment of bacterial diseases.
Are Reprocessed Endoscope free from Contaminants iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
ABSTRACT- This study was an attempt to estimate the prevalence of fungal isolates in superficial mycoses cases attending IPD and OPD of IIMS&R, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.A prospective study over a period of six (6) months was conducted from January 2015 to June 2015.The suspected cases of superficial mycoses were subjected to mycological examination with direct microscopy using 10%-40% KOH depending on the types of samples (skin, nail, hair) processed and culture on Sabouraud’s dextrose agar with chloramphenicol and cycloheximide (SDCCA) and also on Potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. Causative agents were identified macroscopically and microscopically from the growth obtained on SDCCA and PDA. Direct microscopy revealed fungal elements in 78 (66.1%) cases whereas 54 (45.7%) were positive on culture. Out of 54 (45.7%) culture positive samples 6 (15%) were negative on microscopy (KOH mount). Tineacorporis 38 (32.2%) was the most common clinical types and male is to female ratio in relation to clinical types was 2.2:1. Commonest age group affected were 21-30 years with 41 (34.7%) cases. Males were predominantly affected 41 (75.9%) and male to female ratio being 3.1:1. 60% of the patients came from the rural background. College students formed a major chunk of the cases 29 (24.6%) followed by housewives 18 (15.3%) and unskilled workers 16 (13.6%). Trichophyton mentagrophytes 20 (37%) was the predominat isolate followed by T. tonsurans15 (27.7%), T. rubrum3 (5.5%), M. audouinii 3 (5.5%) and T. schoenleinii 2 (3.7%) with no Epidermophyton species. A non-pigmented variant of T. rubrum was identified in this study. Both SDCCA and PDA were found equally effective in isolating fungal isolates from clinical samples in our study. We are reporting change in frequency of dermatophytes isolated from superficial mycoses cases in our region.
Key words- Superficial mycoses, Non-pigmented variants, Dermatophytes
Clinicomycological profile of Dermatophytosis in a teaching hospitalinventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI)inventionjournals
The document summarizes a study conducted over six months to identify common bacterial contaminants in a microbiology laboratory. Samples were collected from surfaces, air, hands, and clothing of laboratory personnel using culture methods and identified using biochemical and molecular tests. The most common contaminants isolated were Micrococcus (52.94% of cultures) and Bacillus subtilis (23.52% of cultures), primarily from surfaces and air, respectively. The study concludes that proper disinfection, sterilization, and personal hygiene are needed to reduce laboratory contaminants and prevent false positive culture reports and laboratory-acquired infections.
This document discusses the use of disposable microfiber cloths (D-MFCs) for cleaning clinical equipment at a large metropolitan health service. A study found that D-MFCs and reusable microfiber cloths were able to remove fluorescent markings and viable bacteria like vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, while standard paper towels and detergent wipes were not as effective. The health service was then able to transition to using D-MFCs for cleaning sensitive equipment that could not be disinfected with hypochlorite solution. This provided a superior cleaning system and allowed all clinical equipment to be used, even for patients infected or colonized with multidrug-resistant organisms.
A double-blind study was designed to confirm the antibacterial effect of Pure Bee Venom (PBV) and access the efficacy of cosmetics containing PBV in subjects with acne vulgaris.
Effects of cosmetics containing purified honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) venom on acne vulgaris
This study investigated permethrin resistance in malaria vectors in southern Malawi. Over 700 mosquitoes were collected from 9 sites near Majete Wildlife Reserve. Bioassays on over 500 mosquitoes found 78.4% mortality in Anopheles arabiensis exposed to permethrin, suggesting resistance, but 97.3% mortality in An. quadriannulatus. Genetic testing of over 250 mosquitoes found no evidence of the kdr mutations Vgsc-1014S or Vgsc-1014F, suggesting other resistance mechanisms may be involved. The study highlights the need for ongoing vector surveillance to guide malaria control efforts.
ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND PLASMID PROFILE OF SALMONELLA TYPHI FROM DOOR H...Paul Tsaku
This study aims to isolate Escherichia coli from door handles at Nasarawa State University and Federal Polytechnic in Nigeria, determine the antibiotic susceptibility and resistance factors of any E. coli isolates, which will help assess the risk of antibiotic resistant bacteria spreading among the student population and identify ways to improve hygiene practices. Samples will be collected from door handles on campus and tested for E. coli, which will then undergo antibiotic susceptibility testing, analysis of resistance genes and plasmids, and tests to evaluate the transfer of resistance.
An assessment of medicinal cocus nucifera plant extracts as natural antibioti...Alexander Decker
1. The study assessed the antimicrobial properties of Cocus nucifera plant extracts against five bacterial strains using the agar well diffusion method.
2. Ethanol extracts of C. nucifera roots showed the highest antimicrobial activity, with zones of inhibition ranging from 5.55mm to 13.08mm. The highest activity was seen against Escherichia coli.
3. Phytochemical analysis of C. nucifera root extracts revealed the presence of compounds such as saponins, tannins and flavonoids that are associated with antimicrobial effects and support the traditional use of this plant to treat infectious diseases.
Combined effect of solar drying and gamma radiation on the microbiological qu...Nii Korley Kortei
This study evaluated the combined effect of solar drying and gamma irradiation on the microbiological quality of dried oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus) stored at room temperature. Mushrooms were dried using a solar dryer to 12-14% moisture content. Samples were then gamma irradiated at doses from 0-2 kGy. Initial microbial counts for total viable count, Bacillus cereus, yeasts and molds ranged from 1.2-5.3, 0.95-1.4, 0-1.39, and 0-0.8 log CFU/g, respectively. Solar drying and irradiation resulted in an average 0.55 and 0.38 log reduction of total viable count
IRJET- Screening the Antibacterial Activity of Scutellaria Baicalensis Agains...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study that evaluated the antibacterial activity of Scutellaria baicalensis, a traditional Chinese medicinal herb, against both human and animal pathogens. The study found that methanol extracts of S. baicalensis exhibited the highest zone of inhibition against Vibrio cholerae, a pathogen of both humans and shrimp. Overall, the results indicate that S. baicalensis possesses compounds with good antibacterial activity and has potential for use as an alternative to antibiotics in both human and aquaculture applications.
ESNano_Environmental impacts of reusable nanoscale silver-coated hospital gow...Hanna Huling
This paper summarizes a study comparing the environmental impacts of reusable hospital gowns coated with nanoscale silver to single-use disposable gowns. The study models the life cycle impacts of a commercial nanosilver treatment applied to reusable polyester gowns using a proprietary process. Key findings include that the environmental impacts of the nanosilver-enabled reusable gowns are equal to disposable gowns after 12 wearings. The results suggest nanosilver textiles could reduce the environmental impact of hospitals while preventing infection.
A newly invented antibacterial in decontamination of reusable hospital a deviceAlexander Decker
This document describes a study that tested the effectiveness of a newly invented antibacterial solution for decontaminating reusable medical devices. 18 used medical devices were collected from an intensive care unit and decontaminated using different concentrations and contact times of Sidr tree leaf extract, hydrogen peroxide, and their combination. Mixing 62.5 g/L Sidr extract with 1.5% hydrogen peroxide was found to effectively eradicate contamination from the devices after 30 minutes of contact. The new antibacterial agent shows potential for decontaminating reusable medical equipment through its ability to eliminate bacteria from contaminated devices within 30 minutes.
This document summarizes research on how maggots combat infection in wounds. It discusses how maggots likely kill bacteria through multiple mechanisms, including ingesting bacteria in their digestive tract and secreting potent antibacterial factors. Recent research has found two discrete antibacterial factors secreted by maggots, including a potent factor under 500 Da that is effective against MRSA. This research improves understanding of maggot secretions' antibacterial properties and their clinical potential for treating antibiotic-resistant infections.
Implications of Robotic Walkway Cleaning for Hoof Disorders in Dairy CattleIJERA Editor
Infectious hoof disorders are a serious challenge for dairy production since they cause pain and discomfort in cows and can compromise the competitiveness of dairy farming. Robot scrapers are capable of frequently removing liquid manure from slatted floors and can contribute to improved hygiene of walkways. The aim of this study was to observe the implications of the robotic cleaning of walking areas for infectious hoof disorders in dairy cattle. A large herd ranging from 1,247 to 1,328 Holstein Friesian cows was monitored in two six-month periods in 2012 and in 2013. All animals were housed in a cubicle housing system with slatted floors in which walkways were cleaned using robot scrapers in 2013 but not in 2012. Statistical analysis was carried out with either the Chi-square test or the Fisher’s exact test in R. Results indicated that the presence of infectious hoof disorders declined after robot scrapers were used for the cleaning of walkways. While in the first investigation period 648 animals suffered from infectious hoof diseases, in the second period only 340 animals were affected. This study stresses the significance of environmental hygiene to improve hoof health in dairy cattle.
Comparison of Ziehl Neelsen Microscopy with GeneXpert for Detection of Mycoba...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
1) Maggot therapy employs sterile fly larvae to promote wound healing through debridement, disinfection, and stimulation of wound healing.
2) Maggots secrete antibacterial factors that combat wound infections, including potential agents active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
3) Maggots may enhance wound healing through physical stimulation of tissue, secretion of allantoin and ammonia to increase pH, and stimulation of growth factors involved in proliferation and remodeling of extracellular matrix.
Prevalence of Moraxella ovis Infection in Goats under the Ladang Angkat Progr...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the survival (mean time to failure) of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae when exposed to different concentrations of extracts from Annona muricata (soursop) seeds. Larvae were exposed to concentrations ranging from 10-1000 ppm of n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and butanol fractions of the seed extract. Survival analysis found the n-hexane fraction at a concentration of 183,476 ppm produced the highest larval mortality rate and was therefore the most effective concentration for killing mosquito larvae. According to toxicity criteria, this concentration fell into the "moderately toxic" category.
Mosquito larvicidal activity of leaf and seed extracts of Lantana camara on A...researchanimalsciences
Background and Objectives: This paper reports the toxicity of Lantana camara to developmental stages of the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Aqueous extracts of leaf and seed of the plant were also tested for their effect on the hatchability of mosquito egg and age at pupation and emergence.
Methods: Different concentrations of aqueous leaf and seed extract were prepared. The data of mortality rate were subjected to finney’s method of probit analysis. The plant was also tested for their effect on the hatchability of mosquito eggs.
Results: Percent log LC50 / 24 h values of the leaf and seed extracts of L. camara to IV instar larvae were 2.25 and 2.25 respectively. Percent hatchability of mosquito eggs was remarkably reduced when treated with higher concentration of the toxicants. Extended time of pupation and emergence was observed for the larvae reared in different concentrations of the plant extract.
Conclusion: The results suggested that leaf and seed extract of Lantana camera possessed remarkable larvicidal, ovicidal, and prolonged time of pupation and adult emergence against Aedes aegypti.
Article Citation:
Sathya K, Mohanraj RS, Dhanakkodi B .
Mosquito larvicidal activity of leaf and seed extracts of Lantana camara on Aedes aegypti.
Journal of Research in Animal Sciences (2012) 1(2): 040-047.
Full Text:
http://janimalsciences.com/documents/AS0013.pdf
Protein was extracted from muscles of Channa striatus and attempts were
made to evaluate in vitro antibacterial activity against clinical bacterial isolates. The
higher concentration of protein (100μg/ml) extracts exhibited a pronounced activity
against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (21 mm), Proteus vulgaris (19 mm), Citrobacter sp
(19 mm), Klebsiella pneumoniae (18 mm), Micrococcus sp (17 mm), Bacillus subtilis (16
mm), Staphylococcus aureus (15 mm), E. coli (14 mm) and Serratia marcescens (5
mm). The minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration
were found to be 20-40 μg/ml and 80-100 μg/ml respectively for the extracts of
Channa striatus protein against test organisms. This study confirms that C. striatus fish
protein extracts possess antibacterial activity against a wide range of microbes and
justified that it could be used in the traditional medicine as a remedy for the
treatment of bacterial diseases.
Are Reprocessed Endoscope free from Contaminants iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences is one of the speciality Journal in Dental Science and Medical Science published by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The Journal publishes papers of the highest scientific merit and widest possible scope work in all areas related to medical and dental science. The Journal welcome review articles, leading medical and clinical research articles, technical notes, case reports and others.
ABSTRACT- This study was an attempt to estimate the prevalence of fungal isolates in superficial mycoses cases attending IPD and OPD of IIMS&R, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh.A prospective study over a period of six (6) months was conducted from January 2015 to June 2015.The suspected cases of superficial mycoses were subjected to mycological examination with direct microscopy using 10%-40% KOH depending on the types of samples (skin, nail, hair) processed and culture on Sabouraud’s dextrose agar with chloramphenicol and cycloheximide (SDCCA) and also on Potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. Causative agents were identified macroscopically and microscopically from the growth obtained on SDCCA and PDA. Direct microscopy revealed fungal elements in 78 (66.1%) cases whereas 54 (45.7%) were positive on culture. Out of 54 (45.7%) culture positive samples 6 (15%) were negative on microscopy (KOH mount). Tineacorporis 38 (32.2%) was the most common clinical types and male is to female ratio in relation to clinical types was 2.2:1. Commonest age group affected were 21-30 years with 41 (34.7%) cases. Males were predominantly affected 41 (75.9%) and male to female ratio being 3.1:1. 60% of the patients came from the rural background. College students formed a major chunk of the cases 29 (24.6%) followed by housewives 18 (15.3%) and unskilled workers 16 (13.6%). Trichophyton mentagrophytes 20 (37%) was the predominat isolate followed by T. tonsurans15 (27.7%), T. rubrum3 (5.5%), M. audouinii 3 (5.5%) and T. schoenleinii 2 (3.7%) with no Epidermophyton species. A non-pigmented variant of T. rubrum was identified in this study. Both SDCCA and PDA were found equally effective in isolating fungal isolates from clinical samples in our study. We are reporting change in frequency of dermatophytes isolated from superficial mycoses cases in our region.
Key words- Superficial mycoses, Non-pigmented variants, Dermatophytes
Clinicomycological profile of Dermatophytosis in a teaching hospitalinventionjournals
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Pahrmaceutical Science. IJPSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science Invention (IJPSI)inventionjournals
The document summarizes a study conducted over six months to identify common bacterial contaminants in a microbiology laboratory. Samples were collected from surfaces, air, hands, and clothing of laboratory personnel using culture methods and identified using biochemical and molecular tests. The most common contaminants isolated were Micrococcus (52.94% of cultures) and Bacillus subtilis (23.52% of cultures), primarily from surfaces and air, respectively. The study concludes that proper disinfection, sterilization, and personal hygiene are needed to reduce laboratory contaminants and prevent false positive culture reports and laboratory-acquired infections.
This document discusses the use of disposable microfiber cloths (D-MFCs) for cleaning clinical equipment at a large metropolitan health service. A study found that D-MFCs and reusable microfiber cloths were able to remove fluorescent markings and viable bacteria like vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, while standard paper towels and detergent wipes were not as effective. The health service was then able to transition to using D-MFCs for cleaning sensitive equipment that could not be disinfected with hypochlorite solution. This provided a superior cleaning system and allowed all clinical equipment to be used, even for patients infected or colonized with multidrug-resistant organisms.
Indicator role and monitoring of microorganisms in life [autosaved]Maryam Idris
an overview of the role of microbes in determining the health and safety of life support systems including the crew members, rapid diagnostic methods and real time monitoring of enclosed ecosystems using microbes as indicators of the health statues of such systems
This study investigated biofilm formation by Acinetobacter baumannii isolated from medical devices in intensive care units. All 30 A. baumannii strains isolated were able to form biofilms, with stronger biofilm formation at 30°C compared to 37°C. Biofilm formation peaked at 96 hours of incubation then decreased. Most strains were hydrophilic, with no clear relationship found between hydrophobicity and biofilm formation ability. Strains adhered better to silicone and latex surfaces than to polyvinylchloride. The study provides insight into biofilm formation by this opportunistic pathogen on medical devices.
Simulated Sunlight Rapidly Inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on SurfacesValentina Corona
This study investigated how sunlight inactivates SARS-CoV-2 on non-porous surfaces. The virus was suspended in simulated saliva or culture media and dried on stainless steel coupons. When exposed to simulated sunlight, 90% of infectious virus was inactivated every 6.8 minutes in simulated saliva and every 14.3 minutes in culture media. Significant inactivation also occurred under lower sunlight levels, though at a slower rate. This provides evidence that sunlight can rapidly inactivate SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces, suggesting the risk of exposure varies between indoor and outdoor environments, with natural sunlight being an effective disinfectant.
White paper disinfection of mobile devicesPhilip Gulan
This white paper discusses using ultraviolet light (UV-C) to disinfect mobile devices in healthcare settings. Healthcare-associated infections affect millions of patients annually and can be spread through contaminated surfaces. Mobile devices are increasingly used in healthcare but can harbor bacteria. The ChargeMax charging cabinet uses UV-C light to automatically disinfect smartphones and tablets placed inside. An experiment showed bacteria was killed on devices exposed to UV-C light inside the cabinet, but survived on an unexposed control device. The paper concludes the ChargeMax is an effective and novel technology to reduce infection risks from contaminated mobile devices in healthcare facilities.
— Hospitals could be the source of pollution that must be taken into account in a general approach to health and environmental risk assessment. This study is part of the characterization of hospital liquid waste in a region in Morocco, whose objective is to assess their physicochemical, bacteriological and toxicological quality. The physicochemical analyzes carried out on 144 samples taken during one year showed a great fluctuation of some parameters such as: BOD5, COD, MES, PH, T°, as well as an important bacteriological load: Total coliforms, E coli, faecal Streptococci, pathogenic germs such as: Salmonella, Staphylococcus, 20% multi-resistant, virulent germs of emerging nature such as: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, and trace metal elements such as: mercury and copper that exceed the threshold of acceptability. At the end of this study, it turned out that hospital effluents are heavily loaded with pollutants. We therefore hope, in the light of the results provided by this study, to have generated a real awareness of the competent authorities on strengthening and improving the treatment of hospital liquid effluents such as developed countries, as the impact of these effluents on human and environmental health is harmful and can spread emerging diseases.
Evaluation of biological and physicochemical risk of hospital liquid waste in...Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
— Hospitals could be the source of pollution that must be taken into account in a general approach to health and environmental risk assessment. This study is part of the characterization of hospital liquid waste in a region in Morocco, whose objective is to assess their physicochemical, bacteriological and toxicological quality. The physicochemical analyzes carried out on 144 samples taken during one year showed a great fluctuation of some parameters such as: BOD5, COD, MES, PH, T°, as well as an important bacteriological load: Total coliforms, E coli, faecal Streptococci, pathogenic germs such as: Salmonella, Staphylococcus, 20% multi-resistant, virulent germs of emerging nature such as: Pseudomonas aeroginosa, and trace metal elements such as: mercury and copper that exceed the threshold of acceptability. At the end of this study, it turned out that hospital effluents are heavily loaded with pollutants. We therefore hope, in the light of the results provided by this study, to have generated a real awareness of the competent authorities on strengthening and improving the treatment of hospital liquid effluents such as developed countries, as the impact of these effluents on human and environmental health is harmful and can spread emerging diseases.
Disinfecting Mobile Devices for use in Healthcare SettingsPhilip Gulan
The use of mobile technology is expected to have a profound impact on how care is delivered, the quality of patient experience and the cost of healthcare in general. Therefore, the quantity of mobile devices being used in healthcare environments is expanding significantly every year. Use of smartphones and tablets in the healthcare settings is rapidly expanding and contributing to improved healthcare and reduced costs around the globe. But this introduction of new technology into clinically sensitive areas creates the risk of passing along bacterial contamination throughout a hospital.
The present study was aimed to design a simple model to test efficacy of germicidal Ultraviolet light (UV-C) used inside ChargeMax as a charging cabinet designed for smartphones and tablets and made by Cetrix Technologies.
This study investigated the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and the effectiveness of disinfectants at Khartoum Teaching Hospital in Sudan. Samples were collected from various units and surfaces, and tested for MRSA. The prevalence of MRSA was found to be 25% overall. Some MRSA isolates were also resistant to vancomycin. The effectiveness of four commonly used disinfectants was evaluated against MRSA isolates. Statistical analysis showed two disinfectants were significantly effective against MRSA, while two were not significantly effective. Thus, not all disinfectants used in the hospital were equally effective in controlling MRSA.
The document discusses surgical site infections (SSIs), including:
1. SSIs are defined as infections occurring within 30 days of surgery or 1 year if an implant is placed. Common types are superficial and deep incisional infections.
2. SSIs are among the most common and costly healthcare-associated infections, with incidence higher following some orthopedic procedures.
3. Risk factors for SSIs include patient characteristics like diabetes as well as surgical factors like prolonged operating time and implant use. Proper prevention techniques can help reduce SSI risk.
4. Diagnosis involves clinical presentation as well as microbiological and histological testing. Treatment depends on infection severity but often involves wound opening, debride
Disinfectants play an important role in health careassociated
infection control by either minimizing or preventing
microorganism dissemination. This article to study the
morphological changes which may be related to the lose of
antibiotic resistance after disinfectant exposure using SEM.
Showed all isolates resistant to ampicillin, amoxicillin, cloxacillin,
cephalexin, tetracycline, doxycycline, rifampin, chloramphenicol,
trimethoprim cefotaxime and erythromycin, while one of burn
isolates was susceptible for gentamicin, chloramphenicol and
trimethoprim, and 15 of burn, 6 of wound, 5 of ear, and all urine
isolates were susceptible to gentamicin using Kirby-Bauer
method.
The MICs of four common in use disinfectants (Hexatane,
Dettol, Savlon and Povidone – Iodine) were determined for all
isolates. The results showed that the MICs of Hexatane ranged
from (64–512) µg/ml, Dettol (2048–16384) µg/ml,
Savlon (4096:40960)–(32768:327680) µg/ml and for Povidone –
Iodine MICs were (8192–32768) µg/ml. It has been found that
burn and urine isolates were more resistant to disinfectants than
wound and ear isolates. According to the effect of subMICs of
disinfectants at different exposure patterns on antibiotic
resistance, the results showed lose of resistance to tetracycline,
doxycycline, rifampin, chloramphenicol, cefotaxime and
trimethoprim in %72, %72, %68, %22, %28 and %36 of isolates,
respectively. The results of SEM micrograph showed normal
morphology and small sized bacteria with nub formation on some
of them when exposed to dettol, and shape changes in cells with
bulging in exposed to Povidone-iodine, while elongation and
deformation were recorded in some cells in exposed to
Savlon(chlorohexidine/ cetrimide) and Hexatane (chlorohexidine/
gluconate), respectively.
The purpose of this study was to investigate bacterial recovery and transfer from three biometric sensors and the survivability of bacteria on the devices. The modalities tested were fingerprint, hand geometry and hand vein recognition, all of which require sensor contact with the hand or fingers to collect the biometric. Each sensor was tested separately with two species of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Survivability was investigated by sterilizing the sensor surface, applying a known volume of diluted bacterial culture to the sensor and allowing it to dry. Bacteria were recovered at 5, 20, 40 and 60 minutes after drying by touching the contaminated device with a sterile finger cot. The finger cot was re-suspended in 5 mL of saline solution, and plated dilutions to obtain live cells counts from the bacterial recovery. The transferability of bacteria from each device surface was investigated by touching the contaminated device and then touching a plate to transfer the bacteria to growth medium to obtain live cell counts. The time lapse between consecutive touches was one minute, with the number of touches was n = 50. Again, S. aureus and E. coli were used separately as detection organisms. This paper will describe the results of the study in terms of survival curves and transfer curves of each bacterial strain for each device.
DETERMINATION OF PATHOGENICITY AND VIRULENCE OF A COMBINATION OF STRAINS OF Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus OF THE COMPANY SANOPLANT, ON THE PSYLLID Diaphorina citri VECTOR OF THE HLB DISEASE OF CITRUS
Mesh infection is one of most disastrous complication following hernia surgery. The consequences are more complex especially following a laparoscopic hernia repair operation. Understanding the pathophysiology of mesh infections is pivotal in adopting preventive strategies. Once infected, exact determination of the extent of the septic complication by CECT is essential. A two staged surgical intervention yields excellent results. A case of infected laparoscopic mesh repair treated by a two staged operation is presented along with a brief review of literature to highlight the safety and efficacy of this approach.
Microfluidics has shown promise for improving diagnostics and biology research by enabling rapid sample processing and precise control of fluids. However, adoption of microfluidic technologies in mainstream biology has not matched initial enthusiasm. While most microfluidic publications remain in engineering journals, their use in fields like cell biology, hematology and immunology is increasing. A case study of chemotaxis assays illustrates how traditional techniques have evolved over time to improve, whereas microfluidic solutions have yet to achieve widespread adoption in biology. Further development is needed to help microfluidics live up to its potential.
This study evaluated the use of gentamicin microspheres to locally deliver antibiotics and reduce postoperative spinal implant infections in rabbits. In the first phase, various bacterial doses were tested in rabbits to determine a dose that resulted in a 70% surgical site infection rate. This established dose (106 CFU of Staphylococcus aureus) was then used in the second phase where sites received either gentamicin microspheres or a control treatment. Results showed that the gentamicin microspheres significantly reduced both the surgical site infection rate and implant-associated infection rate compared to the control sites. Bacterial counts were also lower in infected sites that received the gentamicin treatment, though this difference was not statistically significant. This suggests
A newly invented antibacterial in decontamination of reusable hospital a deviceAlexander Decker
This document describes a study that tested the effectiveness of a newly invented antibacterial solution for decontaminating reusable medical devices. 18 used medical devices were collected from an intensive care unit and decontaminated using different concentrations and contact times of Sidr tree leaf extract, hydrogen peroxide, and their combination. Mixing 62.5 g/L Sidr extract with 1.5% hydrogen peroxide was found to effectively eradicate contamination from the devices after 30 minutes of contact. The new antibacterial agent shows potential for decontaminating reusable medical equipment.
A newly invented antibacterial in decontamination of reusable hospital a device
JMEN-01-00032 (1)
1. J Microbiol Exp 2014, 1(5): 00032Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com
Journal of Microbiology & Experimentation
Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination
Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Research Article
Volume 1 Issue 5 - 2014
Mann EE1
, Mettetal MR1
, May RM1
,
Drinker MC1
, Stevenson BC1
, Baiamonte
VL3
, Marso JM3
, Dannemiller EA1
, Parker
AE4
, Reddy ST1
* and Sande MK2,3
1
Sharklet Technologies, Inc., USA
2
Department of Emergency Medicine, University of
Colorado School of Medicine, USA
3
Work, Education, and Lifelong Learning Simulation
Center at University of Colorado Hospital, USA
4
Center for Biofilm Engineering, and Department of
Mathematical Sciences, Montana State University, USA
*Corresponding author: Shravanthi T. Reddy, Sharklet
Technologies, Inc., 12635 E Montview Blvd, Suite
155, Aurora, CO 80045, USA, Tel: 7208594184; Email:
Received: November 6, 2014| Published: December
23, 2014
Abbreviations
HAI: Hospital-Acquired Infections; HCP: Healthcare
Practitioners; CFU: Colony Forming Units; LD: Log Density; LR:
Log Reduction; LME: Linear Mixed Effect; MP: Micropatterned;
UNP: Unpatterned; PCA: Principal Component Analysis; AP:
Attached Bacterial Load Percentages
Introduction
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) are responsible for
clinical complications with an estimated 6.1% increase in
attributable deaths [1,2]. HAIs increased the length of stay in a
hospital from 5.9 to 9.6 days based on one study of over 1,250
patients [1]. Concomitantly, estimated healthcare costs double
for patients with HAIs [1,3]. As many as 27% of hospital ward
patient rooms are contaminated with S. aureus, and as many as
64% of burn intensive care unit surfaces are contaminated with
S. aureus [4]. Cross-contamination of the hands of healthcare
practitioners (HCP) previously in direct patient contact or
indirectly by touching contaminated environmental surfaces has
been shown to contribute to 20-40% of HAIs [2,5]. Contaminated
hospital surfaces have been carefully investigated in numerous
studies and identified to be a major source of HAIs [6-9]. Despite
an improved understanding of the role of environmental
contamination, bioburden remains unacceptably high between
terminal cleanings [10,11]. Sampling environmental surfaces
following terminal cleanings identified that less than 50%
of the surfaces were truly clean [12-14]. Microorganisms
identified on environmental surfaces include bacteria, viruses,
and fungi, each with potential to cause HAIs. Additionally,
Abstract
Environmental contamination contributes to an estimated 20-40% of all hospital-
acquired infections (HAI). Infection control practices continue to improve, but
multipronged approaches are necessary to fully combat the diversity of nosocomial
pathogens and emerging multidrug resistant organisms. The Sharklet™ micropattern,
inspired from the microtopography of shark skin, was recently shown to significantly
reduce surface contamination but has not been evaluated in a clinical setting. The
focus of this study was the transfer of bacteria onto micropatterned surfaces compared
to unpatterned surfaces in a clinical simulation environment involving healthcare
practitioners. Physician volunteers were recruited to participate in an emergency
medicine scenario involving a contact-precaution patient with an acute pulmonary
embolism. Prior to scenario initiation, Staphylococcus aureus was inoculated onto the
leg of a simulation mannequin and fresh micropatterned and unpatterned surface
films were placed on a code cart, cardiac defibrillator shock button, and epinephrine
medication vial. Six physicians interacted with micropatterned surfaces and five
physicians interacted with unpatterned surfaces in separate scenarios. Bacterial load
loss from the first contact location (control film over the femoral pulse) to subsequent
unpatterned or micropatterned surface test locations was quantified as a log reduction
(LR) for each surface type.
The code cart, cardiac defibrillator button, and medication vial locations with
micropatterned surfaces resulted in LRs that were larger than the unpatterned
LRs by 0.64 (p=0.146), 1.14 (p=0.023), and 0.58 (p=0.083) respectively for each
location. The geometric mean CFU/RODAC at the first control surface touched at the
femoral pulse pads ranged from 175-250 CFU/RODAC (95% confidence interval).
Thus, the micropatterned LRs were consistently greater than the unpatterned LRs,
substantiating the micropattern-dependent reduction of microorganism transfer.
Principal component analysis showed that the LRs for the code cart and the cardiac
defibrillator button highly covaried. Thus, a single mean LR was calculated from
these two locations for each surface type; 5.4 times more bacteria attached to the
unpatterned surfaces compared to the micropatterned surfaces (p = 0.058). The
simulated clinical scenario involving healthcare practitioners demonstrated that the
micropatterned surface reduced the transfer of bacterial contamination based on
the larger LRs for the micropatterned surface compared to control surfaces. Further
investigation in hospital rooms where patients are receiving care will ultimately reveal
the capability of micropatterned surfaces to minimize the incidence of HAIs.
Keywords
Contamination; Staphylococcus aureus; Transmission; Microtopography; Sharklet
2. Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
2/7
these microorganisms are capable of surviving desiccation and
minimal nutrient environments for extended periods of time,
increasing the likelihood of transfer to susceptible patients
[8,15,16]. Contamination of surrounding environmental surfaces
has been identified as the most impactful risk of contamination
to HCP gloves/hands [17]. Innovative surface technologies are
needed to assist in reducing environmental contamination and
preventing infections. Sharklet Technologies, Inc. has developed
the Sharklet™ micropattern to address the need for a novel
microorganism-resistant surface. The micropattern is an ordered
microtopography engineered to control bioadhesion based on
basic principles relating to surface energy [18,19] (Figure 1).
Previously, the sharkskin bioinspired micropattern has been
shown to inhibit surface contamination, bacterial colonization,
and biofilm formation of multiple organisms [20-22]. Here a
simulated clinical scenario was designed to evaluate transfer of
bacteria by practicing physician volunteers onto micropatterned
surfaces compared to unpatterned surfaces.
Methods
Materials and bacterial inoculum
Sharklet micropatterned and unpatterned acrylic film
was supplied by Sharklet Technologies, Inc. (Aurora, CO).
The micropattern consists of recessed rectangular features
arranged in a periodic diamond-shaped pattern (Figure 1). The
micropattern feature dimensions are 2µm width/spacing and
3µm depth. Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) was grown by
selecting a single colony from a fresh streak plate and placing it
into 100 ml of TSB media overnight on an orbital shaker set to
250 RPM. Bacteria were then diluted to a concentration of 1x108
CFU/ml in sterile phosphate-buffered saline, using a previously-
established standard curve comparing OD600
of overnight culture
to CFU/ml.
Clinical simulation scenario
Physician volunteers were recruited to participate in a
simulated clinical scenario of acute pulmonary embolism in
an emergency department setting (Figure 2). IRB approval
was obtained for the study (protocol #13-2931). The study
was conducted at the Work, Education, and Lifelong Learning
Simulation(WELLS)CenterattheUniversityofColoradoAnschutz
Medical Center (Aurora, CO). The simulation environment,
modeled after an emergency department resuscitation suite,
was designed to contain only objects necessary in the clinical
care of the patient so as to better control the behaviors and
what was touched during the scenario. A high fidelity Sim Man
3G mannequin (Laerdal, Stavanger, Norway) functioned as the
patient in the scenario (Figure 2). Study personnel placed new
unpatterned or Sharklet™ micropatterned films on anticipated
touch surfaces prior to the start of each simulation scenario:
the handles and along the edges of a code cart, the shock button
of a cardiac defibrillator, and an epinephrine medication vial
(Figure 2). Fresh control films were placed over femoral pulse
pads on the simulation mannequin to provide normalization of
total capable bacterial bioburden in each scenario (Figure 2). The
final step prior to physician entry into the simulation suite for
initiation of the scenario was the inoculation of the left leg of the
mannequin circumferentially ankle to knee using a small cotton
cloth saturated with approximately 20 ml of bacterial inoculum
(Figure 2). The leg was allowed to dry partially for approximately
1m before the physician volunteer entered the simulation suite
to begin the scenario. The mannequin leg was an appropriate
location for inoculation in this scenario testing HCP-mediated
transfer of S. aureus, a ubiquitous skin colonizer. Examination
of the mannequin leg allowed for repeatable inoculation of
the HCP gloves, but in clinical situations interaction with any
contaminated surface would likely result in contamination of
HCP gloves.
The simulation suite door was marked as an isolation
precaution, and each physician was instructed to don gloves
Figure 1: The Sharklet micropattern.
Acrylic film embossed with 2 µm width/spacing and 3 µm deep
recessed features in periodic diamond pattern. Measure bar indicates
20 µm.
BA
Figure 2: Clinical simulation environment.
A) Simulation room setup included inoculating S. aureus onto
the left leg of a simulation mannequin (1). Consenting volunteer
physicians (6) blinded to the purpose of the study participated in the
clinical scenario along with a supporting nurse (7). Smooth control
surfaces were applied over the mannequin’s femoral arteries (2) (for
normalization of total transfer capability). Either micropatterned
or unpatterned surfaces were placed in the procedure room on the
code cart (3), cardiac defibrillator shock button (4), and epinephrine
2-part medication vial (5). At the end of the scenario the surfaces
were sampled with RODAC plates. B) Image of the actual simulation
scenario initiation.
3. Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
3/7
and a gown prior to entry. Upon entry into the simulation
resuscitation suite, each physician volunteer encountered a nurse
(simulation center actor) who provided the following clinical
context (Figure 2): the patient, John Kramer, was a 68 year-old
male presenting with complaint of left calf pain and hemoptysis
following an 8 h international flight-highly suggestive of an
acute pulmonary embolism. One of two available nurses was
randomly assigned to each scenario, and they understood the
objectives of the study but were blinded to the type of films used
to outfit experimental locations (micropattern or unpatterned).
Throughout the scenario, the nurse provided guidance to each
physician to ensure the physician completed the anticipated
sequence of events successfully as part of the study scenario. The
simulated emergency scenario consisted of the following event
sequence: following the nurse’s providing a clinical synopsis of
the patient and his chief complaint of leg pain and hemoptysis,
the nurse requested that the physician examine the left calf
for tenderness and modeled this behavior using a two-handed
technique. The nurse then informed the physician that when
bilateral femoral pulses were checked prior to physician entry
they seemed unequal. When the physician palpated the femoral
pulses on the simulation mannequin, pulses were lost and the
cardiac monitor promptly indicated the initiation of cardiac
arrest (ventricular fibrillation). The physician had to then move
the code cart from its location approximately four feet away
from the patient to the patient’s bedside while the nurse began
providing chest compressions and simulated ventilations. Based
upon the underlying cardiac rhythm, the physician initiated
Advanced Cardiac Life Support algorithms per the American
Heart Association, to include cardiac defibrillation followed
by the administration of epinephrine. The physician placed
defibrillation pads onto the chest of the simulation mannequin
and charged the defibrillator located on top of the code cart. After
the physician administered a shock to the mannequin, the nurse
directed the physician to an adjacent bedside stand where a two-
part vial of epinephrine was available. The physician assembled
the two-part medicine vial (glass drug vial and plastic syringe
barrel) and subsequently administered the simulated medication
into the pre-established intravenous catheter in the antecubital
fossa of the mannequin’s right arm. Upon administration of this
medication, the nurse informed the physician of the conclusion
of the scenario. The physician then safely doffed all potentially
contaminated personal protective equipment (gown and gloves).
A total of 11 scenarios were randomized so that five scenarios
contained unpatterned film and six scenarios contained
micropatterned film. Study personnel entered the room
immediately after completion of each scenario to remove films,
place them on a flat surface, and recover bacteria from the films.
The film samples were pressed for 10 s each with RODAC contact
plates (Becton Dickinson, Sparks, MD) to recover any bacteria
present [20]. RODAC plates were incubated at 37˚ C for 24 hrs
and resulting colonies were enumerated as Colony Forming Units
(CFU). Multiple RODAC plates were occasionally required for the
code cart samples when the cart was handled in multiple areas,
and in these cases CFUs were averaged across the plates.
Statistical analysis
CFUs/RODAC were log10
transformed to log densities (LD)
because, as revealed by normal probability plots, the LDs were
approximately normally distributed and analyzed as described
below[23,24].OnRODACsCFU=1wassubstitutedforzerocounts;
this occurred six times. When the CFUs were greater than 1000
CFU, the total colonies on the plate were quantified to the nearest
100 CFU (occurring a total of 7 times). The highest countable
number was 5000 CFU. Magnification of high resolution images
was used to count dense bacterial colonies when necessary
as previously described [20]. To assess the repeatability of the
femoral pulse LDs in each of the micropatterned and unpatterned
surface groups, the LDs collected during the femoral pulse check
were analyzed separately for each group using a Linear Mixed
Effect (LME) model [25]. The model included nested random
effects for physician nested in nurse, and nurse (5-6 physicians
were assisted by each of two nurses).
Comparisons between the micropatterned and
unpatterned films
Each LD was normalized to the initial bacterial LD of the
femoral pulse, resulting in a log reduction (LR) value that
could then be used to compare the transfer of bacteria onto the
micropatterned and unpatterned surfaces. This normalization
was an important feature of the design of the scenario due to the
expected high variance among physicians interacting with the
patient and experimental locations. Normalization allowed for
isolation of this variance and a more powerful statistical analysis.
Three LRs were calculated for each physician, one LR for each
of the 3 test locations (code cart, cardiac defibrillator button,
medication vial). Each LR was computed by subtracting the
mean LD for the film surface from the mean LD for the femoral
pulse pad. For the femoral pulse, code cart, and medication vial
surfaces, two LDs were averaged since there was one LD for each
hand (right and left). For the cardiac defibrillator, there was only
a single LD since the physicians only used right hands (noted for
all 11 physicians by independent observers).
The repeatability of the LRs was assessed for each location
and group combination separately using LME models with a
random effect for nurse. The LRs for the unpatterned surfaces
were more variable among physician volunteers than the
LRs for the micropatterned surfaces. To account for this
heteroscedastic variance (while ignoring the negligible variance
due to nurses) a Welch 2-sample 1-sided t-test was used to
compare the micropatterned and unpatterned groups for each
surface separately. For better interpretability, differences in
LRs (Micropatterned (MP) minus Unpatterned (UNP)) are
presented as a ratio of attached bacterial load percentages
(AP) via the formula AP(UNP)/AP(MP) = 10(LR(MP) - LR(UNP))
. This
ratio gives the multiplicative factor describing how many more
bacteria are attached to the unpatterned surfaces relative to
the micropatterned surfaces. All tests were performed at a
significance level of 5% and implemented in R [26] package nlme:
Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models [27].
4. Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
4/7
Principal component analysis
Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the
covariance matrix for the 3 LRs from the code cart, cardiac
defibrillator button, and medication vial to assess multi-
collinearity (i.e., possible covariance among the LRs from the
3 different locations) and to provide a graphical qualitative
description of the LRs. Combined mean LRs for locations
with collinearity (defibrillator button and code cart) were
compared, again for interpretability, by using a ratio of attached
bacterial load percentages (AP) using the equation AP(UNP)/
AP(MP)=10(LR(UNP)-LR(MP))
.
Results
The log reduction (LR) for each test location represented
the reduced load of organisms carried from the first control
location touched to ensuing locations (Figure 3). The geometric
mean CFU/RODAC at the first control location touched at the
femoral pulse pads (Figure 2) ranged from 175-250 CFU/RODAC
(95% confidence interval). This allowed for comparison of the
transmission reduction for the micropattern and the unpatterned
surfaces. The micropatterned surface exhibited a mean LR for
the cardiac defibrillator (LR = 2.26) that was significantly larger
than the unpatterned surface (LR =1.12, p = 0.023) (Table 1). The
micropattern had larger mean LRs on the code cart (LR = 1.29)
and medication vial (LR = 1.88) compared to the unpatterned
surface LRs on the same locations (LR = 0.66) and (LR = 1.30),
respectively (Table 1). Therefore, the differences in LRs ranged
from 0.58 to 1.14 larger on the micropattern compared to the
unpatterned surfaces.
The S. aureus LDs recovered from the control femoral pulse
Figure 3: Individual bacterial log reduction values on experimental surfaces with respect to the control surface.
Each simulation scenario resulted in a set of unpatterned (red squares) or micropatterned (black diamond’s) bacterial log densities for each
location which were subtracted from the initial pulse bacterial density within the same scenario (MP = micropatterned, LR = log reduction).
Table 1: Comparison of the mean log reduction values with respect to the control surface load.
Bacterial log densities were normalized to the mannequin femoral pulse control surfaces for the unpatterned (UNP) or micropatterned (MP) surfaces
within a simulation scenario. The resulting log reduction (LR) values from the control femoral pulse surface to the experimental unpatterned or
micropatternedsurface were directly compared to evaluate efficiencyof bacterial transmissiononto micropatternedsurfaces. The reported repeatability
standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the sum of the among-physician and among-nurse variances. PR (%) refers to the percent reduction
calculated by 1-10^(-LR).
Location Group PR (%)
Mean
LR
Variance
SD
mean
LR Δ
Relative transmission reduction p
Among-physician Among-nurse
Cart
MP 95 1.29
0.1190
(100%)
0
(0%)
0.345
0.64 4.4 x 0.146
UNP 78 0.66
1.24
(100%)
0
(0%)
1.12
Defibrillator
MP 99.5 2.26
0.0140
(100%)
0
(0%)
0.119
1.14 13.8 x 0.023
UNP 92 1.12
0.7740
(100%)
0
(0%)
0.880
Vial
MP 99 1.88
0.1855
(100%)
0
(0%)
0.431
0.58 3.8 x 0.083
UNP 95 1.30
0.5188
(100%)
0
(0%)
0.720
5. Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
5/7
pad location in the 2 groups exhibited a mean LD ± (repeatability
SD) of 2.53 ± 0.40 for the micropatterned group and 2.21 ± 0.826
for the unpatterned control group. To ascertain where variability
existed in the femoral pulse LDs in the experiment, the among-
nurse, among-physician, and within-physician variances were
compared. 99-100% of the variability was attributable to the
within- and among-physician variances. Each point in the PCA
biplot in Figure 4 is a single representation of the LRs associated
with the 3 experimental locations for each physician volunteer.
The biplot suggests a partitioning of the LRs with respect to
pattern type. The fact that the micropattern points congregate
to the right of the 3 vectors provides a qualitative picture that
the micropattern LRs are typically larger than the LRs for the
unpatterned group. The magnitude of the PCA loadings for
the code cart and cardiac defibrillator button were similar but
distinct from the medication vial (i.e., the vector for the vial
LRs in the biplot is shorter and flatter than the other vectors).
Therefore it is appropriate to combine the LRs for the code cart
and cardiac defibrillator to compare bacterial transfer between
the micropattern and unpatterned surfaces (Table 2). In doing
so the mean LR ± SD of the micropatterned surface with respect
to the femoral pulse location was 1.81± 0.326 compared to 1.08±
0.802 for the unpatterned surface with a difference of 0.73 (p =
0.058). This result shows that 5.4 times more bacteria attached
to the unpatterned surfaces, when averaging across the cart and
defibrillator surfaces, compared to the micropatterned surfaces.
Discussion
This study was designed to evaluate the ability of Sharklet™
micropatterned surfaces to reduce bacterial transfer compared to
unpatterned surfaces when tested within a simulated emergency
department clinical environment. Unlike previous studies
examining bacterial transfer and persistence in a laboratory
setting [20], a simulated hospital setting involving practicing
physician volunteers was chosen so as to closely mimic hospital
conditions. The medical equipment included in this study and the
interactions between clinicians and this equipment are the same
as would be exhibited in a clinical environment where patients
are being treated. Participating clinicians were blinded to the
study objectives such that they interacted with the environment
and equipment as they would in their typical practice. While
tracking environmental bacteria located on actual hospital
surfaces would offer the most realistic approach, the simulation
center provided a safe and efficient way to confirm laboratory
results recently published on the micropattern technology [20].
Bacterial contamination testing, even in a simulation
environment, requires highly controlled and established
methods to track bacterial adherence to surfaces while avoiding
inherent variability involved with human studies (in this case,
volunteer physicians). Previous laboratory experiments were the
foundation for simulation scenario testing. Bacterial suspensions
used (1x108
CFU/ml) in the simulation scenarios were
concentrated to consistently observe transfer of bacteria among
multiple touches throughout the designed scenario. Experimental
testing and surface sampling methods were developed previously
[20] based on evidence that the micropattern’s enhanced surface
energy [18,19] is more resistant to microorganism adherence
compared to unpatterned surfaces [20-22,28]. Bacteria
transfer was repeatably reduced where the micropattern was
present on common objects in the hospital simulation room
compared to unpatterned surfaces (Tables 1 & 2) (Figure 3).
The micropatterned surface reduced bacterial transmission
by more than one log on the defibrillator button location
compared to the unpatterned surface (p = 0.023). Put another
way, more than 13 times more bacteria were transferred to the
defibrillator button when an unpatterned surface was present
compared to a micropatterned surface (Table 1). On the code
cart and medication vial 4.4 and 3.8 times more bacteria were
transmitted to the unpatterned surface respectively compared
to the micropatterned surface (Table 1). Although the code cart
and medication vial results were not statistically significant at
a significance level of 5% (i.e., the associated p-values of 0.146
and 0.086 were both larger than 0.05); they are suggestive that
a larger study with more participating physicians will provide
statistically significant results.
Importantly, each scenario included a normalization step
Figure 4: Principal component analysis indicates the potential for
the micropattern reduction.
Black circles indicate measurements from physician volunteers in the
micropatterned surface group; red squares indicate measurements
from physician volunteers in the unpatterned surface group (PCA =
principal component analysis, LR = log reduction).
Group mean LR SD
Mean
Difference
Relative
transmission
reduction
p
Micropatterned 1.81 0.326
0.73 5.4 x 0.058
Unpatterned 1.08 0.802
Table 2: Analysis of mean log reduction for the cart and defibrillator
surfaces with respect to the femoral pulse bacterial load.
Unpatterned or micropatterned log reductions relative to the femoral
pulse log densities were pooled and compared
6. Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred by Healthcare Practitioners
Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
6/7
by sampling transfer to control surfaces on the mannequin’s
femoral pulse that allowed for comparisons across multiple
physicians (Table 1). Analysis of the log densities on the femoral
pulse indicates that bacterial transfer was repeatable regardless
of surface type present in the scenario. The statistical modeling
estimated that the different nurses did not contribute to the
variability of the LRs, leaving physicians to be the sole source of
variance in the quantitative bacterial LR (Table 1). Nonetheless,
the physician-to-physician variance was sufficiently minimal
to produce significant results with as few as 11 physician
volunteers. This indicates strong repeatability among the 11
physician volunteers and 2 nurses that participated in the study,
as well as efficient sampling methods and laboratory techniques.
The linear relationships of the LRs among the locations were
evaluated using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA also
provides a qualitative graphical summary of the LRs across the
3 locations (Figure 4). The code cart micropattern LR exhibited
transmission that covaried with the defibrillator button (Table
1). The medication vial with micropatterned surface reduced
transmission, but the LR covaried much less with either of the
other two locations. Therefore, the code cart and defibrillator
buttonwerecombinedtoobtainanaveragebacterialtransmission
reduction among covarying locations. Over 5 times more bacteria
were transmitted onto the unpatterned surfaces compared to the
micropatterned surfaces at the code cart and defibrillator button
locations combined (Table 2).
Conclusion
Bacterial transmission was reduced by a factor of 5.4 on
the micropatterned surface compared to the corresponding
unpatterned surface for the two locations that exhibited
covariance. Importantly, reduced transmission occurred at all
locations tested in this study but maximally at the defibrillator
button by a factor of 13.8 times. Given that unpatterned
surfaces allow more bacterial transmission, contributing to the
spread of S. aureus on surfaces, there could be major benefits
to patient safety in implementing this micropatterned surface
that combats bacterial spread. S. aureus was used in this study
as a representative and common bacterial species, but the
micropattern has been shown to reduce contamination of a wide
rangeofmicrobialspeciesinotherstudies[21,22].Itisreasonable
to expect the micropatterned surface to broadly reduce microbial
transmission occurring on hospital surfaces. The Sharklet
micropattern is a valuable option to combat transient surface
contamination on high-touch surfaces, especially in hospitals
and healthcare settings. This study demonstrates the ability of
the micropattern to offer reduced transmission of S. aureus on
hospital high-touch surfaces in simulated physician-patient-
environment interaction scenarios.
Conflict of Interest
EEM, MRM, RMM, MCD, BCS, EAD, and STR are paid employees
of Sharklet Technologies, Inc. AEP is a paid consultant of Sharklet
Technologies, Inc.
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Citation: Mann EE, Mettetal MR, May RM, Drinker MC, Stevenson BC et.al(2014) Surface Micropattern Resists Bacterial Contamination Transferred
by Healthcare Practitioners. DOI: 10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00032
Copyright:
2014 Mann et.al
7/7
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