This report examines research and development (R&D) activities related to two renewable energy technologies: photovoltaics and wind energy. It finds that R&D is critical to fully realizing the potential of renewable energy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase energy security. While some technologies are mature enough for strong industry growth, continued R&D is still needed for improvements. R&D should focus on performance, efficiency, manufacturing techniques, materials reduction, integration, and socio-economic factors to support renewable energy deployment and competitiveness in both the short and long term. International cooperation on R&D will be important to accelerate progress globally.
Acceptance of Solar Energy Reduces CO2 Emissions An Evidence from Seraikela K...YogeshIJTSRD
As the world showing concern towards reducing CO2 emission and moving towards utilization of renewable energy, Solar Energy emerges as one of best replacement for non renewable energy resources. In this particular study, investigation is carried out on how the utilization of solar power in household activities reduces the impact of CO2 emission in Seraikela Kharsawa District, Jharkhand. Primary and Secondary data has been collected from authentic sources and statistical analysis was performed based on collected data to study the impact of using solar energy. Result showed that 17 of resident totally depend on solar energy, 48 were partially depend on solar power and 20 increase in the use of solar power systems from 2019 to 2021 showed that impact of CO2 emission reduction. The change in behaviour of residents for adopting renewable energy i.e. solar energy will reduce CO2 emission not ultimately but slowly. Neetu Singh | Binod Kumar Choudhary "Acceptance of Solar Energy Reduces CO2 Emissions: An Evidence from Seraikela Kharsawa District, Jharkhand" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd43857.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/43857/acceptance-of-solar-energy-reduces-co2-emissions-an-evidence-from-seraikela-kharsawa-district-jharkhand/neetu-singh
This report compares nuclear and wind energy as potential options for Texas to invest in as the first step towards transitioning to 100% sustainable energy production by 2050. The report evaluates the two options based on three criteria: environmental impact, economics, and ability for large-scale implementation. With regards to environmental impact, the report finds that wind power produces 87% less CO2 emissions, takes up 48% less land, and consumes 99% less water than nuclear power. For economics, the report finds that wind power facilities cost 20% less to build and run, take 79% less time to develop and construct, and receive much greater investment than nuclear power. Finally, for large-scale implementation potential, the report finds that while
Public engagement in Ontario's energy policy 2009 2016Marco Covi
Major Research Project on the evolution of public engagement in Ontario on energy and environmental policy compared and contrasted against the UK. Lessons that can be learned are discussed as well as limitations to implementation of robust public engagement processes.
The document discusses the role of policy, legislation, and institutional frameworks in promoting sustainable renewable energy development in South Africa. It analyzes literature and interviews to understand how these factors determine energy sector outcomes and the pace of transforming South Africa's energy system. South Africa faces challenges of electricity undersupply and lack of renewable infrastructure implementation, inconsistent with sustainable development goals. Developing renewable solutions offers benefits to both public and private sectors by ensuring sustainable energy access and capacity. Fulfilling South Africa's national energy policy requires transforming the energy sector, which environmentalists strongly support.
IJERD (www.ijerd.com) International Journal of Engineering Research and Devel...IJERD Editor
1. The document summarizes a study that investigated awareness of renewable energy technology education in Adamawa and Taraba States of northeast Nigeria. A total of 360 questionnaires were administered across 12 local government areas, with respondents aged 18-50.
2. The results revealed that 67% of respondents in both states were unaware of any form of renewable energy. 54% had not shown concern for the environment previously. However, most respondents were willing to learn about and adopt renewable energy technologies.
3. The majority of respondents felt they needed more information about renewable energy, especially through radio and schools. However, over 70% thought the government should take primary responsibility for increasing renewable energy use.
A Review on Revolution of Wind Energy Conversion System and Comparisons of Va...PADMANATHAN K
The research and development carried out on wind
energy has been reviewed in different perspective. This paper is
aimed at exchanging evidence from numerous literatures based
on results and expertise review article surveyed pertaining to
wind generator development between academic communities,
industries, manufacturers, non-governmental organizations of
sustainable development, researchers, engineers, economists and
several wind energy associations. The substance contains wellinformed
new developments in the wind energy arena of
specialization thereby hurling light on the state of art research
observations and results in the field of Wind Energy Conversion
System (WECS). The study comprises of wind turbines, generator
and components. The review offers holistic approach on several
scientific and engineering factors concerned with the
advancement of wind power capture, conversion, different
generator schemes, integration methods and utilization of
technologies. Furthermore, discussion about an ancient and
forecast study of Wind Energy across the globe is presented.
The document provides a cost benefit analysis of the proposed Haripur Nuclear Power Plant in West Bengal, India. Key points:
- The plant was proposed in 2006 but faced public opposition and was suspended. It would have had a capacity of 10,000 MW generated from 6 reactors.
- The site at Haripur is a fertile agricultural and fishing area that supports many local livelihoods. Building the plant would have displaced over 80,000 people.
- The analysis identifies and quantifies the various costs and benefits of the proposed plant to determine if it would provide a net benefit to society. Factors like energy production, employment, and environmental impacts are considered.
- While the plant may have
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
Acceptance of Solar Energy Reduces CO2 Emissions An Evidence from Seraikela K...YogeshIJTSRD
As the world showing concern towards reducing CO2 emission and moving towards utilization of renewable energy, Solar Energy emerges as one of best replacement for non renewable energy resources. In this particular study, investigation is carried out on how the utilization of solar power in household activities reduces the impact of CO2 emission in Seraikela Kharsawa District, Jharkhand. Primary and Secondary data has been collected from authentic sources and statistical analysis was performed based on collected data to study the impact of using solar energy. Result showed that 17 of resident totally depend on solar energy, 48 were partially depend on solar power and 20 increase in the use of solar power systems from 2019 to 2021 showed that impact of CO2 emission reduction. The change in behaviour of residents for adopting renewable energy i.e. solar energy will reduce CO2 emission not ultimately but slowly. Neetu Singh | Binod Kumar Choudhary "Acceptance of Solar Energy Reduces CO2 Emissions: An Evidence from Seraikela Kharsawa District, Jharkhand" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd43857.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/43857/acceptance-of-solar-energy-reduces-co2-emissions-an-evidence-from-seraikela-kharsawa-district-jharkhand/neetu-singh
This report compares nuclear and wind energy as potential options for Texas to invest in as the first step towards transitioning to 100% sustainable energy production by 2050. The report evaluates the two options based on three criteria: environmental impact, economics, and ability for large-scale implementation. With regards to environmental impact, the report finds that wind power produces 87% less CO2 emissions, takes up 48% less land, and consumes 99% less water than nuclear power. For economics, the report finds that wind power facilities cost 20% less to build and run, take 79% less time to develop and construct, and receive much greater investment than nuclear power. Finally, for large-scale implementation potential, the report finds that while
Public engagement in Ontario's energy policy 2009 2016Marco Covi
Major Research Project on the evolution of public engagement in Ontario on energy and environmental policy compared and contrasted against the UK. Lessons that can be learned are discussed as well as limitations to implementation of robust public engagement processes.
The document discusses the role of policy, legislation, and institutional frameworks in promoting sustainable renewable energy development in South Africa. It analyzes literature and interviews to understand how these factors determine energy sector outcomes and the pace of transforming South Africa's energy system. South Africa faces challenges of electricity undersupply and lack of renewable infrastructure implementation, inconsistent with sustainable development goals. Developing renewable solutions offers benefits to both public and private sectors by ensuring sustainable energy access and capacity. Fulfilling South Africa's national energy policy requires transforming the energy sector, which environmentalists strongly support.
IJERD (www.ijerd.com) International Journal of Engineering Research and Devel...IJERD Editor
1. The document summarizes a study that investigated awareness of renewable energy technology education in Adamawa and Taraba States of northeast Nigeria. A total of 360 questionnaires were administered across 12 local government areas, with respondents aged 18-50.
2. The results revealed that 67% of respondents in both states were unaware of any form of renewable energy. 54% had not shown concern for the environment previously. However, most respondents were willing to learn about and adopt renewable energy technologies.
3. The majority of respondents felt they needed more information about renewable energy, especially through radio and schools. However, over 70% thought the government should take primary responsibility for increasing renewable energy use.
A Review on Revolution of Wind Energy Conversion System and Comparisons of Va...PADMANATHAN K
The research and development carried out on wind
energy has been reviewed in different perspective. This paper is
aimed at exchanging evidence from numerous literatures based
on results and expertise review article surveyed pertaining to
wind generator development between academic communities,
industries, manufacturers, non-governmental organizations of
sustainable development, researchers, engineers, economists and
several wind energy associations. The substance contains wellinformed
new developments in the wind energy arena of
specialization thereby hurling light on the state of art research
observations and results in the field of Wind Energy Conversion
System (WECS). The study comprises of wind turbines, generator
and components. The review offers holistic approach on several
scientific and engineering factors concerned with the
advancement of wind power capture, conversion, different
generator schemes, integration methods and utilization of
technologies. Furthermore, discussion about an ancient and
forecast study of Wind Energy across the globe is presented.
The document provides a cost benefit analysis of the proposed Haripur Nuclear Power Plant in West Bengal, India. Key points:
- The plant was proposed in 2006 but faced public opposition and was suspended. It would have had a capacity of 10,000 MW generated from 6 reactors.
- The site at Haripur is a fertile agricultural and fishing area that supports many local livelihoods. Building the plant would have displaced over 80,000 people.
- The analysis identifies and quantifies the various costs and benefits of the proposed plant to determine if it would provide a net benefit to society. Factors like energy production, employment, and environmental impacts are considered.
- While the plant may have
IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology (IOSR-JESTFT) multidisciplinary peer-reviewed Journal with reputable academics and experts as board member. IOSR-JESTFT is designed for the prompt publication of peer-reviewed articles in all areas of subject. The journal articles will be accessed freely online
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
Tetsunari Iida: Can Japan Achieve a Sustainable Future without Nuclear Energy?
In the aftermath of the 3.11 Fukushima nuclear crisis, the long-term viability of the nuclear industry in Japan has been called into question, with a dynamic anti-nuclear social movement challenging the Japanese government's response to the crisis. While this movement initially enlisted tens of thousands of people, many of whom had not previously engaged in political activism, as time has passed, the anti-nuclear movement has failed to gain ground against the entrenched forces of conservative politics, even while anti-nuclear sentiment remains strong. A central moment in this process was the recent elections, which returned the Liberal Democratic party to power on a nationalist agenda that included plans to restart all of Japan's reactors, and even build new ones.
In contrast to the back-to-the-future politics of the LDP, the anti-nuclear candidate Tetsunari Iida, who ran for governor of Yamaguchi Prefecture, has called for a fundamental rethinking of Japan's energy policy away from nuclear energy to renewable forms that are more environmentally friendly. Although Mr. Iida experienced a setback in the 2012 elections, losing to a conservative candidate who was backed by the LDP, his campaign raised a number of issues for consideration that had not been previously addressed, invigorating the anti-nuclear movement throughout Japan.
For this presentation, Mr. Iida will discuss the political dysfunction that contributed to the nuclear crisis, and offer an alternate vision that has raised widespread support among a public alienated from mainstream politics, offering hope for a safer and more ecologically sustainable future.
The document outlines a regional consultation meeting to discuss science, technology and innovation (STI) for promoting renewable energy technologies in Asia and the Pacific. The meeting will support preparations for the 2013 UN Economic and Social Council Annual Ministerial Review on using STI to achieve sustainable development goals. It will facilitate an exchange of experiences on effective STI policies to promote renewable energy and identify regional priorities. The expected outcomes include an analytical summary of best practices to submit to the Annual Ministerial Review and potential new partnerships to announce.
In the present generation energy plays a vital role in our world and for human life it´s very important factor. There is a methodical meeting taking place regarding the conservation of energy and every time there is a review in the agenda. Energy demand and supply were endeavored by these countries. To rectify these problems, there should be more research in the generation of energy with the greater efficiency and try to use energy in more efficient manner. Solar energy remains as the most prominent source of energy as it is cost effective and environmentally friendly. Reviews convey that solar energy systems will play a major role in the power generations. As per present scenario there is a great importance to the solar energy using photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic systems exhibit an important role for solar energy production.
The document discusses renewable energy readiness in Nigeria. It finds that while Nigeria has abundant renewable resources like solar, wind, and hydro, current utilization is still low apart from large hydro projects. Projections show electricity demand rising dramatically by 2030. Meeting this demand will require major investment that the government cannot provide alone. The document recommends encouraging private sector investment and developing renewables on a large scale. Key agencies in Nigeria like REA and NERC are working to promote mini-grids and a supportive regulatory environment to develop renewable energy.
Sustainable development model of geothermal energyAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses a conceptual model for sustainable development of geothermal energy in Indonesia based on a case study of the Darajat Geothermal Power Plant.
2) It analyzes the economic feasibility and sustainability of geothermal energy development through methods like net present value calculation, multi-dimensional scaling, and interpretative structural modeling.
3) The analysis results are used to develop a conceptual model for sustainable geothermal energy development that includes a management system, funding support, management actors, and regulation management.
Sustainable energy in India: A Paradigm ShiftAdarsh Tripathi
This presentation briefly introduces with the current scenario of Sustainable & Renewable Energy in India. It also includes various government policies & various case studies from the very remote villages & locations of India.
THE STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES DEPLOYMENT IN THE CZECH R...Riobras CZ s.r.o.
As part of the EU common energy policy adopted in 2007, the Czech Republic has established a commitment to achieve an 8% share of electricity generated from renewable energy sources (RES) in domestic electricity generation by 2010 and achieve a share of 13% of energy made from RES per final consumption before 2020. This contribution suggests a balanced scorecard (BSC) model aimed to set up a group of strategic objectives, initiatives, key performance indicators (KPIs) and targets that can be adopted in the Czech Republic in order to foster a sustainable deployment of renewable energy technologies. The model provides a strategy map showing four perspectives over which the objectives are organized and aligned through a cause-effect relation: Learning and Development, Energy Supply Systems, Energy Services Consumers, and Welfare.
Jurnal Internasional – Dampak Energi Terbarukan Terhadap Ketenagakerjaan di I...Dani Gunawan
Sebuah permintaan global untuk energi telah memaksa banyak negara untuk mencari energi alternatif dan terbarukan . Efek diantisipasi pengembangan terbarukan adalah peningkatan lapangan kerja sebagai bagian dari penciptaan lapangan pekerjaan hijau baru , manfaat besar bagi Indonesia untuk mengatasi tingkat pengangguran yang tinggi . Makalah ini menjelaskan dampak pengembangan energi terbarukan pada penciptaan lapangan kerja di Indonesia .
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Australia needs an energy sector that addresses the ‘energy trilemma’ – that is to say it must provide energy security, affordability and environmental sustainability. After a period of relative stability, significant change in the energy sector can be expected in coming years due to the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, together with the rapid pace of technological development occurring in the sector.
This roadmap seeks to help policy and other decision makers navigate this change by highlighting the key technologies that Australia can draw on as it endeavours to address the energy trilemma. It also identifies the barriers to these technologies and the potential enablers that may be called on to overcome them. Lastly, the roadmap identifies the key commercial opportunities for industry that low emissions technologies in the energy sector can provide.
Australia’s emissions reduction target On 10 November 2016, Australia ratified the Paris Agreement, committing to achieve a 26-28% reduction in GHG emissions below 2005 levels by 2030. The Paris Agreement also requires signatories to strengthen their abatement efforts over time with the overarching goal of limiting the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. The Paris Agreement also recognises that the world will need to achieve zero net emissions in the second half of the century.To achieve this level of decarbonisation, Australia will need to adopt a multi-faceted approach, primarily targeting emissions reduction in the land and energy sectors. The energy sector, which is the focus of this roadmap, will play a key role given it accounts for 79% of Australia’s emissions.
Over the last decade, the liberalization of the electricity market has been sought. In order to fight the environmental impact caused by the use of fossil fuels, it is aimed to change the current system of centralized generation and achieve a more distributed one; distributed resources can use renewable or non-renewable resources as main source of energy, one way to implement these distributed systems is through micro electrical grids, since these allow improving energy efficiency. The way to efficiently implement this type of network is an important point to be solved in future research and even more if the way of conducting an electricity market for different communities is unknown. That is why this text presents the characteristics of microgrids, the management of microgrids, and the wide and promising panorama of future opportunities for a great development of this type of grid.
DATABASES ANALYSIS OF HYDROPOWER RESOURCE POTENTIAL AROUND THE GLOBEEEIJ journal
The renewable generation is one of the fast growing power system .Whereas the world is facing the
challenge of effectively exploiting and utilizing renewable energy resources, not only to meet the increasing
energy demand, but also to preserve and to reduce the depletion of fossil fuels and to lessen the amount of
CO2 emissions in our atmosphere .The national energy generation resources of every country plays an
important role in the development. The energy transition is well underway in most European countries. It
has a growing impact on electric power systems as it dramatically modifies the way electricity is produced.
In this paper, our focus is to perform a systematic review of hydropower resource potential around the
Globe. In this study we will address three research queries: 1) what is the existing status of hydropower
resource potential around the globe? 2) What kind of methodologies frameworks and approaches are used
for exploiting and utilizing renewable energy resources 3) What are the limitations of exploiting renewable
resource potentials. The purpose of the study is to highlight the current research issues, to provide valid
solutions to these issues and to find out the limitations of existing work in this area of hydropower resource
potential. This will be done by performing quantitative literature analysis of different databases and all the
results will be gathered by analysing the statistical data using “SPSS”. Remedial techniques for handling
the limitation of usability engineering management will be planned in future.
This interim report analyzes economics of natural gas monetization options for Cyprus following the 2011 discovery of the Aphrodite gas field. It evaluates liquefied natural gas (LNG), a submarine pipeline to Greece, compressed natural gas (CNG) marine transport, and gas-to-chemicals conversion. The full study will also include general equilibrium gas market modeling and integrated analysis of monetization options under global gas scenarios. This report focuses on the economics of different project development pathways using a discounted cash flow model.
The document discusses solutions to power generation shortages in Nigeria using solar energy. It finds that providing reliable power for manufacturing activities through solar energy backup is much cheaper and safer than using generator backup. Specifically:
- The average cost per unit of power consumption is N59.29 for solar, N20.88 for grid electricity, and N83.50 for generators.
- Nigeria receives abundant sunlight and has potential to harness solar energy, yet has underutilized its renewable resources due to overreliance on fossil fuels and lack of infrastructure development.
- Reliably powering industries through solar could help solve Nigeria's power shortages more effectively than the current reliance on expensive, polluting generators.
De-risking Renewable Energy InvestmentsLászló Árvai
With increasing costs of installation in traditional fossil fuels, Renewable Energy resources are becoming more and more competitive and a new era is emerging on the global energy market.
Global renewable energy capacity and production increased substantially in 2014. Key findings include:
- Renewables accounted for 19.1% of global final energy consumption and supplied 22.8% of global electricity demand.
- A total of $270 billion was invested globally in renewable energy projects in 2014.
- At least 164 countries had renewable energy targets and 145 had policies supporting renewables.
- Solar PV capacity increased by 40 GW to a total of 177 GW globally led by China, Japan, and the U.S. Wind power capacity rose by 51 GW to 370 GW total led by China, the U.S., and Germany.
This document discusses energy scenarios for Sweden from 1970 to the present. It provides an overview of past Swedish energy scenarios and scenario methodologies. It then identifies 15 critical elements to examine in a new 2020+ scenario project, such as minimizing energy use, transforming transport energy, and adapting the electric grid for renewables. The document proposes using "negotiated modelling" and "negotiated simulation" approaches, which engage stakeholders more directly in the scenario development process. Finally, it outlines six comparative case studies on topics like electric vehicles and "prosumers" that will be used in an energy scenarios course between Sweden and Scotland.
There are two main sources of energy: conventional and non-conventional. Conventional sources include wood, flowing water, and fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Non-conventional sources consist of solar, wind, biomass, ocean, geothermal, and nuclear energy. Various institutions collect data on worldwide energy consumption and production. Energy policy governs a country's approach to energy development, production, distribution, and consumption through legislation, treaties, and economic incentives and disincentives. A country's energy policy establishes goals for self-sufficiency, future energy sources and consumption, environmental standards, and mechanisms to implement the overall policy.
The Strategic Energy Technology Plan: at the heart of energy R&I in EuropeNuno Quental
The Strategic Energy Technology (SET) Plan document outlines the key milestones in the 10-year history of the SET Plan, which was established to help reshape Europe's energy future and accelerate the clean energy transition. The SET Plan aims to develop new technologies through breakthrough research to meet climate change goals and reduce costs. It focuses R&I funding on priority technologies and leverages cooperation across European countries and the private sector. Over the past decade, renewable energy costs have declined significantly while deployment has increased substantially in Europe, putting the EU in a leading global position for many clean energy sectors. However, greater ambition is still needed to achieve emissions reduction targets.
This document summarizes a study conducted by the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) on the system costs of decarbonizing electricity generation with high shares of nuclear power and renewables. The study models eight scenarios with different technology mixes to achieve a 50g CO2/kWh target by 2050. It finds that a balanced mix of variable renewables, nuclear, and other dispatchable generation results in the lowest system costs. High shares of variable renewables increase costs due to integration challenges, though these costs can be reduced through policies that value reliability and flexibility. The study provides policymakers with insights on cost-effectively achieving deep decarbonization of the electricity sector.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
Tetsunari Iida: Can Japan Achieve a Sustainable Future without Nuclear Energy?
In the aftermath of the 3.11 Fukushima nuclear crisis, the long-term viability of the nuclear industry in Japan has been called into question, with a dynamic anti-nuclear social movement challenging the Japanese government's response to the crisis. While this movement initially enlisted tens of thousands of people, many of whom had not previously engaged in political activism, as time has passed, the anti-nuclear movement has failed to gain ground against the entrenched forces of conservative politics, even while anti-nuclear sentiment remains strong. A central moment in this process was the recent elections, which returned the Liberal Democratic party to power on a nationalist agenda that included plans to restart all of Japan's reactors, and even build new ones.
In contrast to the back-to-the-future politics of the LDP, the anti-nuclear candidate Tetsunari Iida, who ran for governor of Yamaguchi Prefecture, has called for a fundamental rethinking of Japan's energy policy away from nuclear energy to renewable forms that are more environmentally friendly. Although Mr. Iida experienced a setback in the 2012 elections, losing to a conservative candidate who was backed by the LDP, his campaign raised a number of issues for consideration that had not been previously addressed, invigorating the anti-nuclear movement throughout Japan.
For this presentation, Mr. Iida will discuss the political dysfunction that contributed to the nuclear crisis, and offer an alternate vision that has raised widespread support among a public alienated from mainstream politics, offering hope for a safer and more ecologically sustainable future.
The document outlines a regional consultation meeting to discuss science, technology and innovation (STI) for promoting renewable energy technologies in Asia and the Pacific. The meeting will support preparations for the 2013 UN Economic and Social Council Annual Ministerial Review on using STI to achieve sustainable development goals. It will facilitate an exchange of experiences on effective STI policies to promote renewable energy and identify regional priorities. The expected outcomes include an analytical summary of best practices to submit to the Annual Ministerial Review and potential new partnerships to announce.
In the present generation energy plays a vital role in our world and for human life it´s very important factor. There is a methodical meeting taking place regarding the conservation of energy and every time there is a review in the agenda. Energy demand and supply were endeavored by these countries. To rectify these problems, there should be more research in the generation of energy with the greater efficiency and try to use energy in more efficient manner. Solar energy remains as the most prominent source of energy as it is cost effective and environmentally friendly. Reviews convey that solar energy systems will play a major role in the power generations. As per present scenario there is a great importance to the solar energy using photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic systems exhibit an important role for solar energy production.
The document discusses renewable energy readiness in Nigeria. It finds that while Nigeria has abundant renewable resources like solar, wind, and hydro, current utilization is still low apart from large hydro projects. Projections show electricity demand rising dramatically by 2030. Meeting this demand will require major investment that the government cannot provide alone. The document recommends encouraging private sector investment and developing renewables on a large scale. Key agencies in Nigeria like REA and NERC are working to promote mini-grids and a supportive regulatory environment to develop renewable energy.
Sustainable development model of geothermal energyAlexander Decker
1) The document discusses a conceptual model for sustainable development of geothermal energy in Indonesia based on a case study of the Darajat Geothermal Power Plant.
2) It analyzes the economic feasibility and sustainability of geothermal energy development through methods like net present value calculation, multi-dimensional scaling, and interpretative structural modeling.
3) The analysis results are used to develop a conceptual model for sustainable geothermal energy development that includes a management system, funding support, management actors, and regulation management.
Sustainable energy in India: A Paradigm ShiftAdarsh Tripathi
This presentation briefly introduces with the current scenario of Sustainable & Renewable Energy in India. It also includes various government policies & various case studies from the very remote villages & locations of India.
THE STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES DEPLOYMENT IN THE CZECH R...Riobras CZ s.r.o.
As part of the EU common energy policy adopted in 2007, the Czech Republic has established a commitment to achieve an 8% share of electricity generated from renewable energy sources (RES) in domestic electricity generation by 2010 and achieve a share of 13% of energy made from RES per final consumption before 2020. This contribution suggests a balanced scorecard (BSC) model aimed to set up a group of strategic objectives, initiatives, key performance indicators (KPIs) and targets that can be adopted in the Czech Republic in order to foster a sustainable deployment of renewable energy technologies. The model provides a strategy map showing four perspectives over which the objectives are organized and aligned through a cause-effect relation: Learning and Development, Energy Supply Systems, Energy Services Consumers, and Welfare.
Jurnal Internasional – Dampak Energi Terbarukan Terhadap Ketenagakerjaan di I...Dani Gunawan
Sebuah permintaan global untuk energi telah memaksa banyak negara untuk mencari energi alternatif dan terbarukan . Efek diantisipasi pengembangan terbarukan adalah peningkatan lapangan kerja sebagai bagian dari penciptaan lapangan pekerjaan hijau baru , manfaat besar bagi Indonesia untuk mengatasi tingkat pengangguran yang tinggi . Makalah ini menjelaskan dampak pengembangan energi terbarukan pada penciptaan lapangan kerja di Indonesia .
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Australia needs an energy sector that addresses the ‘energy trilemma’ – that is to say it must provide energy security, affordability and environmental sustainability. After a period of relative stability, significant change in the energy sector can be expected in coming years due to the need to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, together with the rapid pace of technological development occurring in the sector.
This roadmap seeks to help policy and other decision makers navigate this change by highlighting the key technologies that Australia can draw on as it endeavours to address the energy trilemma. It also identifies the barriers to these technologies and the potential enablers that may be called on to overcome them. Lastly, the roadmap identifies the key commercial opportunities for industry that low emissions technologies in the energy sector can provide.
Australia’s emissions reduction target On 10 November 2016, Australia ratified the Paris Agreement, committing to achieve a 26-28% reduction in GHG emissions below 2005 levels by 2030. The Paris Agreement also requires signatories to strengthen their abatement efforts over time with the overarching goal of limiting the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. The Paris Agreement also recognises that the world will need to achieve zero net emissions in the second half of the century.To achieve this level of decarbonisation, Australia will need to adopt a multi-faceted approach, primarily targeting emissions reduction in the land and energy sectors. The energy sector, which is the focus of this roadmap, will play a key role given it accounts for 79% of Australia’s emissions.
Over the last decade, the liberalization of the electricity market has been sought. In order to fight the environmental impact caused by the use of fossil fuels, it is aimed to change the current system of centralized generation and achieve a more distributed one; distributed resources can use renewable or non-renewable resources as main source of energy, one way to implement these distributed systems is through micro electrical grids, since these allow improving energy efficiency. The way to efficiently implement this type of network is an important point to be solved in future research and even more if the way of conducting an electricity market for different communities is unknown. That is why this text presents the characteristics of microgrids, the management of microgrids, and the wide and promising panorama of future opportunities for a great development of this type of grid.
DATABASES ANALYSIS OF HYDROPOWER RESOURCE POTENTIAL AROUND THE GLOBEEEIJ journal
The renewable generation is one of the fast growing power system .Whereas the world is facing the
challenge of effectively exploiting and utilizing renewable energy resources, not only to meet the increasing
energy demand, but also to preserve and to reduce the depletion of fossil fuels and to lessen the amount of
CO2 emissions in our atmosphere .The national energy generation resources of every country plays an
important role in the development. The energy transition is well underway in most European countries. It
has a growing impact on electric power systems as it dramatically modifies the way electricity is produced.
In this paper, our focus is to perform a systematic review of hydropower resource potential around the
Globe. In this study we will address three research queries: 1) what is the existing status of hydropower
resource potential around the globe? 2) What kind of methodologies frameworks and approaches are used
for exploiting and utilizing renewable energy resources 3) What are the limitations of exploiting renewable
resource potentials. The purpose of the study is to highlight the current research issues, to provide valid
solutions to these issues and to find out the limitations of existing work in this area of hydropower resource
potential. This will be done by performing quantitative literature analysis of different databases and all the
results will be gathered by analysing the statistical data using “SPSS”. Remedial techniques for handling
the limitation of usability engineering management will be planned in future.
This interim report analyzes economics of natural gas monetization options for Cyprus following the 2011 discovery of the Aphrodite gas field. It evaluates liquefied natural gas (LNG), a submarine pipeline to Greece, compressed natural gas (CNG) marine transport, and gas-to-chemicals conversion. The full study will also include general equilibrium gas market modeling and integrated analysis of monetization options under global gas scenarios. This report focuses on the economics of different project development pathways using a discounted cash flow model.
The document discusses solutions to power generation shortages in Nigeria using solar energy. It finds that providing reliable power for manufacturing activities through solar energy backup is much cheaper and safer than using generator backup. Specifically:
- The average cost per unit of power consumption is N59.29 for solar, N20.88 for grid electricity, and N83.50 for generators.
- Nigeria receives abundant sunlight and has potential to harness solar energy, yet has underutilized its renewable resources due to overreliance on fossil fuels and lack of infrastructure development.
- Reliably powering industries through solar could help solve Nigeria's power shortages more effectively than the current reliance on expensive, polluting generators.
De-risking Renewable Energy InvestmentsLászló Árvai
With increasing costs of installation in traditional fossil fuels, Renewable Energy resources are becoming more and more competitive and a new era is emerging on the global energy market.
Global renewable energy capacity and production increased substantially in 2014. Key findings include:
- Renewables accounted for 19.1% of global final energy consumption and supplied 22.8% of global electricity demand.
- A total of $270 billion was invested globally in renewable energy projects in 2014.
- At least 164 countries had renewable energy targets and 145 had policies supporting renewables.
- Solar PV capacity increased by 40 GW to a total of 177 GW globally led by China, Japan, and the U.S. Wind power capacity rose by 51 GW to 370 GW total led by China, the U.S., and Germany.
This document discusses energy scenarios for Sweden from 1970 to the present. It provides an overview of past Swedish energy scenarios and scenario methodologies. It then identifies 15 critical elements to examine in a new 2020+ scenario project, such as minimizing energy use, transforming transport energy, and adapting the electric grid for renewables. The document proposes using "negotiated modelling" and "negotiated simulation" approaches, which engage stakeholders more directly in the scenario development process. Finally, it outlines six comparative case studies on topics like electric vehicles and "prosumers" that will be used in an energy scenarios course between Sweden and Scotland.
There are two main sources of energy: conventional and non-conventional. Conventional sources include wood, flowing water, and fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Non-conventional sources consist of solar, wind, biomass, ocean, geothermal, and nuclear energy. Various institutions collect data on worldwide energy consumption and production. Energy policy governs a country's approach to energy development, production, distribution, and consumption through legislation, treaties, and economic incentives and disincentives. A country's energy policy establishes goals for self-sufficiency, future energy sources and consumption, environmental standards, and mechanisms to implement the overall policy.
The Strategic Energy Technology Plan: at the heart of energy R&I in EuropeNuno Quental
The Strategic Energy Technology (SET) Plan document outlines the key milestones in the 10-year history of the SET Plan, which was established to help reshape Europe's energy future and accelerate the clean energy transition. The SET Plan aims to develop new technologies through breakthrough research to meet climate change goals and reduce costs. It focuses R&I funding on priority technologies and leverages cooperation across European countries and the private sector. Over the past decade, renewable energy costs have declined significantly while deployment has increased substantially in Europe, putting the EU in a leading global position for many clean energy sectors. However, greater ambition is still needed to achieve emissions reduction targets.
This document summarizes a study conducted by the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) on the system costs of decarbonizing electricity generation with high shares of nuclear power and renewables. The study models eight scenarios with different technology mixes to achieve a 50g CO2/kWh target by 2050. It finds that a balanced mix of variable renewables, nuclear, and other dispatchable generation results in the lowest system costs. High shares of variable renewables increase costs due to integration challenges, though these costs can be reduced through policies that value reliability and flexibility. The study provides policymakers with insights on cost-effectively achieving deep decarbonization of the electricity sector.
A Comparative Analysis of Renewable Energy Policies and its Impact on Economi...ssuser793b4e
Renewable energy has been identified as a critical component of
global efforts to address climate change, enhance energy security, and foster
sustainable economic growth. As a result, many countries have implemented
renewable energy policies to promote the development and deployment of
renewable energy technologies. However, the impact of these policies on
economic growth remains a subject of debate. This article provides a
comparative analysis of renewable energy policies and their impact on
economic growth. The study employs a systematic review of the literature and
utilizes qualitative and quantitative methods to compare renewable energy
policies and their economic impacts across different countries. The findings
suggest that the impact of renewable energy policies on economic growth
varies across countries and is influenced by factors such as policy design,
institutional context, and economic structure. This research article finally,
examined the challenges associated with implementing renewable energy
policies, analyzed the implications of the findings for policymakers and
further gave some potential solutions that will help the policymakers and
future researchers
This document discusses the present status and future challenges of wind energy education and industry collaboration in the EU-28. It finds that while wind power installation reached new highs in 2014, current wind energy education in European universities and training centers lags behind the rapid growth of the wind power industry. The document examines opportunities for and priorities in wind energy education, training, and innovation to help develop the skilled workforce needed to achieve ambitious wind energy targets and ensure the continued growth of the industry.
Background Report on Global prospects for fossil fuels with special reference...Moises Covarrubias
This document provides a summary of a report on global prospects for fossil fuels with reference to resource rent effects and carbon capture and storage (CCS). It outlines key projections from the IEA's World Energy Outlook 2014 including continued growth in global energy demand and a slowly declining but still prominent role for fossil fuels. It questions the assumptions in the IEA projections and argues that prospects for fossil fuels may be worse from a normative perspective aiming to limit climate change. Reduced demand for fossil fuel imports could benefit EU geopolitical stability. While CCS applied to gas may be compatible with climate targets, CCS on coal plants likely cannot reduce emissions enough.
External Costs: Socio-Environmental Damages due to Electricity and TransportElisaMendelsohn
The document discusses the methodology used to calculate external costs, which are socio-environmental damages caused by electricity generation and transport. It describes the impact pathway approach used, which follows emissions through air, soil, and water to physical impacts on health, crops, buildings, and ecosystems, and then monetizes these impacts. Seven major types of damages are assessed, including effects on mortality, health, crops, materials, and global warming. The methodology involves comparing scenarios with and without the emissions to determine marginal impacts and costs avoided by reducing emissions. Uncertainty is higher for impacts like global warming, so alternative approaches like avoidance costs are also used.
Jochem 2002 Steps towards a 2000 Watt-Society Ex Summmorosini1952
Jochem E. et al (2002) Steps towards a 2000 Watt-Society. Developing a White Paper on Research & Development of Energy-Efficient Technologies - Executive Summary - 19 p.
Executive summary
In the coming decades, the threat and consequences of
climate change and of the re-concentration of crude oil
production in the Near East will compel industrialised nations
to make much more efficient use of energy. R&D that helps
realise energy efficiency potentials is likely to be regarded as
important in scientific, entrepreneurial, and political realms.
Demand for highly energy-efficient technologies will rise
steeply, and firms that can provide them will prosper. The
identification of energy-efficient technologies and related
energy conservation potentials undertaken in this pre-study is
a first step toward designing a R&D strategy that is consistent
with the need to evolve towards a 2000 Watt per capita society.
Reaching this level by 2050 implies reducing primary energy
use from 1200 to 460 PJ per year, despite a projected 65%
economic expansion.
Jochem, Eberhard; Favrat, Daniel; Hungerbühler, Konrad; Spreng, Daniel; von Rohr, Philippe-Rudolf; Wokaun, Alexander; Zimmermann, Mark
The document provides an overview of the International Energy Agency (IEA), including its mission to enhance energy reliability, affordability and sustainability. It lists the 31 member countries and 11 association countries of the IEA and notes the IEA examines issues across the full spectrum of energy through its work.
2022 GGSD Forum- Session 3 Scene Setter-Alessandra ColecchiaOECD Environment
Scene-setting presentation by Alessandra Colecchia, Head of Division, Science and Technology Policy, OECD at the 2022 GGSD Forum, Session 3 "International co-operation to accelerate green technology innovation and transfer"
A continuación la introducción que brinda By Hai-Vu Phan, Dra. en Filosofía por la University of Southern California:
"Todos los países enfrentan intereses arraigados cuando los líderes políticos buscan un cambio significativo en las políticas, y en ninguna parte es esto más obvio que en la búsqueda de adoptar energías renovables (solar, eólica, geotérmica, etc.). A pesar de la poderosa oposición interna, Perú aprobó recientemente su primera política para la producción de electricidad a gran escala utilizando energía renovable, el Decreto Legislativo (LD) 1002, en 2008".
Sustainability is a key driver of many developments world-wide,
and quite notably for power systems, t, thanks to the December
2015 Paris Agreement on climate protection with its actionable
worldwide consensus and the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) adopted by the United Nations in September 2015.
CIGRE, as the ‘global expert community for electric power
systems’, must and wants to support is engaged in supporting
the SDGs, the Paris Agreement, and sustainability in general, and
pursues sustainable electricity for all.
This Reference Paper describes how CIGRE contributes
to global sustainability and the SDGs, partly by adhering
to sustainable organizational practices itself, but even more
importantly by supporting many SDGs through its global work
related to energy, emissions, and climate change. This paper thus
lays the foundation to focus CIGRE’s work more systematically
on sustainability; and for the Technical Council to include
further aspects of sustainability in the next strategic plan on
which CIGRE’s work should focus.
This document provides an overview of Horizon 2020, the EU's research and innovation program. It discusses the background and context of EU policy, including the Europe 2020 strategy. Horizon 2020 has a total budget of nearly €80 billion and is structured around three main pillars: excellent science, industrial leadership, and societal challenges. Funding is available for projects that demonstrate new technologies and help move them to higher levels of technical readiness. Successful proposals clearly address an important European issue, demonstrate potential impact in terms of economic, social, and political returns, and have strong plans for disseminating and exploiting results.
A Comprehensive Assessment Of Solar Photovoltaic Technologies Literature ReviewSean Flores
This document provides a literature review of methods used to assess solar photovoltaic technologies from multiple perspectives. It summarizes 178 research papers on this topic and groups them into three themes: observing gaps in perspectives considered and criteria used, reviewing multi-criteria decision modeling approaches, and reviewing solar photovoltaic technologies and systems. The literature analysis found that while technical and economic perspectives are most commonly considered, few studies comprehensively address all five social, technological, economic, environmental, and political perspectives (STEEP). It also found that decision models often use broad criteria that are difficult to apply in practice and no research specifically defines criteria for solar PV technologies.
This report analyzes over 1.6 million research publications from 2001-2020 related to clean energy and achieving net zero emissions (NØEnergy research). Key findings include:
- The share of publications in NØEnergy research has risen from 1% of total research output in 2001 to 5% in 2020.
- China's research output in this field has increased year-on-year since 2001 and surpassed the US in 2012, though the US remains a significant player.
- NØEnergy research requires a multidisciplinary approach as energy challenges are complex with social, economic, policy and technical dimensions.
- While indicators are positive, more urgent and coordinated global research efforts are needed
The document summarizes the vision, mission, business portfolio, and current projects of the International Energy Unit (IEU), a subsidiary of CPI International Group focused on renewable energy and sustainability solutions. IEU aims to develop next-generation technologies to address global needs for energy, water, and food through commercializing renewable energy and sustainability technologies. Currently, IEU is developing two solar PV panel manufacturing plants with a total 300MW annual capacity and eight solar power plants totaling 1,200MW capacity by 2023 in Turkey and Qatar, requiring $1.6 billion investment. IEU is also negotiating acquisition of a leading PV panel manufacturing technology.
The document discusses solar energy technologies and their potential role in the global energy system. It begins by outlining the abundant solar resource and how its energy can be captured through thermal and photovoltaic means. It then examines solar electricity technologies like photovoltaics and concentrating solar power, finding that solar electricity could meet a substantial share of global electricity demand by 2050 according to modeled scenarios. The document also explores using solar energy in buildings for applications like water and space heating. Overall, it presents solar energy as a promising renewable resource that could make significant contributions to global energy needs if supported by appropriate policies.
The document discusses solar energy technologies and their potential role in the global energy system. It begins by outlining the abundant solar resource and how its energy can be captured through thermal and photovoltaic means. It then examines solar electricity technologies like photovoltaics and concentrating solar power, finding that solar electricity could meet a substantial share of global electricity demand by 2050 according to modeled scenarios. The document also explores using solar energy in buildings for applications like water and space heating. Overall, it presents solar energy as a promising renewable resource that could make significant contributions to global energy needs if supported by appropriate policies.
TOO4TO Module 4 / Sustainable Energy Solutions: Part 2TOO4TO
This presentation is part of the Sustainable Management: Tools for Tomorrow (TOO4TO) learning materials. It covers the following topic: Sustainable Energy Solutions (Module 4). The material consists of 3 parts. This presentation covers Part 2.
You can find all TOO4TO Modules and their presentations here: https://too4to.eu/e-learning-course/
TOO4TO was a 35-month EU-funded Erasmus+ project, running until August 2023 in co-operation with European strategic partner institutions of the Gdańsk University of Technology (Poland), the Kaunas University of Technology (Lithuania), Turku University of Applied Sciences (Finland) and Global Impact Grid (Germany).
TOO4TO aims to increase the skills, competencies and awareness of future managers and employees with available tools and methods that can provide sustainable management and, as a result, support sustainable development in the EU and beyond.
Read more about the project here: https://too4to.eu/
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. Its whole content reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. PROJECT NUMBER 2020-1-PL01-KA203-082076
IRJET- A Review Paper on Net Zero Energy BuildingIRJET Journal
This document provides a review of net zero energy buildings. It discusses 7 papers on the topic that focus on implementing net zero energy buildings in New Delhi, examining the concept of net zero through case studies, reviewing the net zero energy building movement in India, discussing incentives and standards needed to promote net zero, and analyzing the energy efficiency opportunities in buildings. The document also outlines the work of the International Energy Agency to develop a common definition for net zero energy buildings and identifies passive design approaches and multifunctional envelopes as important design considerations for net zero buildings.
This document proposes forming a federation called the "Union of Vishal Desh" between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. It argues that since Germany was able to reunite after being divided, the three South Asian countries could also unite in a peaceful federation. The federation would consist of a constituent assembly with members from each country. Separate constitutions for each country would exist along with a common constitution for the federation. Travel between the countries would not require visas. Problems like the Kashmir dispute could be resolved by merging the regions and developing the Kashmiri language.
This document provides an overview of James Allen's book "The Way of Peace" which discusses different meditation techniques for achieving spiritual peace. It describes the power of meditation, acquiring spiritual power through meditation on concepts like love, forgiveness and purity. It recommends meditating in the morning when the mind is most receptive. The goal of meditation is to realize one's true divine self and experience spiritual revelations and bliss.
This document provides an overview of coal gasification. It discusses the purposes and benefits of converting coal to gas. Integrated coal gasification combined cycle is highlighted as an important application due to its high efficiency and potential to meet emission standards. The document outlines coal gasification reactions, thermodynamics, and kinetics. It also describes several categories of gasification processes and provides details on key moving bed, fluidized bed, and entrained bed gasification technologies.
This document discusses various types of renewable energy sources including sunlight, wind, rain, geothermal heat, hydroelectricity, biomass, and others. It provides statistics on current global usage of renewables such as 13% of energy coming from traditional biomass. The document also focuses in more detail on certain renewable technologies for energy generation including wind power, hydroelectric power, solar energy, biofuels, wave power, and geothermal power. It provides examples of each technology and their advantages for sustainable energy production.
Human society faces potential existential threats from climate change, overpopulation, disease, and natural disasters in the coming decades and centuries. The document outlines several predictions including the collapse of the US financial system by 2012 leading to societal chaos, as well as rising global temperatures causing severe weather events, extinction of species, changing disease vectors, and rising sea levels. Mitigating climate change through reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to renewable energy is discussed as key to ensuring human survival.
- Bihar is located in northeast India, bordering Nepal. It has a population of over 100 million and its capital and largest city is Patna.
- Historically, Bihar was an important center of learning with ancient universities like Nalanda. However, many centers of learning were destroyed during invasions in medieval times.
- Bihar has experienced slow development and high poverty rates. However, in recent years the state government has prioritized improving infrastructure, education, healthcare, and implementing e-governance programs to boost the economy and human development.
This document provides an overview of Bihar, a state in eastern India. Some key points:
- Bihar has a population of over 100 million and relies heavily on agriculture, with rice as a main crop.
- Literacy rates have improved but still lag behind the national average. Efforts are being made to strengthen education.
- The state has significant historical and religious sites but has struggled with poverty and lack of development.
- Under current leadership, Bihar has experienced economic growth over 10% annually by focusing on infrastructure, irrigation, and technology. However, challenges around education, healthcare, and rural development remain.
This document discusses several topics related to India's history, politics, and economy. It provides background on important Indian leaders and industrialists like JRD Tata, GD Birla, and Mahatma Gandhi. It also summarizes key events like India gaining independence, the linguistic reorganization of states, economic reforms in the 1990s, and prime ministers from 1984-2014. Overall, the document provides a broad overview of India's development as a nation from the 20th century to modern times.
ABCs of Desalting of water to recover water as well as salt.H Janardan Prabhu
This document provides an overview of desalination technologies. It discusses the multi-stage flash distillation process, which accounts for the majority of desalination capacity worldwide. In multi-stage flash distillation, seawater is heated and then flashed into lower pressure stages to induce multiple boiling, producing fresh water. The document also briefly describes other major desalination processes like multiple effect distillation and reverse osmosis. It notes that membrane and thermal processes each make up about half of global desalination capacity. Overall, the document aims to introduce readers to common desalination technologies and their applications in producing fresh water from saline sources.
India made progress in several areas from 2004-2014 such as agriculture, irrigation, science, space, and technology. However, economic growth slowed after the 2008 global financial crisis. In 2021, India faced a severe second wave of the Covid-19 pandemic with high case numbers and deaths straining the health system. Narendra Modi and the BJP won elections in 2014 on promises of development and reducing corruption. However, by 2021 rising inflation and unemployment meant many Indians were still facing economic difficulties despite high GDP growth rates.
India is a sovereign democratic republic governed by a constitution adopted in 1950. Key goals were preserving unity while recognizing diversity, and strengthening democracy. The country was divided at independence, with parts becoming Pakistan. States were reorganized along linguistic lines to accommodate diversity. Economic policies initially focused on self-reliance and public sector development under Nehru, but reforms since the 1990s have liberalized and globalized the economy. Infrastructure development remains an ongoing need.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered one of the earliest works of literature. Dating back to around 2800 BCE, it tells the story of the semi-divine king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, in two parts. The first part describes Gilgamesh's heroic adventures with his friend Enkidu as they undertake quests. The second part is a spiritual journey as Gilgamesh searches for immortality after recognizing his own mortality. The poem explores themes of culture, friendship, and coming to terms with death that have influenced many later works.
This introduction provides guidance for studying English and American literature. It recommends focusing on major historical periods defined by towering literary figures. For England, these include Chaucer, Milton, Shakespeare, and Dickens. For America, suggestions include Edwards, Franklin, Emerson and Hawthorne. The introduction advises concentrating on one period, its authors, and genres. Alternatively, one could examine a period's influence on religion, commerce, politics or society. The goal is a harmonious understanding of literature's reflection of human thought and struggles over time.
This document discusses the pollution of the Ganges River in India and potential remedies. It notes that the Ganges is revered in Hinduism but has become heavily polluted due to waste from municipalities, industries, agriculture, and religious practices along its banks. Major factors contributing to pollution include sewage, industrial waste, use of pesticides, and solid waste. The Ganges Action Plan was launched in 1986 to help address this, including water quality monitoring. Technological solutions like water treatment plants and awareness campaigns are needed along with strict enforcement of laws and participation of local communities to successfully clean the river. Pollution has negatively impacted aquatic life and biodiversity in the river ecosystem.
Measures for prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution in river Ganga and to ensure continuous adequate flow of water so as to rejuvenate the river Ganga.
The document is a response from the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation to questions asked in Lok Sabha regarding projects for Ganga rejuvenation. It provides details of 231 short to medium term projects recently launched under the Namami Gange program, covering infrastructure like ghats and crematoria across 7 states. It also notes that state governments are responsible for land acquisition and removing encroachments for projects. Completion timelines for the projects range from 18-48 months. Additionally, the National River Conservation Plan covers pollution abatement in 31 non-Ganga rivers across 14 states.
The Ganga River is deeply sacred in Indian culture but has become severely polluted over time. The Ganga Action Plan (GAP), launched in 1986, aimed to clean up the Ganga but failed to achieve its objectives despite spending over $300 million. Key reasons for the GAP's failure include mismanagement, corruption, lack of enforcement, and dilution of water quality standards. A critical examination found that GAP needs an overhaul with concrete action plans and committed leadership to restore the health of the Ganga River.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
ACEP Magazine edition 4th launched on 05.06.2024Rahul
This document provides information about the third edition of the magazine "Sthapatya" published by the Association of Civil Engineers (Practicing) Aurangabad. It includes messages from current and past presidents of ACEP, memories and photos from past ACEP events, information on life time achievement awards given by ACEP, and a technical article on concrete maintenance, repairs and strengthening. The document highlights activities of ACEP and provides a technical educational article for members.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024)ClaraZara1
6th International Conference on Machine Learning & Applications (CMLA 2024) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of on Machine Learning & Applications.
Understanding Inductive Bias in Machine LearningSUTEJAS
This presentation explores the concept of inductive bias in machine learning. It explains how algorithms come with built-in assumptions and preferences that guide the learning process. You'll learn about the different types of inductive bias and how they can impact the performance and generalizability of machine learning models.
The presentation also covers the positive and negative aspects of inductive bias, along with strategies for mitigating potential drawbacks. We'll explore examples of how bias manifests in algorithms like neural networks and decision trees.
By understanding inductive bias, you can gain valuable insights into how machine learning models work and make informed decisions when building and deploying them.
4. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Foreword
Coherent R&D programmes for renewable energies are key elements in designing political strategies, not
only for renewable energies but also for carbon mitigation. Enhancing the dialogue between science and
policy is essential to achieve a consistent global approach which takes into account the maturity of the
different renewable energy technologies.
This ISPRE report discusses two selected renewable technologies: photovoltaic and wind energy. Along with
biomass, these are the technologies that are currently considered to have the greatest sustainable potential
and widest applicability. Biomass is the subject of a separate preliminary report prepared by ISPRE. It is
recognised that other renewable technologies, such as solar thermal power plants, solar thermal heating
and cooling, geothermal energy, hydropower and marine energy (wave and tidal power) will also make a
contribution to future global energy supplies.
This report (i) highlights the importance of R&D in renewable energy technologies, (ii) addresses the
potential of the two selected technologies to contribute to a global sustainable energy supply system and
(iii) gives detailed directions for further research and development.
The report shows how unevenly R&D activities in renewables are distributed worldwide. It argues that
strong national and international efforts are necessary to establish and foster R&D in renewable energies in
almost every country or region of the world.
ii
5. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
ISPRE members, 2007–2009 and authors of this report
Andrew BLAKERS
Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems
The Australian National University, Canberra
Patrick DEVINE-WRIGHT
School of Environment and Development
The University of Manchester, United Kingdom
Decio Luiz GAZZONI
Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária,
Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de Soja, Londrina, Brazil
Anne Grete HESTNES (Vice Chair)
Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim
Evans KITUYI
Industrial Ecology Group
University of Nairobi, Kenya
Jan KRETZSCHMAR
University of Antwerp, Belgium
International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences (CAETS)
Joachim LUTHER (Chair)
Solar Energy Research Institute of Singapore (SERIS)
National University of Singapore
James MANWELL
Wind Energy Center
University of Massachusetts, USA
H.S. MUKUNDA
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
Carlos ROLZ
Academia de Ciencias de Guatemala
Universidad del Valle
Jim SKEA
UK Energy Research Centre, London
Eduard VOLKOV
Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow
WANG Zhifeng
Solar Energy Laboratory
Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing
Masafumi YAMAGUCHI
Toyota Technological Institute
Nagoya, Japan
iii
6.
7. Foreword
Executive Summary and Recommendations
1. Introduction
2. Photovoltaics
Summary
Introduction
Research and Development Activities
Research and Development Institutions
Industrial Activities
Directions for Future Research and Development
3. Wind
Summary
Introduction
Research and Development Activities
Research and Development Institutions
Industrial Activities
Directions for Future Research and Development
4. References
List of Abbreviations
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5
8
10
12
13
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24
27
27
30
32
Contents
v
8. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Executive Summary and Recommendations
1. Renewable energy sources have a huge contribution to make in creating a sustainable energy system.
They help to mitigate climate change, increase the security of our global energy supply system and give
developing countries access to affordable energy in support of the UN Millennium Development Goals.
2. Renewable energy could meet almost half of global energy demand by 2050 according to the
International Energy Agency’s ambitious BLUE MAP scenario published in Energy Technology Perspectives
2008. Under this scenario, world greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are halved. By the end of the century, it
is conceivable that global energy needs could be supplied mainly from renewable sources, although their
contribution would vary from one region to another.
3. Research and development (R&D) has a vital role to play if the potential of renewable energy is to be
fully exploited. Policy measures, such as taxes, cap and trade schemes, obligations and feed-in tariffs, which
take into account environmental impacts and, in particular, the social cost of carbon dioxide emissions,
will contribute to faster deployment. However, investment in R&D will not be delivered by market signals
alone; extensive support at the national and international levels is needed to accelerate the development of
renewable technologies.
4. R&D targeted at different stages of the innovation chain will yield benefits in the short-term (up to five
years), medium-term (5–15 years); and in the longer term (15 years plus).
5. R&D with a short-term focus is needed to improve technologies that are already technically proven.
More mature technologies include wind energy and the standard silicon-based conversion of solar energy
to electricity in photovoltaic (PV) cells. Strong industries are already associated with these technologies and
government deployment measures in several countries are helping to drive rapid market growth.
6. Much R&D with a short-term perspective will be provided by industry itself. But research activity in
publicly-funded institutions (universities, laboratories and institutes) will also be needed. This will provide
basic scientific insights and respond to the more fundamental science, engineering and socio-economic
challenges that are inevitably thrown up in the process of demonstrating and deploying new technologies.
7. R&D with a medium and long-term perspective is needed to underpin long-term improvements in
renewable technologies and enable breakthroughs that could give such technologies a decisive advantage
in energy markets. The medium-term goal must be to ensure that renewables can compete successfully,
without subsidy, once external environmental costs and other contributions to social goals (e.g. access,
security) are taken into account. Medium- or long-term R&D efforts in this area will largely be developed
through public sector support.
8. Regardless of whether R&D is conducted with a long or short-term perspective, it must contribute to
improved performance and cost reductions or otherwise help to reinforce the role of renewable energy in a
sustainable energy system. Areas of focus for R&D activity should be:
improved performance, including conversion efficiency, reliability, durability and lifetime;
•
•
advanced manufacturing techniques for components;
•
•
reduced material requirements, especially for toxic materials;
•
•
sustainable production processes that minimise life-cycle environmental impacts through
•
•
manufacturing, use, recycling and final disposal;
improved methods for integrating renewable energy into buildings, electricity grids and other
•
•
distribution systems;
vi
9. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
socio-economic research aimed at developing effective policy measures that will encourage the
•
•
deployment of renewables and enhance public acceptability of new energy technologies; and
capacity-building aimed at developing new generations of trained scientists, engineers and others.
•
•
9. The deployment of renewable energy is distributed very unevenly round the world. The distribution of
R&D in renewables is similarly uneven. R&D is dominated by a small number of industrialised countries
(Japan, USA, Germany), though developing countries such as China, India, and Brazil are playing an
increasingly important role. The current pattern of activities in terms of industries, markets and R&D could
become a main obstacle to the widespread take-up of renewable energy technologies.
10. Fostering competences in the deployment and development of renewable energy technologies across a
wide range of countries is a prerequisite if ambitious visions for future sustainable energy systems are to be
realised. This will ensure that countries at a critical stage of development do not have to suffer the financial
burden of importing knowledge and necessary hardware. R&D has a particular role to play in helping to
adapt technology to local needs and build capacity through the fostering of skills and local enterprise. Thus,
all countries can share the economic benefits associated with a transition to a sustainable energy system.
Recommendations
11. To underpin the long-term contribution of renewable energy to a sustainable energy system, R&D
activities need to be accelerated. There is a particular need to ensure that efforts are made across a range
of countries to support the wider deployment of modern renewables technologies. Existing R&D institutions
should be encouraged to undertake activities in the field of renewable energy.
12. The precise focus of enhanced R&D efforts will vary from one technology to another. Specific
recommendations are made here for the two technologies covered by this report, as well as for
cross-cutting R&D, crucial for establishing renewable energy as a major player in future sustainable energy
systems.
13. Photovoltaic (PV). The following research directions are critical for the development of PV:
Reduction in the consumption of silicon and other materials in conventional crystalline silicon
•
•
applications.
Novel high efficiency silicon device concepts.
•
•
Higher efficiency modules for thin-film applications based on silicon and other materials.
•
•
Nano-structured devices such as organic, organic/inorganic hybrid devices and dye cells.
•
•
Development of high quality transparent conductive oxides.
•
•
Improved power electronics to enhance output quality and the compatibility with smart grid
•
•
schemes.
Grid integration issues for high levels of penetration, including large distance DC transport.
•
•
High throughput, high yield, integrated processing with increased automation across all module
•
•
types.
Improved sustainability of production, including the use of recycled material, supported by life
•
•
cycle assessment studies.
14. Wind. The development of very large turbines and the move offshore are key research challenges. The
following research directions are critical:
Improved wind forecasting.
•
•
Fundamental design issues for very large turbines (up to 10 MW).
•
•
vii
10. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Development of support structures for offshore wind.
•
Grid integration issues for high levels of penetration, including transmission options for far offshore
•
turbines.
Analysis of offshore wind regimes and wind characteristics within large arrays.
•
Condition monitoring and remote maintenance options.
•
Environmental impacts and management offshore.
•
Interactions with telecommunications and radar systems.
•
Storage and fuel production for isolated networks.
•
Design of special purpose applications such as desalination or hydrogen production.
•
Public engagement/spatial planning issues.
•
15. There is also an urgent need for cross-cutting R&D to support the renewable contribution to a
sustainable energy system. This needs to cover the integration of renewables into energy networks, the
sustainable potential for and environmental impact of renewable energy, and socio-economic issues.
Priority topics include:
The integration of ‘non-dispatchable’ renewables into electricity grids and other distribution networks,
•
addressing issues such as energy storage, adaptive loads and the active management of networks.
The integration of renewables into buildings and other structures.
•
Storage and fuel production for isolated networks.
•
More reliable and specific information about the sustainable potential for renewable energy
•
globally and regionally.
The contribution of renewables to development goals, particularly in rural areas.
•
The social acceptability of renewable energy.
•
The environmental impacts of renewable energy.
•
The facilitation of knowledge transfer.
•
The development and evaluation of decision making support tools for policy makers.
•
The design of policy measures, regulatory arrangements and grid management procedures which
•
promote and take account of the particular characteristics of renewable energy.
16. Strategic research agendas (SRAs) should be established for all types of renewable energy and linked
to cross-cutting R&D. These will be essential for building capacity and making the most efficient use of
resources. At the national level, these agendas will need to take account of specific local and regional
characteristics. There is a need for agendas to be co-ordinated at an international level to ensure resource
efficiency and effective knowledge sharing.
17. SRAs need to contain road maps and specific quantitative milestones consistent with the overall goals
of energy policy. It is vital that the international scientific community, governments and the private sector
are engaged in the preparation of SRAs. Coherent plans should integrate short, medium and long-term
R&D needs and establish a clear path from basic research through to applied research, development,
demonstration and deployment.
18. International institutions should use existing networks and, where necessary, create new networks
to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and scientific personnel. Adequately resourced networks are
essential if a wide range of countries, particularly those in the developing world, are fully engaged in the
development and deployment of renewable energy.
viii
11. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
1. Introduction
A transformation of the global energy system is needed to:
Protect the global life-support system, especially by mitigating climate change.
•
Eradicate energy poverty in developing countries.
•
Reduce the risk of geopolitical conflicts over energy resources.
•
Establish a secure energy supply system.
•
Alongside major improvements in energy efficiency, energy conversion and transportation systems, the
extensive use of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind will make a major contribution to
future sustainable energy systems (Greenpeace/EREC, 2008; REN21, 2007; REN21, 2008; WBGU, 2003).
This transformation to a sustainable global energy system is urgent and sustained policy activity is essential.
This needs to take place at multiple levels, through, for example, international treaties, regulations,
development mechanisms and market deployment schemes. The latter is especially important because the
impact of today’s energy systems on our environment and climate is not sufficiently reflected in current
energy prices. This constitutes a severe market failure.
A number of studies have shown that the transformation to a sustainable energy system is technically and
economically feasible. However, different studies envisage different ways of achieving this.
The BLUE Map scenario in the International Energy Agency’s 2008 Energy Technology Perspectives Report
(IEA, 2008a) was developed to secure a 50% reduction in global CO2 emissions by 2050. According to
the IPCC (2007), however, emissions must be reduced by 50–85% to keep global temperature increases
between 2° and 2.4°C. Under the BLUE Map scenario, biomass accounts for around 23% of total world
primary energy in 2050 and becomes the most important energy source. Solar power and wind provide 11%
and 12% of global electricity production respectively (Figure 1.1).
The World Energy Vision 2100, developed by the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU,
2003), envisaged higher levels of energy demand and consequently renewables play an even greater role.
Under this scenario, solar electricity becomes the most important energy source, contributing about 20% of
world energy supply by 2050 and over 60% by 2100 (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.1: World fuel supply for Baseline, ACT Map and Blue Map, 2050 from IEA Energy Technology
Perspectives 2008 (IEA, 2008b).
1
12. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Figure 1.2: Transformation of the global energy supply system towards sustainability. Strict and comprehensive
sustainability criteria are applied. This scenario provides the chance to keep global concentrations of CO2
below 450ppm. Strong worldwide economic growth is assumed. A substantial increase in energy efficiency
is implemented. Extensive use of carbon capture and sequestration is required under this scenario as a
transitional technology. There is a phase-out of the use of nuclear energy. Only proven sustainable potentials
for renewable energy sources are used. Traded energies are shown in this graph; non-traded energy
contributions (like domestic applications of solar, biomass and geothermal sources) are accounted for under
‘energy efficiency’ (WBGU, 2003).
Strong and targeted activities in R&D are essential if a sustainable energy system is to be achieved. The
transformation of our global energy supply system will not be successful without progress in and regional
adaptation of today’s proven renewable energy technologies. Cost reductions, low material consumption,
recycling, new energy conversion schemes and extended technical lifetimes of the components are of
key importance. In addition, research has to focus on the socio-economic aspects of this unprecedented
transformation to our energy system.
In many areas such as photovoltaics (solar cells) and bioenergy fundamental research is key to finding
fundamentally new ways of converting solar energy.
To date, R&D activity in most countries has been targeted on specific technologies rather than being
comprehensive in scope. Such a division of activities can be seen as a characteristic of global co-operation.
However, given the pressing need to transform the global energy system, enhanced R&D programmes with
greater scope are needed in many—if not most—countries and regions across the world.
The establishment of sustainable energy systems calls for massive investment in renewable energy
technologies and energy efficiency. If the necessary knowledge and hardware has to be imported, many
countries will not be able to meet the short-term costs. Thus the evolution of energy systems needs to
be associated with income and job creation. The prerequisite for this is R&D, which forms the basis for
industrial activity, income and employment. R&D is particularly important for creating skilled personnel and
for supporting industrial activities at the regional level.
Technology transfer from highly industrialised countries to the developing world is also urgently needed,
particularly for renewable energy technologies. However, this knowledge transfer will not be sufficient to
create a worldwide sustainable energy system in the near future. Local issues, as mentioned above, must
first be addressed, at least in part, by local R&D, education and training. In addition, the global distribution
of intellectual property rights (IPR) could represent an obstacle to the transformation of our energy supply
systems. If adequate R&D platforms become more widely established this situation could be alleviated by
creating partnerships between IPR holders and local technology expertise.
2
13. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Of course, regional and local R&D must not be done in isolation. Global co-operation increases the
effectiveness and speed of knowledge generation and facilitates scientific exchange thus fostering a
shared understanding of the global challenges. By exploiting synergies, it also reduces the call on financial
resources.
This report: (i) draws attention to the uneven global distribution of R&D on sustainable energy systems; (ii)
underlines the consequent need for the swift and efficient transformation of today’s energy system; and (iii)
provides advice on critical R&D needs for the short- medium- and long-term. This advice is based upon a
comprehensive review and analysis of two selected renewable energy technologies: photovoltaics and wind
energy. Biomass is the subject of a separate preliminary report prepared by ISPRE.
The authors of this report believe that this report is largely unique in the sense that it focuses on: (i)
research and development (including fundamental science); (ii) adopts a global view on this issue; (iii)
addresses the global imbalance in R&D on sustainable energy technologies; and (iv) suggests directions for
R&D at the regional and national levels not found in other reports.
The report focuses on publicly-funded R&D but acknowledges the considerable efforts of industry especially
in technology development. At the same time, it recognises that industry is unlikely to undertake significant
amounts of technology development in countries or regions with low levels of publicly-funded R&D. To
stimulate innovation, i.e. transfer technologies based on applied R&D to the market, it is imperative that
strong partnerships and co-operation between academia and industry are established. This will be most
effective if industrial and academic activities are conducted in close proximity to each other.
Photovoltaics and wind energy have been selected as the main topics for the ISPRE report. Together
with biomass, solar thermal power generation and solar heating, these two technologies have the highest
sustainable potential of all renewable energy sources. Other technologies such as geothermal energy, wave
and hydropower also have important roles to play.
The integration of renewable energy sources into energy supply and distribution structures must be
analysed. This report does not cover this in-depth, although we recognise that issues such as large area
grids (super-grids), grid stability, power quality, load management, energy storage, control of solar and wind
energy conversion systems, energy weather forecasting and the merging of power and information grids
(smart grids) are of utmost importance for an efficient integration of energy from sustainable sources into
regional and eventually global energy systems.
Furthermore, appropriate energy supply structures for developing regions have to be designed. Solar home
systems, small biomass systems, local wind turbine applications, micro hydro installations and optimised
integrated village power systems also have to be developed and applied.
The two chapters comprising the main part of this report concentrate on the two example technologies
namely photovoltaics (solar cells) and wind energy. Each of the chapters analyse the following points from
a global perspective: (i) technologies, (ii) renewable potential, (iii) R&D activity and (iv) industrial activity.
On the basis of this information, directions for future R&D are suggested. These recommendations represent
the views of the authors of this report but are firmly based on the evidence available. The directions
identified could help to define and focus new R&D activities worldwide.
3
14. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
2. Photovoltaics
Summary
Solar energy, including solar photovoltaics (PV), has a vast sustainable energy potential in comparison
to global energy demand. The IEA envisaged solar power accounting for 11% of global electricity
production by 2050 in its BLUE MAP scenario (IEA, 2008b). In the World Energy Vision 2100,
developed by the German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU, 2003), solar electricity
contributes about 20% of the world’s energy supply by 2050 and over 60% by 2100. This suggests PV
could play an important role in the transition to a sustainable energy economy. However, the further
development of PV science and technology is essential for PV to become a major source of electricity
and energy.
The world photovoltaic market grew by more than 60% in 2007; cumulative installed PV capacity was
more than 10 GW. Important drivers for this growth were the feed-in-tariff laws in Germany and Spain.
The cumulative global capacity of PV systems is forecast to reach 1,600–2,000 GW by 2030, due in part to
targeted R&D activities.
PV devices are mainly fabricated from semiconductor materials. At present the typical efficiency of flat-plate
crystalline Si solar cell modules is around 15%. However, flat-plate PV and concentrator III-V compound
multi-junction solar cells have the potential in principle to increase efficiency to almost 30% and more than
50%, respectively. To achieve the full market potential for PV, the development of high performance flat-plate
PV and concentrator PV modules with efficiencies of 25% and 40%, respectively, is necessary.
Today, most major PV applications are in the building sector. Further R&D will lead to improvements in
the performance and durability of PV systems and the development of low-cost manufacturing processes.
In order to achieve the economically efficient deployment of PV systems, the target cost for PV power
generation should be set equal to wholesale electricity prices (approximately 7 JPY/kWh, or 0.045 Euro/
kWh) by 2030.
More widespread application of PV technology will be the driving force in the global PV market. Four
countries—Germany, Japan, Spain and the USA—have contributed most to PV market growth. The PV
budgets of other countries are an order of magnitude lower than the budgets of these four. In particular, PV
R&D activity in developing countries is considerably lower than in developed countries. Countries such as
China and India, which have the largest populations, and a rapidly growing energy demand, should increase
PV R&D activity and the deployment of renewable energy.
Although reliable, high-performance PV systems are commercially available and widely deployed, the further
development of PV science and technology is crucial to enable it to become a major source of electricity and
energy. Target prices for PV systems are therefore very important for its rapid and widespread development.
Very large-scale development is only feasible if PV generation costs can be drastically reduced.
Cost reductions will be achieved through the following measures: (ii) higher conversion efficiency, (ii)
less material consumption, (iii) application of cheaper materials, (iv) innovations in manufacture, (v) mass
production and (vi) optimised system technology. Both fundamental research and more applied R&D, are
crucial for the further development of PV. Collaborative research addressing targeted issues can play an
important role in achieving the critical mass and effectiveness required to meet the sector’s ambitions.
4
15. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Short-term R&D must focus on making the PV industry more competitive. Rapid development and
high production volumes are crucial for industrial leadership. Industry generally supports investment in
short-term R&D and, as the PV industry grows, this pressure may grow. Governments must, however, take a
medium and long-term view. Mid- and long-term oriented scientific work will be essential even if today’s PV
R&D may be focused on near-term technology development.
The major PV R&D topics needing further study are summarised in this report. Priority topics include:
optimisation of transparent conductive oxide for thin-film PV; optical concentrating PV; and self-organisation
and alignment in solar cell production using novel concepts. There should be an increased R&D focus on
PV systems, including power electronics, grids, and rural electrification. Life cycle assessment and academic
education form the basis for the sustainable introduction of PV into the global energy supply system.
Introduction
PV potential
The energy potential of solar energy, including solar photovoltaics and solar thermal power plants, is vast
when compared to global energy demand. The global solar power potential is about 600 TW. Assuming
a solar photovoltaic system efficiency of 10%, at least 60 TW of power (Lewis, 2005) could be supplied
from terrestrial solar energy resources. This report covers only photovoltaic power, not solar thermal.
Conversion routes, theoretical and possible conversion efficiencies
Photovoltaic energy conversion (PV) is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity with devices mainly
fabricated from semiconductor materials. Table 2.1 shows the theoretical and obtained conversion efficiencies
of various types of solar cells. Present conversion efficiencies obtained from polycrystalline and amorphous
PV cells are about 20% and 6% lower respectively than those obtained from standard single crystalline cells.
Concentrator III-V compound multi-junction solar cells, using wide-band photo-response, have significant
potential for efficiencies of more than 50%. Novel conversion paths, such as intermediate band hot carrier
cells, are also expected to have the potential of 50–60%, however the concept has yet to be proved. Some
technology routes like dye-sensitised and organic PV do not yet play a significant role in the market.
Table 2.1: Theoretical, possible and obtained conversion efficiencies of various solar cells (Private
communication: Blakers, Yamaguchi, Luther, 2008)
Cells Theoretical efficiencies (%) Obtained laboratory efficiencies (%)
Single crystalline Si 28.9 24.7
Polycrystalline Si 28.9 20.3
Amorphous Si 22 14.7
Amorphous/microcrystalline Si 28 15.1
CIS 28 19.5
III-V multi-junction 58 33.8
III-V concentrator
multi-junction
70 40.7
Dye-sensitized 22 11
Polymer 22 5.7
Novel conversion paths 70
5
16. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Installed capacities
Figure 2.1 shows cumulative PV system installations in the major countries (Maycock, 2007). More than
half of this growth was due to the German market. 953 MW of capacity was introduced in 2006 alone. The
driver for this growth was the German feed-in-tariff law originally introduced in 1991 but strengthened in
2000 and 2004. The cumulative installed PV capacity in Germany in 2006 reached 2.86 GW, the largest in
the world.
The Japanese PV market was the second largest, with 287 MW of new installations in 2006, primarily using
grid connected residential systems under the Japanese PV residential programme. The cumulative installed
PV capacity in Japan reached 1.71 GW in 2006. The third largest PV market was the US with 624 MW of PV
installations in 2006, and a cumulative installed PV capacity totalling 1.45 GW. Although the PV market in
China is currently quite small, it is expected to grow drastically within the next five years in order to meet
its targets to supply 15% of total primary energy in 2020 from renewable energy sources (NDRC, 2007).
Figure 2.1: Cumulative PV system installations in selected countries. (Maycock, 2007)
According to investment analysts and industry forecasts, solar energy capacity will continue to grow at
high rates in the coming years. The European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA) and the European
Renewable Energy Council (EREC) have developed scenarios for the future growth of PV (EPIA, 2009 and
EREC, 2008). Table 2.2 synthesises roadmap targets from the EPIA (EPIA, 2009 and EREC, 2008), the US
(EIA, 2009), Japan (Kurokawa and Aratani, 2004) and the Chinese Mid-Long term Development Plan for
Renewable Energy, (NDRC, 2007).
Table 2.3 shows IEA projections drawn from the Energy Technology Perspectives 2008 Blue Map Scenario
(IEA, 2008b).
6
17. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Table 2.2: 2006 and target values of cumulative PV installed capacities shown by EPIA Roadmap, US
PV-Industry Roadmap, Japanese PV 2030 Roadmap, EREC2040 scenario and Chinese Mid-Long term
Development Plan for Renewable Energy. (Units = GWp)
Countries 2006 2010 2020 2030
World 5.7 14 200 1800
EU – >10 41 200
(Germany) (2.9) – – –
US 0.6 3.5 36 200
Japan 1.7 4.82 30 100
China 0.085 0.45 8 –
Table 2.3: IEA Projections of Installed PV Capacity in the BLUE Map Scenario.
Countries 2008 2010 2020 2030
World 14.73 GW – – >150 GW
EU 9.53 GW 18 GWp 150 GWp –
Germany 5.31 GW – – –
US 1.17 GW 1.28 GW 2.43 GW 5.45 GW
Japan 2.15 GW 4.82 GWp 30 GWp 100 GWp
China 0.15 GW 0.3 GW 1.8 GW 9 GW
Under the BLUE Map scenario, the IEA foresaw that in 2030 PV installed capacity will be more than 150
GW, contributing to about 4% of the global electricity consumption. Installed PV capacity could reach 1,150
GW in 2050, or 12% of global electricity production.
The projections in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 show the huge opportunities for PV in the future. Such development
will not happen by itself, but will require constant support from all stakeholders. The scenarios above will
only be possible if—in parallel with the optimisation of the existing proven technologies—new solar cell
and module design concepts can be developed. With current technology the demand for some materials
like silver (for contacts) could exceed the available resources within the next 30 years. Research leading to
solutions which will overcome such problems is underway.
Price situation and cost targets
Today, most major applications are found in the building sector, particularly in Japan and Germany. The
average household electricity price of around 23 JPY/kWh (0.15 Euro/kWh) thus sets the target cost for PV
in Japan. However, industrial use may require a lower cost target of 14 JPY/kWh (0.085 Euro/kWh). R&D
leading to improvements in the performance and durability of PV systems and low-cost manufacturing
processes could allow the wholesale electricity price of 7 JPY/kWh (0.45 Euro/kWh) to be achieved by
2030. The EPIA and the European Photovoltaic Technology platform suggest that parity with the wholesale
electricity price will be achieved during the next decade and in Southern Europe during the next few years
7
18. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
(EPIA, 2009). More conservatively, according to the Energy Technology Perspectives 2008 Blue Roadmap
(IEA, 2008b), PV will become competitive with retail electricity between 2020 and 2030.
With increasing photovoltaic electricity generation, new concepts of grid integration, grid operation and
load management have to be introduced. This calls for focused R&D and for considerable investment in
worldwide grid structures. In particular, large area (even intercontinental) grids have to be considered.
Parallel to this, optimised autonomous rural electrification schemes (village power systems, hybrid systems)
have to be developed and introduced on a large scale.
These measures would lead to mass take-up of PV systems without being constrained by grid structures.
PV systems will also become more attractive through improvement in the performance of solar cells,
improvement of PV system durability and the development of a wider variety of PV modules and inverters
with multiple functions.
Table 2.4 shows key targets for PV system price, electricity generation costs, module efficiencies and energy
pay-back time contained in the EU Strategic Research Agenda (Sinke, 2007). The quantitative targets shown
were found to be roughly consistent with US (DOE, 2007) and Japanese (NEDO, 2004) scenarios.
Table 2.4: Key targets of PV system price, electricity generation costs, module efficiencies and energy
pay-back time (assumed location of the systems: Europe, Mediterranean area). (European Photovoltaic
Strategic Research Agenda, Sinke 2007)
Key targets Present (2007) 2015/2020 2030
Long-term
potential
Turn-key system price (Euro/Wp) 5 2.5/2.0 1 0.5
Typical PV electricity generation
cost (Euro/kWh)
0.3 0.15/0.12 0.06 0.03
Typical commercial flat-plate
module efficiencies
<15% <20% <25% <40%
Typical commercial concentrator
module efficiencies
<25% <30% <40% <60%
Typical system energy pay-back
time (yrs)
2 1 0.5 0.25
Research and Development Activities
Total PV budgets over a 10-year period in 10 major countries are shown in Figure 2.2 (NEDO, 2004).
The 2006 public budgets for market stimulation, R&D, demonstration and field trials for IEA countries
contributing to the PVPS programme are shown in Table 2.5. It is worth noting that definitions of what
constitutes ‘research’, ‘development’, ‘demonstration’, ‘field trials’ and ‘market stimulation measures’ often
differ from one country to another.
The USA, Japan and Germany, have contributed most to the development of PV over the past decade. Until
1995, the US led the first stage development of PV market growth and had the highest PV R&D budget. An
increase in the Japanese PV budget contributed to second stage development. In the past five years, the
German PV budget has increased faster than any other and Germany is the major contributor to PV’s third
stage development.
8
19. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Figure 2.2: Development of the total PV budget in selected countries on a logarithmic scale. Currency
conversion: 1 Yen=0.008259 US$, 1 Euro=1.3092 US$, 1 AUD=0.78 US$, 1 KRW=0.001065 US$,
1 CHF=0.804699 US$, 1 GBP=1.95 US$
Table 2.5: PV budget for R&D, demonstration and market stimulation programmes in selected IEA
countries in 2006 and 2007. For certain countries demonstration is included in R&D
(IEA-PVPS, 2006 and 2007).
Country
R&D
(2007)
R&D (2006)
Demonstration
(2006)
Market
stimulation (2006)
Total
(2006)
(US$
millions)
(US$
millions)
%
(US$
millions)
%
(US$
millions)
%
(US$
millions)
Germany 61 82.5 7.6 – 1,000.0 92.4 1,082.5
US 138.3 121.8 21.5 3.0 0.5 440.0 77.9 564.8
Japan 38.9 27.2 15.1 116.9 65.0 35.7 19.9 179.8
Korea 18.4 19.7 16.2 0.3 0.2 101.6 85.6 121.6
France 12.3 32.8 56.6 – – 25.0 43.4 57.8
UK 15.2 13.3 47.8 14.5 52.2 – – 27.8
Australia 6.2 5.2 22.1 0.5 2.1 17.8 75.7 23.5
PV
Budget
(US$
millions)
9
20. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Total public expenditure on PV R&D and market stimulation in the IEA PVPS countries has quadrupled
since the late 1990s. 2006 saw a large increase in total spending on PV compared to 2005, to over US$2
billion. While this was largely due to feed-in tariffs and other market stimulation measures, R&D spend also
increased by about 17%. Nearly all countries listed in Table 2.5 reported increases in total expenditure for
2006 compared to 2005. Besides the obvious increase in Germany, the US and Korea increased funding
dramatically (120% and 67% respectively).
European Union R&D funding support for PV continued under the 6th RTD Framework Programme (FP6),
which reached completion in 2006. The 7th Framework Programme (FP7) has been operating since 2007;
first calls for proposals were launched in December 2006. To date there have been four calls launched for
PV, including:
Efficiency and material issues for thin film photovoltaics.
•
Manufacturing and product issues for thin-film photovoltaics.
•
Support to the coordination of stakeholders’ activities in the field of photovoltaics.
•
Low/medium temperature solar thermal systems for industrial process heat.
•
Whether at the national or multi-national level, continuing political support for PV is required for R&D
and new applications. Getting the balance right between R&D and market stimulation funding will be a
challenge and will vary from country to country, but is important for long-term market development. Cost
and prices must continue to come down steadily for PV to maintain public appeal and to develop and
propagate the emerging interest from electricity utilities and investors.
Research and Development Institutions
Figure 2.3 shows the number of papers presented at three recent PV conferences (WCPEC–3, 19th
EU–PVSEC, and PVSEC–17). Figure 2.3 shows the volume of R&D activities in photovoltaics. It is clear that
R&D outputs, as measured by contributions to major conferences, have a strong correlation with R&D
budgets.
It can be seen from Table 2.6 that public organisations such as universities and national research
institutes have greatly contributed to PV R&D. Such organisations are able to demonstrate the potential of
photovoltaics to policy makers and companies, and offer technological ideas to industry.
The roles of universities and national laboratories are categorised as follows: (1) to develop technical
concepts for industry to exploit; (2) to propose national R&D projects for industry; (3) to promote national
R&D projects; (4) to support industry through collaboration or contract research; and (5) to teach and
educate researchers and engineers.
10
21. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Figure 2.3: World map of contributions to three international PV conferences:
World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (Hawaii, May 2006), 21st European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
(Dresden, September, 2006), International Photovoltaic Science and Engineering Conference (Fukuoka, December 2007). The
number of authors who presented papers at these conferences is shown. In the compilation all authors of a paper are counted
equally. Pure basic research was not strongly covered by the three conferences selected for the analysis.
Figure 2.4: Details for Europe of the map shown in Figure 2.3.
11
22. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Table 2.6: Total number of papers presented at the WCPEC–4, 19th EU–PVSEC and PVSEC–17 by R&D
institutions including universities. Only the first 13 entries are shown.
Rank Affiliation Country 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total
1 Fraunhofer ISE Germany 6 0 8 61 0 7 5 5 92
2 NREL USA 8 13 8 6 4 7 4 5 55
3 AIST Japan 14 7 1 6 15 4 5 1 53
4 Hahn-Meitner Univ. Germany 3 12 1 16 5 0 1 0 38
5 UPM Spain 9 0 10 7 0 6 2 2 36
6 Toyota Tech. Inst. Japan 6 0 17 9 0 1 0 1 34
7 Univ. Konstanz Germany 1 0 0 29 0 2 0 0 32
8 Tokyo Inst. Tech. Japan 5 6 1 6 11 0 0 2 31
9 UNSW Australia 9 0 0 12 1 2 2 4 30
10 IMEC Belgium 3 0 2 21 0 2 0 0 28
11 Tokyo Univ. A. & T. Japan 1 0 0 12 1 0 10 2 26
12 EC-JRC EU 1 0 0 0 0 8 5 5 19
13 ENEA Italy 0 5 0 6 4 3 0 0 18
The categories are: 1 = Fundamentals, Novel Materials and Devices, 2 = II-VI & CIGS, 3 = III-V, concentrator & Space,
4 = Crystalline Silicon, 5 = Thin Film Si, 6 = PV Modules and components, 7 = PV Systems, 8 = Programmess, Policies,
Economics, Environment.
In Germany, short-term and mid-term PV R&D is well-organised. Good co-operation exists among academic
and industrial groups. However, more fundamental, longer-term research is necessary to further facilitate
scientific and technological development. Other European countries have contributed to more specific
areas of PV research; there are several Centres of Excellence for PV across Europe.
Japanese PV R&D has focused on thin film, although its crystalline Si cell module production is the largest
in the world. Its PV R&D budget has decreased in recent years but new market stimulation initiatives
following the Residential PV System Dissemination Programme are expected to be introduced. There is
currently no Centre of Excellence in the field of PV in Japan and relationships between Japanese industry
and universities can be poor.
In the US, fundamental studies on PV are wide ranging and well-organised which should contribute to
future development. There are several Centres of Excellence in the US. However, more industry-oriented
R&D is thought to be necessary.
Industrial Activities
Figure 2.5 shows global solar cell module production from 1990 to 2006 (Maycock, 2007). Although
the global photovoltaic market grew by more than 40% in 2006, the Japanese PV industry in particular
has shown a low annual growth rate of 11.4% for solar cell module production due to silicon feedstock
shortages. This suggests that effective utilisation of low-grade (solar-grade) Si is a topic suitable for further
R&D. In contrast, Chinese and Chinese Taiwanese PV industries have shown higher annual growth rates of
308% and 222% respectively.
12
23. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Figure 2.5: World photovoltaic module production from 1990 to 2006. (Maycock, 2007)
Figure 2.6 shows forecasts for the annual production of crystalline Si solar cell modules (Yamaguchi, 2006)
in comparison with those made by EPIA/Greenpeace (2001) and Zweibel (2005). Case 1 results represent
an ‘optimistic’ scenario and is close to Zweibel’s estimate for the annual production of PV modules (7.7 GW
in 2010; 120 GW in 2020; 706 GW in 2030; and 2,095 GW in 2040, respectively). Case 3 results represent
a ‘pessimistic’ scenario and are close to the result reported by EPIA/Greenpeace for the annual production
of PV modules (3 GW in 2010; 50 GW in 2020; 200 GW in 2030; and 680 GW in 2040, respectively). The
results of case 2 (the ‘realistic’ case) are intermediate between the two.
Figure 2.6: Different forecasts for the annual production of photovoltaic modules (see text for further
information), (Yamaguchi, 2006).
Directions for Future Research and Development
It is apparent that further deployment of PV technology will be the driving force in the global PV market. Four
countries—Germany, Japan, Spain and the USA—have invested most in the development of the PV market and
account for almost 85% of the global installed grid connected PV capacity (REN21, 2009). PV R&D activity in
developing countries is considerably less than that of developed countries. China and India in particular, which
13
24. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
have the world’s largest populations, and an increasing energy demand, would benefit by stepping up PV R&D
activity and deploying more renewable energies.
Although reliable, high-performance PV systems are commercially available and widely deployed, further scientific
and technological development will be crucial in enabling it to become a major source of electricity and energy.
However, very large-scale development is feasible only if PV generation costs are drastically reduced.
R&D, including basic science, is crucial to the further development of PV. Joint (collaborative) research addressing
well-chosen issues can play an important role in achieving the critical mass required to meet the sector’s ambitions.
Consortia such as the EU FullSpectrum project, the EU CrystalClear project and the DARPA Super High Efficiency
Solar Cell project must be effective in accelerating PV R&D. Difficulties in organising consortium partners from
academic, institutional and industrial sectors, especially in manufacturing dominated countries such as Japan, must
be overcome. Issues can include the mismatch of interests: universities have long-term interests while industry is
generally more near-term, concentrating instead on building knowledge and skills.
Generally, reducing the cost and increasing the performance of PV technologies is the primary research focus, but
the importance of other drivers should also be emphasised. The lifetime of PV system components and the value of
PV electricity must be considered. In addition, energy and materials consumption in manufacturing and installation
is essential, as is the further shortening of energy pay-back time. Avoiding the use of scarce or hazardous materials
presents significant R&D challenges. Standardisation and harmonisation as well as flexibility in system design is
required. Socio-economic aspects such as public and political awareness, training and education, user acceptance
and financing must also be considered. Resolving these issues will make PV more attractive while also leading to a
reduction in CO2 emissions.
Short-term R&D must focus on making the PV industry more competitive. Rapid development and high
production volumes are crucial to establish industrial leadership. Industry will usually push for investment in
short-term R&D and as the PV industry grows, this pressure may grow. Governments must, however, take a
medium and long-term view.
Table 2.7 is a summary of discussions by the ISPRE PV Working Group and shows a summary of major PV R&D
issues which need further study. The table considers EU PV (Sinke, 2007), US PV (DOE, 2007) and Japanese PV
(NEDO, 2004; NEDO, unpublished) documents.
Table 2.7: Compilation of major PV R&D issues. SOG-Si = solar grade silicon, UMG-Si = upgraded
metallurgical silicon, CPV = optically concentrating PV, LCA = least cost analysis, BoS = balance of
system.
Cells
Short-term
(2008–2013)
Mid-term
(2013–2020)
Long-term
(2020–2030)
Crystalline Si
• High throughput, high yield,
integrated processing
• Development of SOG-Si
• Improved crystal growth
• Thin cells
• Improved wafering
technologies
•Characterisation
• Reduction in consumption of Si
and materials
• Towards utilisation of UMG-Si
• New and improved materials
• Safe and low-environmental –
impact processing
• Advanced wafering and
encapsulants
• Mechanism on gettering and
passivation
• Very high efficiency devices
• Understanding of imperfections
in Si
• Defect engineering
• Novel and integrated
device concepts
• Si-based tandem devices
• Effective utilisation of
UMG-Si
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25. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Cells
Short-term
(2008–2013)
Mid-term
(2013–2020)
Long-term
(2020–2030)
Thin-film Si
• Low cost and large area
processes and equipment
• High quality transparent
conductive oxide
• Higher efficiency in industry
modules (>15%), tandem
structures
• Light trapping in devices
• Characterisation
• Reliable, cost effective production
equipment
• High quality and low-cost
transparent conductive oxide
• Understanding of interface,
material properties and light
trapping
• Poly crystalline cell on foreign
substrates
• Overcome mechanism on
light degradation of a-Si
•Novel and integrated
device concepts
CIGS and
CdTe
• Improvement of production
throughput and yield
• Higher module efficiency in
industry (>15%)
• Highly reliable and low cost
packaging
• High quality transparent
conductive oxide
• Characterisation
• Alternative or modified material
combinations
• Standardisation of Equipment
• High quality and low-cost
transparent conductive oxide
• Optimisation of materials
and production with respect to
sustainability issues
• Understanding of materials,
interface, device physics and
processes
• Understanding of
imperfections in CIGS and
II-VI compounds
• Tandem cells
III-V multi-
junction and
Concentrator
• New materials
• Reliable and low-cost module
assembly
• Cheap and highly efficient
optics
• Tracking systems
• System simulation
• Testing and installations
• Increasing reliability and
lifetime
• Characterisation
• Intensive material research
• Higher effciency cells (>45%)
• Reliable and low-cost optical
systems
• Higher concentration and analysis
of optimum concentration factors
• Testing and cost evaluation of CPV
systems
• Understanding of
imperfections in III-V
compounds
• Higher efficiency cells
(>50%)
• III-V/Si tandem cells
• Novel concepts
• Advanced optical systems
• Environmental
sustainability
Novel
Devices
• Nano-structured devices
(organic, dye cells)
• Self organisation and
alignment in novel concepts
• Characterisation
• Cells based on novel concepts
• Self organisation and alignment in
novel concepts
• Demonstration of enhanced
performance
• Characterisation
• Understanding of
imperfections
• Demonstration of
enhanced performance
Electronic
components
• PV inverters optimise for
different modules and system
technologies
• Storage technologies
• Development of power electronics
and control strategies for quality
improvement
• Storage technologies
• Long distance energy transport
• Development of large
scale storage technologies
• Alternative storage
technologies
Table 2.7: continued
15
26. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Cells
Short-term
(2008–2013)
Mid-term
(2013–2020)
Long-term
(2020–2030)
Manufacture
• In-line production control
• Automation
• Fully integrated production
• Large scale production
• Recycling
• In-line production control
• Automation
• Fully integrated production
• Very large scale production
• Entirely sustainable production
• Extensive recycling
• Custom-made modules
Systems
• Technology development for
high voltage systems
• Smart grids for distributed
electricity generation
• Village systems for rural
electrification
• Standardisation
• New concepts for stability and
control of electrical grids
• New concepts for rural
electrification
• Very large PV systems (e.g. in
deserts)
• Large scale load management in
grids
• Intercontinental links,
very large scale distributed
power generation
Socio
-economic
Aspects
• Integration of PV in the built
environment
• Market introduction schemes
• LCA studies on BoS
components
• Financial schemes for rural
PV electrification
• Acceptance of extensive PV
employment
• Acceptance of load management
schemes
• LCA studies on emerging
technologies
Table 2.7: continued
16
27. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
3. Wind
Summary
This section summarises the key issues associated with wind energy technology. It highlights the need for
various types of research and development to continue in order to increase the proportion of world energy
derived from wind.
Wind energy has been used for many thousands of years, but only in the past 35 has it come to be
integrated into the modern energy supply on a significant scale. It is derived ultimately from sunlight. It
is estimated that approximately 2% of the sunlight that falls on the earth is converted to wind energy.
However, the amount of energy that is technically extractable from the wind greatly exceeds the world’s
electricity use at the present time. Currently wind provides approximately 1% of the world’s electricity, and
the amount of installed capacity is continuing to increase.
The key factors that affect the design of wind turbines and their ability to be integrated into the modern
electrical systems are: (i) the low energy density of wind; (ii) the fluctuating nature of wind; (iii) the
conversion of kinetic energy to electricity, via mechanical processes; (iv) the non-dispatchability of
wind generation; (v) the material requirements of the turbines; and (vi) the associated material costs.
Socio-political issues should also be considered; whether ‘associated costs’, for example, are perceived to
be acceptable is a value judgment, reflected by energy policy, planning policy and public responses.
The basic topology of wind turbines, at least on land, seems to be settled: turbines consisting of a single rotor/
nacelle assembly installed on a tower. The rotor axis is horizontal and the rotors themselves typically have three
blades, which are located upwind of the tower. The rotor is connected to a main shaft, which drives an electrical
generator, usually via a step up gearbox. Control is most often via a combination of changing the blade pitch and
varying the generator torque via power electronic converters. Connection to the electrical network is presently
by conventional means (transformers and switchgear). The environmental/energy contribution of wind turbines is
presently primarily that of fuel saving with respect to conventional utility generators.
Future trends include: (i) adding progressively more wind generators to electrical networks (both small and
large), such that the mismatch between the wind and the load must be taken into account; (ii) designing
and building far larger turbines; (iii) moving increasingly into offshore generation; and (iv) designing turbines
for difficult conditions (e.g. complex terrain, cold regions).
The main R&D issues are related to these new trends, as well as the general need to decrease costs,
increase reliability, enhance public acceptability and ensure that the environment is not adversely affected.
Most wind energy research today is being undertaken in Europe and the US. Within Europe, Germany and
Denmark are particularly active. Elsewhere around the world, significant activity is underway in Japan,
India, China and Korea.
With regard to new R&D, there is a continued need to better understand the variability of wind both
temporally and spatially both across the disc of individual rotors (especially very large ones) and in more
difficult locations (especially offshore and in complex terrain). Significant R&D is required to develop very
17
28. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
large wind turbines that are reliable, installable and maintainable, as well as smaller turbines that can be
used effectively in isolated networks. Since ever larger turbines bring greater local environmental impacts
(e.g. visual and acoustic, see Devine-Wright, 2005), the relative importance of research on institutional
(land-use planning) and social-psychological (public acceptance) aspects of turbine siting is likely to
increase in the future. A broad range of R&D is needed to develop wind energy technology for offshore
applications, particularly in deeper water. R&D is needed on a number of electrical and grid integration
questions, including improving generators and power electronic converters, designing and implementing
system wide control using demand side management, energy storage and fuel production. R&D is also
needed on broad range of social and environmental issues. Finally, there is a continued need to better
understand the basic physics of the various processes involved in wind energy conversion.
Introduction
Wind Resource
Wind energy is derived fundamentally from solar energy via a thermodynamic process. Sunlight warms the
ground causing air above it to rise. The ensuing pressure differential causes air from elsewhere to move in,
resulting in air motion (wind). Different regions on earth are heated differently than others—primarily a
function of latitude. Air motion is also affected by the earth’s rotation. The net effect is that certain parts of
the world experience higher average winds than others. The regions of highest winds are the most attractive
for extracting its energy: Theoretically, the power which can be extracted from the wind is proportional to
the cube of the velocity, so a good wind regime is particularly important. The power that can be extracted
in practice, however, is somewhat less than proportionally related to the cube of velocity.
The total energy impinging on at the outer atmosphere, assuming a solar constant of 1,367 W/m2, is
1.53x1018 kWh per year. The conversion of solar energy to wind has been estimated to occur at an
efficiency of 2%; approximately 35% of this is in the lower boundary layer where it could potentially
be extracted by wind turbines (Gustavson, 1979). According to this estimate, the maximum global wind
resource is approximately 1.22x1015 kWh/yr.
Recently Hoogwijk et al. (2004) made estimates of the technical potential of onshore wind energy. These
authors conclude that, with present technology, the onshore technical potential of wind is about 1.0x1014
kWh/yr. They also cite other sources which preliminarily indicate that the offshore wind energy resource at
water depths up to 50 m is another 3.7x1013 kWh/yr. In comparison, the global consumption of electricity
at the present time is about 1.6x1013 kWh/yr. The global distribution of wind energy potential is illustrated
in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: World Wind Energy Resource Distribution Estimates (NREL), the darker the colour, the higher the
wind speed.
18
29. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Wind Energy Technology
Wind energy has been used for transportation for at least 5,000 years, and has been used for land-based
applications for at least 2000 years (Woodcraft, 1851). Mechanical applications of wind energy became
widely used in Europe in the Middle Ages before falling out of favour with the advent of coal-based steam
power in the 1700s. Wind energy continued to be used for water pumping into the mid-1900s and was used
for electricity generation in some locations from the late-1800s to the mid-1900s.
Wind energy experienced a resurgence beginning in the early 1970s. Over the last 35 years, turbine rotors
have grown in size from approximately 10 m to more than 120 m. Power ratings of individual turbines have
increased from tens of kW to more than 5 MW. As of 2006, an estimated capacity of 73.9 GW was installed
worldwide (WWEA, 2007). Also according to the World Wind Energy Association, this capacity produces
more than 1% of the world’s electricity and in the case of one country (Denmark) produces an amount
equal to 20% of its consumption (www.wwea.org, accessed 20 March 2008). Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical
wind turbine.
Figure 3.2: Typical Wind Turbine.
Wind Energy System Design
Converting the energy in wind into a socially useful electrical or mechanical form involves many types of
processes which all have their own particular characteristics. Some of these processes are well developed,
others less so. Modern turbines have evolved primarily from what is known as the ‘Danish concept’. This
design was based on a three bladed, upwind, stall-controlled rotor which drove an induction generator
via a gearbox. Today’s turbines have extended that concept; many of them now incorporate blade pitch
control, power electronic converters and use different types of generators. Some of the key features of
modern wind turbines are summarised below and are illustrated in Figure 3.3 (for more details see Manwell
et al. 2001).
19
30. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Figure 3.3: Schematic of typical wind turbine (Manwell et al, 2001)
The first step in the extraction of energy is converting the kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy
in a rotor via an aerodynamic lift. Rotors nowadays typically have three blades, but having more or
fewer is possible. Blades are constructed primarily of composite material. Most rotors have a horizontal
axis of rotation, although a vertical axis is also possible. The rotor is generally oriented such that the
blades are upwind of the tower, although downwind orientation has sometimes been used.
Positioning of the rotor is provided by a yaw system (which turns the entire nacelle, see below). The rotor,
which turns relatively slowly (the more so for larger rotors), is connected to a main shaft which in turn
connects (typically) to a gearbox. The gearbox provides an increase in speed such that the speed of the
gearbox’s output shaft is matched to the speed requirements of the generator. The generator, which is the
next step in the process, performs the conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy. The shafts,
gearbox, generator and associated equipment are contained in a nacelle which is located on top of a tower.
The tower keeps the rotor nacelle assembly well up into the air where the wind speed is higher and less
turbulent than it would be closer to the ground. The tower, which is normally made of steel, is attached
to a foundation (reinforced concrete for onshore turbines) or to a more extensive support structure (as in
the case of offshore turbines). Electricity is carried down the tower via a droop cable. A control system,
portions of which may be in the nacelle or on the ground, performs a variety of functions. These include
starting and stopping the rotor and protecting the machine during extreme winds or faults. Most turbines
today incorporate blade pitch control where the blade may be turned about its long axis to change its
aerodynamic properties. Other devices may also play a significant role in the process. These include in
particular power electronic converters, which may facilitate variable speed operation of the rotor, while
allowing the output electricity to be of essentially constant voltage and frequency.
The electrical output of most turbines nowadays is directed into a conventional electrical network. The
voltage may be at the distribution level or higher, depending on the situation. In any case, a transformer
is normally used to convert the generator’s output (low voltage) to the electrical line voltage (medium or
high voltage). Various other electrical devices and switchgear are also used to allow safe connection to the
network and protection in the case of faults.
In some applications, such as where the grid is isolated or weak, or where there is large amount of wind
energy generation installed, the interconnection process may be more involved. Such applications can
benefit from the use of short-term storage and supervisory control systems. As an increasing amount of
wind generation is added to grids of whatever type, more attention must be given to the issues associated
with interconnection. These could include demand side management, longer-term storage or even fuel
production (e.g. hydrogen via the electrolysis of water).
20
31. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
There are a number of characteristics of wind energy technology which are distinctive and which affect the
design of wind turbines and their use:
1. Low energy density of the resource
2. Fluctuating nature of the resource
3. Social acceptance
4 Non-dispatchability of wind generation
5. Material requirements
6. Costs
These characteristics have been taken into account in the recent development of wind turbines, and will
have to be taken into account in the future. It should be noted that offshore wind energy has a number of
additional issues which need to be considered in the design of turbines and systems.
Low energy density
In most sites considered for wind energy development, the average wind power density is in the range of
200–800 W/m2 (vertical area). The implication is that rotors must be physically quite large (in comparison,
for example, to steam turbines or hydroelectric turbines) to produce a given amount of power. A secondary
effect is that turbines are imposing in the landscape and so public reaction to their appearance is a factor
that must be taken into account.
Fluctuating wind resource
The wind itself is highly variable both spatially and temporally and on many lengths and time scales.
These fluctuations affect all aspects of the design, siting and operation of the wind turbines. Wind speed
measurements are typically averaged over ten minute intervals for use in performance and economic
assessments. These long-term averages vary sufficiently over the day and from one season to another that
the average power from wind turbines is typically between 20% and 40% of their rated maximum.
Wind naturally exhibits occasional extremes. These extremes result in very high forces on the turbines, even
when they are not running. These extremes must be considered in the design process. The magnitude of
the extremes is typically closely related to the long-term average wind speed at a site, but not always so (as
in the case of regions prone to hurricanes). In any case, it is desirable to utilise a turbine whose design is
suited to its location ensuring that the turbine does not have either too much or too little material.
Short-term fluctuations (known as turbulence) have major influence on the design of the turbines. In
particular, fluctuations in wind speed and direction contribute to material fatigue in many of the wind
turbine’s components. These fluctuations must be taken into account in the sizing of the components,
choice of materials, control strategies and maintenance schedules.
Social acceptance
Due to the relatively large size of wind turbines and the need to site them in exposed locations, public
acceptance of wind energy development has sometimes been problematic. The need has arisen to address
public concerns through education or by mitigating the impact.
Non-Dispatchability
Due to the nature of the wind itself and the technology used for its extraction, energy derived from wind
is inherently non-dispatchable. That means that generation cannot be turned on at will. When the wind
turbines provide a relatively small portion of a network’s requirements this is not an issue. When turbines are
intended to supply a large fraction of the energy, then the overall system must be configured differently. In
this case, the wind turbines need to operate in concert with a suitable control system and possibly storage.
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32. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Material requirements
Material requirements of wind turbines relate directly to the low power density of wind and its fluctuating
nature. The low power density requires large heavy rotors. As the rotor rotates there are large reversing
forces which contribute to fatigue along with the fluctuations in the wind.
Costs
To a significant extent, wind turbines can be designed that will work adequately and survive a sufficiently
long period of time. There is still an issue of cost, however, both in terms of resources and required
financial outlay. High costs are associated with the material requirements of the wind turbine. Long-term
operation and maintenance costs are also important. There is a need for continuing work to drive down
the costs of the turbines while maintaining and improving their reliability. Cost reductions will benefit from
improved understanding of the fundamental physics of the conversion process, as well as of the failure
mechanisms. Continuous monitoring of the wind turbines and design and implementation of structural
health management systems should help to decrease these costs.
It may be noted that costs for wind generated electricity have decreased significantly over the last 30 years.
For example, the cost of energy from wind in 1980 has been estimated to be approximately US$0.50/
kWh (EIA, 1995). Presently, it is less than a fifth of that in many locations. This is largely due to experience,
research and development. The resulting enhanced understanding of the interaction of the wind turbine
with its environment has led to improvements and cost reductions in all aspects of the technology. Costs are
moving towards parity with conventional energy generation.
Research and Development Activities
Research and development has already helped greatly to reduce the cost of wind energy, although there
is scope to further lower capital costs, improve reliability, and expand the range of applicability of wind
energy systems. As will be described in the next section, R&D is still active and is reported in conferences
which are held every 12–18 months. In understanding the current activities it is helpful to categorise the
reports into one of the following topic areas:
1. Wind resource (including meteorological analysis, siting and remote sensing)
2. Wind turbine design (including aerodynamics, mechanics and dynamics)
3. Electrical (including control, storage and integration into both conventional and other, renewable
energy systems)
4. Applications (including hybrid power systems, water pumping, desalination and fuel production)
5. Offshore wind energy
6. Social/environmental aspects (including avian issues, noise and acceptance)
7. Economics, incentives and social costs of energy
8. Condition Monitoring, operation, maintenance, reliability and protection
New Areas of Focus
Wind turbines in the 1–3 MW size range are commercially produced and widely used. It may be expected
that they will be gradually and incrementally improved over time, but that a significant amount of R&D will
be integral to that process.
There are also certain areas which are less mature and represent significant opportunities for new
development. These include:
1. Wind energy systems for high penetration applications
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33. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
2. Very large wind turbines (for open inland sites or offshore)
3. Offshore wind energy technology in general
4. Wind turbines for special conditions, such as difficult climates or locations (e.g. arctic, complex terrain)
Some of these areas are described in more detail below.
Wind energy systems for high penetration applications
Over the past 35 years, the majority of wind energy systems development has focused on turbines that were
intended to be integrated into large central grids, where the issue of penetration (defined here as ratio of wind
generation to electrical load) was not really significant. As time goes on, there will be an increasing need to design
more comprehensive systems, in which the wind turbine itself is just one of the components. There will be need
for more comprehensive control systems and storage.
Very large wind turbines
There are a variety of factors that impel manufacturers to produce ever larger wind turbines. This is particularly
true for offshore applications. The cost to build the support structures is so great each must produce of a large
amount of electricity. At the same time, there are many challenges to design, manufacture, transport, install and
maintain such large turbines. To a certain extent, large rotors can be scaled up versions of smaller ones. There
may be limitations to that, however. For example, simple scaling laws predict that the mass of a rotor should
increase with the cube of the diameter, while the power will increase with the square. At some point this would
clearly result in an unacceptably heavy and costly rotor.
Actual experience has been that the weight to power relation was more positive (on the order of D2.5) but the
effect will be progressively more significant as larger rotors are constructed. One possibility is to use multiple
smaller rotors rather one single large rotor. This old concept has never been investigated to any significant degree.
There are also some other possibilities to consider, such as trying two, or even one blade rotors again, or
re-examining the pros and cons of vertical axis turbines.
The wind conditions may also vary significantly over the rotor disc. For example, the average wind will almost
always be lower at the lower part of the rotor’s swept area. In addition, the turbulence intensity will decrease with
increasing height. The spectral characteristics of the wind and the correlation between gusts will also vary across
the rotor. There may be relatively discrete low level jets to contend with. Due to the Eckman spiral effect, the
average wind direction will also change over the height of the rotor. All these factors will need to be considered in
the design process.
Design for special conditions
Over the past 30 years, the design of turbines has focused on sites that can be considered relatively benign. The
ideal sites are relatively flat, with minimal surface roughness (trees, buildings etc.) and climatic conditions that are
not extreme (i.e. not too hot, too cold, or too humid). Design standards that have been developed are best suited
to these types of conditions. As the more benign sites are used up, there will be greater interest in using some of
the less benign sites. There will be a need to develop turbines for these conditions and the results of these designs
must be incorporated into the standards process.
There is also the need for improved designs for smaller turbines, which would be suitable for isolated network
or off-grid applications. The small wind turbine designs of the future should be able to integrate much of the
experience of the larger turbines, so they can be easily integrated with the electrical system they are connected to.
Offshore wind energy systems
The offshore resource areas provide a host of new issues to consider, beyond that of turbine size. To some degree,
for example, use of large turbines is simplified in the water, since transport of the blades can be done by ship or
barge. Similarly, large floating cranes can be constructed for installing and maintaining the turbines.
23
34. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
On the other hand, the marine environment presents many challenges. Waves, and to a lesser extent
currents, and in some cases floating ice, are found in the environment where the turbines are to be located
and must be considered in the design process. Other topics that are of importance include condition
monitoring, integrated system operation and maintenance methods, and corrosion mitigation. A new
offshore technology area is just beginning to emerge, namely that of special purpose turbine and support
structure designs. These are likely to include floating or semi-submersible concepts for deeper water.
Research and Development Institutions
The main R&D activities in the wind energy sector are undertaken in Europe and the USA. Within Europe,
R&D takes place both at the EU level and in individual countries. EU activities are under the auspices of
the Directorate General for Transport and Energy (DG TREN) and DG Research. In the US, most R&D is
under the aegis of the US Department of Energy (DOE), although some more applied work is supported by
state governments. There is also significant international cooperation in wind energy R&D. This cooperation
is facilitated through the International Energy Agency. Some other bodies, such as the International
Electro-technical Commission (IEC), through its standards process, provide impetus to R&D, but the IEC does
not in general undertake R&D on its own. There is also R&D undertaken by industry, but typically the results
of such studies are not publicly available. In some cases, R&D is undertaken as part of a national education
and research consortium, such as the Danish Academy of Wind Energy. Other countries that engage in wind
energy R&D also typically do so under the guidance of a national agency, such as National Resources Canada.
Research expenditures are difficult to quantify. According to the IEA database, US expenditures for wind
energy research were approximately US$49 million in 2007, while European expenditures were in the
order of US$160 million. The details of R&D budgets for countries are listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: R&D expenditures of IEA countries in 2007
Country
R&D budget 2007
(US$ millions)
Denmark 21.5
Germany 29.2
UK 29.2
US 48.7
Canada 5.5
Hungary 0.1
Ireland 0.1
Italy 4.1
Japan 2.8
Korea 18.1
New Zealand 0.06
Norway 3.5
Portugal 0.4
Spain 10.1
Sweden 1.8
Switzerland 0.8
24
35. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
A study was undertaken to ascertain which groups were performing wind energy research and reporting
on it. For this study three conferences from 2007 were considered in detail. These were the conferences
of the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) and
the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA). The papers were categorised according to nationality and
company, university or institute of the first author and primary topic of the paper. There were 555 papers
presented in these conferences (Figure 3.4). These represented contributions from 316 groups. Of these
groups, approximately 41% were from research institutes (13%) or universities (28%). The rest were from
manufacturers, consultants, non-governmental organisations or government agencies.
Figure 3.4: Contribution to the wind conferences EWEA, AWEA and WWEA. The total number of authors who contributed to papers
presented at the three conferences in 2007 is shown.
From the total papers presented, half came from Europe. The next major contributor was the USA (24%).
Within Europe the top five contributors were (in order) Germany, Denmark, Spain, the UK and the
Netherlands. Outside Europe and the US, the top five contributors were Japan, India, China, Korea and
Canada. Table 3.2 lists the top 14 research centres or universities based on the total number of papers
presented in all three conferences mentioned (those with four or more are included).
25
36. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
Table 3.2: Some research institutes and universities engaged in wind energy R&D
Institute Country
Riso National Laboratory Denmark
Delft University of Technology Netherlands
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) USA
Renewable Energy National Centre of Spain (CENER) Spain
Energy Research Center of the Netherlands (ECN) Netherlands
Institut für Solare Energieversorgung (ISET) Germany
Technical University of Denmark Denmark
University of Tokyo Japan
China Electrical Power Research Institute China
CIEMAT Spain
Ecole des Mines de Paris France
ForWind - Center for Wind Energy Research Germany
University of Massachusetts. Renewable Energy Research Laboratory USA
University of Belgrade Serbia
It is also of interest to see how the topic areas varied by conference. For the total, as can be seen from
Table 3.3 below, the top five areas of interest (in order) were: (1) Wind resource, (2) Turbine design,
(3) Electrical, (4) Economics and (5) Offshore. At the WWEA (Figure 3.5), the top five topic areas were:
(1) Economics, (2) Turbine design, (3) Wind resource, (4) Electrical and (5) Applications. At the EWEA
conference, the top five top were: (1) Wind resource, (2) Turbine design, (3) Electrical, (4) Offshore and (5)
Operations. Finally, at the AWEA conference the main topic areas were: (1) Economics, (2) Turbine design,
(3) Electrical, (4) Social/environmental and (5) Wind resource. These differences are most likely associated
with the differing state of wind energy technology implementation in the various parts of the word.
Table 3.3: Summary of topic areas covered by EWEA, AWEA
and WWEA conferences.
Topic Percentage
Wind resource 26.1
Wind turbine design 22.0
Electrical 16.2
Economics and incentives 12.8
Offshore wind energy 6.7
Monitoring and operations 6.3
Applications 3.4
Social/environmental 2.9
26
37. Figure 3.5: Wind energy topics covered during WWEA 2007, Mar del Plata, Argentina (Oct 2007).
Industrial Activities
The majority of the industrial wind energy activity (including both manufacture and installation) in the
world is taking place in Europe, followed by the USA and India. Lists of manufacturers can be found in
a variety of locations, such as the EcoBusiness links website (www.ecobusinesslinks.com/large_wind_
turbines_generators_manufacturers.htm).
Today the world’s largest manufacturers are in Denmark, Germany and Spain. The manufacturers with the
largest market share as of 2006 (largest to smallest, with nationality in brackets) are: Vestas (Denmark),
GE Energy (US), Gamesa (Spain), Enercon (Germany), Siemens (Germany), Suzlon (India), Repower Systems
(Germany), Mitsubishi (Japan) and Nordex (Germany). In addition to turbine manufacturers, there is also
significant other commercial activity in the wind energy sector. This includes component suppliers (e.g.
blades, gearboxes, towers etc.), consultants and developers. Table 3.4 shows the extraordinarily rapid
installation of wind capacity in the US and Europe starting in the late 1990s. Europe now accounts for
about 75% of installed capacity in OECD countries with Germany and Spain dominating the picture.
Table 3.4: Cumulative Installed wind capacity (MWe) (IEA, 2008c).
1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
OECD North America 1912 1755 2472 9393 12875
OECD Europe 471 2449 12766 40750 47899
Germany 48 1137 6095 18428 20622
Spain 2 98 2206 9918 11736
OECD/IEA Pacific 0 3 160 2234 2973
OECD Total 2383 4207 15398 52377 63747
Directions for Future Research and Development
As should be apparent, there are still many areas which could benefit from additional research and
development activity. Some of this R&D is already underway. Some effort has already been made by various
groups, including the International Energy Agency and the USA DOE to provide recommendations on what
should be done in the near future. Some of the R&D possibilities are listed below. They are organised
A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
WWEA 2007 Topics
27
38. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
according to the categories used previously. In general, the need for R&D is continuous, and the division
between short-term and long-term is somewhat arbitrary. It is clear that short-term R&D will help to
advance the technology from where it is today. The medium and long-term will advance it the point where
wind turbines can be used in very difficult locations and can provide a very large fraction of the world’s
energy supply.
Table 3.5: Directions for future research and development in wind energy.
Short-term
(2008-2013)
Mid- and long-term
(2013-2030)
Wind Resource
• Improved short-term forecasting
• Improved site assessment techniques
• Improved remote sensing techniques
and devices
• Wind flow around turbines and wake
characterisation
• Regional siting information databases
• New remote sensing devices
• Wind flow around turbines and wake
characterisation
• Improved long-term forecasting
• Site assessment techniques integrated
with meso-scale numerical models
• Impact of wind energy extraction on the
micro- and meso-scale climate
• Improved turbulence modeling (for
inputs to design codes)
• Detailed meteorological studies for
world’s oceans
• World siting information databases
• Low cost/high resolution remote sensing
devices
• Multiple large array interactions
Wind Turbine
Design
• Investigate intelligent materials
• Analyse root cause of reliability issues
• Continuous advancement: advanced
blades, taller towers, advanced drive
trains, improved sensors, controls and
structural health management
• Investigate nano-materials for blades
• Continuous: testing, standards
development, certification
• Field tests to validate existing structural
dynamics codes
• Integral structural intelligence
• Incorporate recyclable materials
• Implement high reliability systems
• Investigate new rotor concepts
• Integrate computational fluid
mechanics, structural dynamics and
material fatigue models in design codes
• Apply advanced materials in blades
• Develop design standards for deep
water offshore turbines
• Testing centres for progressively larger
components and complete systems
Electrical
• Continuous improvement of efficiency
of generators and converters
• Improved power quality
• Investigate high penetration grid issues
• Condition monitoring (CM)
• Development of control systems for
structural load minimisation
• New generator concepts
• Electric load flow control and adaptive
loads
• Fully integrate distributed generation,
load management, fuel production
• Transmission options for far offshore
turbines
• Integrate CM with system health
management
Economics/
Incentives
• Analysis of existing policy mechanisms • Improved incentives and financing, both
for developed and developing countries
28
39. A Global Report on Photovoltaic and Wind Energy
Short-term
(2008-2013)
Mid- and long-term
(2013-2030)
Offshore Wind
Energy
• Establish design basis for offshore wind
turbines
• Investigate fundamental design issues
for larger offshore turbines
• Continuous: marine environment
studies (oceanographic, biological,
metocean design conditions)
• Study wind characteristics within large
offshore arrays
• Support structures for progressively
deeper water
• Design codes for wind/wave/ large
flexible structure interactions
• Modelling and prediction of winds/
waves/ currents in deep water
• Advanced offshore operation and
maintenance techniques
• Deep water environmental issues
• Very large turbines for offshore
Monitoring and
Operations
• Designs for reliability
• Improved access methods, especially
for offshore
• Integrated condition monitoring,
structural health management
• Robotic maintenance for offshore
Applications
• Redesign small/medium size turbines to
apply large turbine experience
• Design systems for high penetration
reliability
• Investigate special purpose applications
(e.g. desalination, hydrogen)
• Develop ‘plug and play’ hybrid power
systems
• Develop storage and fuel production for
isolated networks
• Perfect special purpose applications
(e.g. desalination, hydrogen)
Social /
Environmental
• Comparative environmental studies
(e.g. local impacts vs. regional benefits)
• Public engagement and involvement in
land-use planning procedures
• Sound reduction and cancellation
• Telecommunications and radar issues
• Aesthetic integration of turbines into
landscape
• Potential impacts on plants and wildlife
in general
29
40. Research and Development on Renewable Energies
4. References
Introduction
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European Renewable Energy Council, Brussels.
IEA (2008a) Energy Technology Perspectives 2008: Strategies and Scenarios to 2050. International Energy
Agency, Paris.
REN21 (2008) REN21 Global Status Report. REN21, Paris.
REN21 (2007) Renewable Energy Potentials – Summary Report. REN21, Paris.
WBGU (2003) World in Transition – Towards Sustainable Energy Systems. WBGU (German Advisory Council on
Global Change), Berlin.
Photovoltaics
DOE (2004) US Photovoltaics Industry Roadmap. Prepared by the Solar Energy Industries Association
(http://www.seia.org).
EIA (2009) US Data Projections - Renewable Energy Generating Capacity and Generation, Energy Information
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EPIA/Greenpeace (2001) Solar Generation. European Photovoltaic Industry Association, Brussels and
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EPIA (2009) Global market outlook for photovoltaics until 2013. European Photovoltaic Industry Association,
Brussels.
EPIA (2004) EPIA Roadmap. European Photovoltaic Industry Association, Brussels.
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Brussels.
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IEA (2008b) Energy Technology Perspectives 2008. International Energy Agency, Paris.
IEA (2007) World Energy Outlook 2007. International Energy Agency, Paris
(http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org).
IEA-PVPS (2007) Trends in Photovoltaic Applications: Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and
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IEA-PVPS (2006) Photovoltaic Power Systems Program Report: Trends in Photovoltaic Applications in Selected
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IEA Countries between 1992 and 2006. International Energy Agency, Paris, and Photovoltaic Power Systems
Programme, Switzerland.
Jaeger-Waldau A. (2005) Research, Solar Cell Production and Market Implementation of Photovoltaics. PV Status
Report 2005, EUR 21836 EN, EC–JRC.
Kurokawa K. and Aratani F. (2004) Perceived Technical Issues Accompanying Large PV Development and
Japanese ‘PV2030’. Proceedings of the 19th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, Paris, France
(June 2004).
Lewis N.S. (2005) Address to the 31st IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, Florida, USA (January 2005).
Maycock, P. (2007) PV News, vol. 26 no. 3 (March 2007).
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Development Organization, Japan
(http://www.nedo.go.jp/english/archives/161027/pv2030roadmap.pdf).
NEDO (2004) PV Status Report 2004 [in Japanese]. NEDO FY2004 Contract Research prepared by Total
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NDRC (2007) Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable Energy in China. Chinese National
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the European Photovoltaic Technology Platform under contract: 513548.
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Global Change), Berlin.
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Taiwan (September 2006).
Zweibel K. (2005) The Terawatt challenge for thin-film PV. Technical Report NREL/TP-520-38350.
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Devine-Wright P. (2005) Beyond NIMBYism: Towards an integrated framework for understanding public
perceptions of wind energy. Wind Energy, vol. 8, pp 125–139.
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Gustavson M.R. (1979) Limits to wind power utilization. Science vol. 204, pp 13–17.
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31
42. List of Abbreviations
AWEA American Wind Energy Association
BoS balance of system
CHP combined heat and power
CIGS cadmium, indium, gallium (di)selenide
CO2 carbon dioxide
CPV optically concentrating PV
DOE US Department of Energy
EU European Union
EWEA European Wind Energy Association
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEF-STAP Global Environmental Facility - Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel
GJ gigajoule (109 Joule or 0.27 MWh)
ha hectare
IEA International Energy Agency
IEC International Electro-technical Commission
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JPY Japanese yen
kg kilogram (103 gram)
kl kilolitre (103 litre)
kV kilovolt (103 Volt)
kWe kilowatt electric (103 Watt)
NL The Netherlands
m metre
Mtoe millions of tonnes oil equivalent
MWe megawatt electric (106 Watt)
MWth megawatt thermal (106 Watt)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Si silicon
SOG-Si solar grade silicon
t tonne
TWh terawatt hours
UMG-Si upgraded metallurgical silicon
US United States of America
USD US dollar
USDA US Department of Agriculture
V volt
VGB Verein für Grosskraftwerk Betreiber (Association of Large Power Plant Operators)
W watt
WWEA World Wind Energy Association
yr year
Research and Development on Renewable Energies
32
43. Photographs: All images stock.xchng, except FEMA/Bill Klopitz (Chapter 4 and cover), W. Ratterman SunEPI 2005 (cover, top left) and USAF
(back cover, top right)
Graphic design report by: www.ardephwerk.fr
Graphic design cover and layout by: Carmela Garipoli
Acknowledgement: We thank US-NSF (GEO-0837928) for partial support of this publication.