This document provides an overview of an introductory biogeography course. It introduces the instructor, Ian Hutchinson, and TA Julie Sabau. It outlines course details like assignments, grading, and required readings. It then defines biogeography as the study of organism distributions and factors influencing them. The goals of biogeography are to develop laws explaining distributions and provide information to conserve resources. Key questions are what organisms are found where, how they are adapted, and how distributions have changed. The document discusses taxonomy and different species concepts, highlighting debates around defining species. It also introduces DNA barcoding as a tool for identifying potential cryptic species.
The document discusses evidence for evolution and Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin observed variations between populations of organisms in different environments and concluded that physical traits enabling organisms to better survive and reproduce will be naturally selected, leading to evolution over time. Darwin's ideas were initially challenged but are now widely accepted, as tremendous evidence has accumulated from many scientific disciplines supporting the theory of evolution.
First year SBC174 Evolution course - week 2
1. NeoDarwinism/ModernSynthesis
2. Major transitions in Evolution
3. Geological Timescales
4. Some drivers of evolution
The document discusses the theory of biological evolution, including key concepts such as common ancestry, genetic variation over generations, natural selection, and speciation leading to diversity of life. It covers Darwin's theory that natural selection is the mechanism of evolution. Later, molecular analysis of genetic sequences helped map phylogenetic trees to show evolutionary relationships between organisms and domains of life more accurately.
PowerPoint presentation that highlights chapters 13 and 14 in Campbell's Essential Biology (3rd. edition). It can also be used for Miller & Levine's Biology (2006 Ed.) for chapters 15-18.
This document provides an overview of biological classification systems and kingdoms. It discusses how biologists classify organisms based on visible similarities and evolutionary relationships. Organisms are grouped in a hierarchical system with seven main levels from most specific (species) to most general (kingdom). There are currently six recognized kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria. Molecular comparisons of DNA are also used to determine evolutionary relationships and estimate times of species divergence. The key kingdoms are described in terms of their basic characteristics.
This document provides an overview of biological classification systems and kingdoms. It discusses:
1) Carolus Linnaeus' hierarchical classification system with 7 levels (species to kingdom); organisms were grouped based on visible similarities.
2) Evolutionary classification groups organisms based on evolutionary relationships and derived characters rather than just physical similarities.
3) Current systems recognize 6 kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria. DNA comparisons help determine evolutionary relationships.
4) The kingdoms are described in brief, highlighting key distinguishing features of plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
The document discusses evidence for evolution and Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin observed variations between populations of organisms in different environments and concluded that physical traits enabling organisms to better survive and reproduce will be naturally selected, leading to evolution over time. Darwin's ideas were initially challenged but are now widely accepted, as tremendous evidence has accumulated from many scientific disciplines supporting the theory of evolution.
First year SBC174 Evolution course - week 2
1. NeoDarwinism/ModernSynthesis
2. Major transitions in Evolution
3. Geological Timescales
4. Some drivers of evolution
The document discusses the theory of biological evolution, including key concepts such as common ancestry, genetic variation over generations, natural selection, and speciation leading to diversity of life. It covers Darwin's theory that natural selection is the mechanism of evolution. Later, molecular analysis of genetic sequences helped map phylogenetic trees to show evolutionary relationships between organisms and domains of life more accurately.
PowerPoint presentation that highlights chapters 13 and 14 in Campbell's Essential Biology (3rd. edition). It can also be used for Miller & Levine's Biology (2006 Ed.) for chapters 15-18.
This document provides an overview of biological classification systems and kingdoms. It discusses how biologists classify organisms based on visible similarities and evolutionary relationships. Organisms are grouped in a hierarchical system with seven main levels from most specific (species) to most general (kingdom). There are currently six recognized kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria. Molecular comparisons of DNA are also used to determine evolutionary relationships and estimate times of species divergence. The key kingdoms are described in terms of their basic characteristics.
This document provides an overview of biological classification systems and kingdoms. It discusses:
1) Carolus Linnaeus' hierarchical classification system with 7 levels (species to kingdom); organisms were grouped based on visible similarities.
2) Evolutionary classification groups organisms based on evolutionary relationships and derived characters rather than just physical similarities.
3) Current systems recognize 6 kingdoms - Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, and Bacteria. DNA comparisons help determine evolutionary relationships.
4) The kingdoms are described in brief, highlighting key distinguishing features of plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
The document discusses different species concepts:
1. The typological species concept defines a species as having an idealized, invariant pattern shared by all members. It considers variation as trivial.
2. The nominalistic species concept believes that only individuals exist in nature, not species, which are human constructs.
3. The biological species concept defines a species as a group of interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from other such groups. It is widely accepted but has limitations for asexual groups, cryptic species, and evolutionary intermediates.
4. The evolutionary species concept defines a species as a lineage evolving separately from other lineages with its own ecological niche. It aims to address limitations of the biological concept.
Evolution occurs as all living things on Earth are descended from common ancestors. Over billions of years, organisms have diverged into the millions of species alive today through the process of natural selection. Evidence for evolution comes from multiple sources, including fossils that show changes over time, anatomical similarities between related species, and overwhelming genetic evidence from molecular biology. Natural selection is the mechanism driving evolutionary change as it favors heritable traits that increase an organism's chances of surviving and reproducing.
The document discusses several key aspects of speciation and taxonomy:
1) Speciation requires isolation of populations which then undergo genetic divergence and reproductive isolation. The main types of speciation discussed are allopatric and sympatric speciation.
2) Mechanisms of reproductive isolation that can lead to speciation include geographical, ecological, temporal, behavioral, mechanical and gametic isolation.
3) Polyploidy, where organisms have more than two paired sets of chromosomes, is another path to speciation discussed.
4) The document outlines the history of taxonomy from Aristotle to the current three domain system recognizing bacteria, archaea and eukarya based on genetic analysis.
Writing The Encyclopedia Of Life (not EoL.org)Vince Smith
The document discusses the goal of comprehensively inventorying and documenting Earth's biodiversity through the Encyclopedia of Life project. It notes that while about 1.8 million species have been described, the total number is estimated to be between 10-30 million. The challenges discussed include integrating fragmented data from different sources and communities, addressing issues around incentives, politics, and licensing to encourage global collaboration on the project. Technical challenges involve developing standards, platforms, and web services to aggregate and semantically link biodiversity data at large scale.
This document provides information about various topics in zoology including:
1) It outlines four main branches of life science - botany, zoology, genetics, and ecology. Zoology is defined as the science dealing with animals and animal life.
2) It then discusses seven key properties of living systems - chemical uniqueness, complexity/hierarchy, reproduction, genetic programs, metabolism, growth/development, and environmental interaction.
3) It provides an overview of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including its five major concepts of perpetual change, common descent, multiplication of species, gradualism, and natural selection.
4) It describes several types of zoological research including structural, physiological,
The document discusses biology and the levels of organization of living things. It explains that biology is the study of living organisms and how they interact with their environment. It describes the hierarchical levels of organization from the biosphere level down to molecules. Key levels include ecosystems, organisms, cells, organelles and molecules. The document also discusses the unity of life based on DNA and how cells are the basic functional units of organisms. It provides examples to illustrate biological concepts like producers and consumers in ecosystems.
This document discusses various concepts of what constitutes a species and mechanisms of speciation. It describes how species are defined under different species concepts, such as the biological species concept, morphological species concept, and phylogenetic species concept. The document also outlines various mechanisms that can lead to the formation of new species, including geographic isolation, changes in chromosome number, assortative mating, adaptation to different habitats, and sensory drive. Larger geographic ranges and habitat heterogeneity are associated with higher rates of diversification and speciation.
This lesson discusses Biodiversity and Evolution
define biodiversity and evolution;
cite the contributions of Charles Darwin to the theory of evolution;
account for the evidence of evolution;
explain how biodiversity and evolution affect life;
demonstrate how biodiversity and evolution help an ecosystem to function;
explain the role of natural selection in the evolutionary process; and
relate evolution and speciation.
define what an ecosystem is;
identify the components of ecological structures in an ecosystem;
explain how diversity contributes to stability and survival;
cite examples of what helps and what disrupts the interaction in an ecosystem;
analyze how the human population affects the different ecosystems; and
apply the knowledge of biodiversity in the maintenance of an ecosystem and vice versa.
The document provides an overview of topics and activities for a unit on biodiversity and evolution. It discusses the importance of biodiversity, including species, genetic, and ecosystem diversity. It introduces key concepts such as evolution by natural selection and plate tectonics changing the environment and influencing the evolution of species over time.
Evolution natural selection_and_speciation 6 kingsJames H. Workman
The document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes how Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution after observing variations between species on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Darwin proposed that organisms evolve over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that increase an individual's chances of survival and reproduction. The document then provides examples of evidence that support evolution, including the fossil record, comparative anatomy and biochemistry, and experiments like the Miller-Urey experiment that show how basic organic molecules could have formed on early Earth.
Evolution, Natural Selection, Taxonomy, and Anthropologycgales
The document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes how Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution after observing variations between species on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Darwin proposed that organisms evolve over generations through natural selection of heritable traits that increase an individual's chance of survival and reproduction. The document then provides examples of evidence that support evolution, including fossils, comparative anatomy and biochemistry, and experiments simulating early Earth conditions.
This document discusses taxonomy and systematics. It defines taxonomy as the theory and practice of classifying organisms, while systematics is the broader science of studying organism diversity and relationships. The key points are:
1. Taxonomy involves naming and arranging taxa in a hierarchical system of categories like kingdom, phylum, class etc.
2. A taxon is a formally recognized group of organisms at any level, while a category designates the taxonomic rank.
3. The history of taxonomy involved shifts from downward to upward classification as empirical methods replaced typological concepts.
4. The biological species concept defines species as interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from others.
Herpetology. An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles ( PDFDrive ).pdfSheikhaAMPANG
The diversity of living creatures on our planet is extraordi- nary—and thus, trying to understand how those organisms function, and how and why they do the things they do, is an awesome challenge. To make the challenge a bit more manageable, we traditionally divide the study of biology into many categories, some based on methodology (e.g., “microscopy” or “molecular biology”), some on function (e.g., “ecology” or “physiology”), and some on relatedness among the things that are to be studied (e.g., “ornithology” or “herpetology”). At first sight, this last way of slicing the cake seems a bit old-fashioned—surely we can simply ask the same questions and use the same methods, regard- less of what kind of organism we might be studying? If so, are traditional taxonomy-based divisions just historical relics of the early naturalists, doomed to eventual extinc- tion by the rise of powerful conceptual and methodologi- cal advances? Nothing could be further from the truth. Entrancing as the new approaches and conceptual divisions are, the real- ity of life on Earth is that organisms do fall into instantly recognizable types. Few people would mistake a tree for a lizard, or a whale for an insect. The reason is simple: Evo- lution is an historical process that creates biodiversity by the accumulation of small changes along genealogies, with the vast majority of species becoming extinct during that process. So the end result at any time in Earth’s history is a series of terminal branches from the great tree of life—terminal branches that form larger branches, that in turn coalesce to form even larger branches, and so forth. All the species within each of those larger branches share common ancestors not shared by any species on the other branches, and as a result, the species within each branch resemble each other in many ways. For example, no amphibian embryo grows up with an amniotic membrane around it in the egg, whereas every reptile embryo has one. The evolutionary conservatism of major characteristics such as metabolic rates, reproductive modes, feeding structures, and the like in turn have imposed evolutionary pressures on myriad other features—and the end result is that the diversity of life is packaged into a meaningful set of categories. That is the reason why most of us can easily distinguish a frog from any other kind of animal
and can even tell the difference between a crocodile and a lizard. And it is a major reason why there is immense value in defining a scientific field based on evolutionary relatedness of the creatures being studied, not just on methods or concepts. So “herpetology” is a useful cate- gory: If we really want to understand what animals do, we can’t ignore the history behind each type of organism. Many of its features will be determined by that history, not by current forces. Because of that historical underpinning.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about biodiversity and evolution. It begins by listing learning objectives, such as defining biodiversity and evolution, explaining how they affect life, and relating evolution to speciation. It then introduces topics like Charles Darwin's contributions to the theory of evolution and natural selection. It also summarizes evidence that supports evolution, including fossil records, comparative anatomy, and observable changes in species over time.
1) Evolution is the scientific theory that organisms are related by descent from common ancestors and that biological traits can change over generations through natural selection or genetic drift.
2) Evidence for evolution comes from multiple scientific disciplines including fossils, biogeography, embryology, and genetics. Comparisons of DNA, protein sequences, and anatomical structures among different species provide overwhelming support for the theory of evolution.
3) Natural selection is the primary mechanism of evolution. It occurs when heritable traits increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Over generations, organisms best adapted to their environment will survive and pass on their favorable traits.
This document provides an overview of phylogenetic methodologies. It defines key phylogenetic terms like clade, internal node, and outgroups. It discusses different species concepts and how phylogenetic trees illustrate evolutionary relationships. It also covers popular phylogenetic methodologies like distance methods, maximum parsimony, and maximum likelihood. Distance methods calculate pairwise distances and cluster sequences into trees. UPGMA averages these distances while neighbor joining finds the shortest branches. The document highlights the use of phylogenetic analysis across various fields.
There are many different concepts of what constitutes a species. These concepts include biological, ecological, evolutionary, and phylogenetic species concepts. There is no universal agreement on how to define species. Determining whether species are real, and delineating species boundaries accurately is challenging given the various concepts and lack of consensus on an approach. Higher taxa concepts are also debated in terms of their philosophical reality.
There are many different concepts of what constitutes a species. These concepts include biological, ecological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, and morphological species concepts. There is no universal agreement on how to define species. Applying different concepts can lead to inconsistent estimates of biodiversity. While species are generally considered the basic units of conservation, higher taxa may not be comparable depending on the species concept used.
The document is a set of slides for a lecture on deuterostomes, specifically echinoderms and hemichordates. It includes a phylogenetic tree of animals showing the relationships between major groups like sponges, cnidarians, protostomes, deuterostomes. It also notes some of the key innovations along the branches, such as the development of multicellularity and tissues in the common ancestor of all animals.
The document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It explains that Darwin proposed that all species gradually change over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that aid survival and reproduction in their environment. Darwin suggested that evolution occurs through natural selection acting on genetic variation between individuals in a population, with favorable traits becoming more common. Over many generations, this process can result in new species developing. The theory was developed further by scientists like Gregor Mendel and discoveries like DNA provided evidence supporting evolution as the mechanism for life's diversity and unity across generations.
Evolution occurs as all living things on Earth are descended from common ancestors. Over billions of years, organisms have diverged into the millions of species alive today through the process of natural selection. Evidence for evolution comes from multiple sources, including fossils that show changes over time, anatomical similarities between related species, and overwhelming genetic evidence from molecular biology. Natural selection is the mechanism driving evolutionary change as it favors heritable traits that increase an organism's chances of surviving and reproducing.
The document discusses several key aspects of speciation and taxonomy:
1) Speciation requires isolation of populations which then undergo genetic divergence and reproductive isolation. The main types of speciation discussed are allopatric and sympatric speciation.
2) Mechanisms of reproductive isolation that can lead to speciation include geographical, ecological, temporal, behavioral, mechanical and gametic isolation.
3) Polyploidy, where organisms have more than two paired sets of chromosomes, is another path to speciation discussed.
4) The document outlines the history of taxonomy from Aristotle to the current three domain system recognizing bacteria, archaea and eukarya based on genetic analysis.
Writing The Encyclopedia Of Life (not EoL.org)Vince Smith
The document discusses the goal of comprehensively inventorying and documenting Earth's biodiversity through the Encyclopedia of Life project. It notes that while about 1.8 million species have been described, the total number is estimated to be between 10-30 million. The challenges discussed include integrating fragmented data from different sources and communities, addressing issues around incentives, politics, and licensing to encourage global collaboration on the project. Technical challenges involve developing standards, platforms, and web services to aggregate and semantically link biodiversity data at large scale.
This document provides information about various topics in zoology including:
1) It outlines four main branches of life science - botany, zoology, genetics, and ecology. Zoology is defined as the science dealing with animals and animal life.
2) It then discusses seven key properties of living systems - chemical uniqueness, complexity/hierarchy, reproduction, genetic programs, metabolism, growth/development, and environmental interaction.
3) It provides an overview of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, including its five major concepts of perpetual change, common descent, multiplication of species, gradualism, and natural selection.
4) It describes several types of zoological research including structural, physiological,
The document discusses biology and the levels of organization of living things. It explains that biology is the study of living organisms and how they interact with their environment. It describes the hierarchical levels of organization from the biosphere level down to molecules. Key levels include ecosystems, organisms, cells, organelles and molecules. The document also discusses the unity of life based on DNA and how cells are the basic functional units of organisms. It provides examples to illustrate biological concepts like producers and consumers in ecosystems.
This document discusses various concepts of what constitutes a species and mechanisms of speciation. It describes how species are defined under different species concepts, such as the biological species concept, morphological species concept, and phylogenetic species concept. The document also outlines various mechanisms that can lead to the formation of new species, including geographic isolation, changes in chromosome number, assortative mating, adaptation to different habitats, and sensory drive. Larger geographic ranges and habitat heterogeneity are associated with higher rates of diversification and speciation.
This lesson discusses Biodiversity and Evolution
define biodiversity and evolution;
cite the contributions of Charles Darwin to the theory of evolution;
account for the evidence of evolution;
explain how biodiversity and evolution affect life;
demonstrate how biodiversity and evolution help an ecosystem to function;
explain the role of natural selection in the evolutionary process; and
relate evolution and speciation.
define what an ecosystem is;
identify the components of ecological structures in an ecosystem;
explain how diversity contributes to stability and survival;
cite examples of what helps and what disrupts the interaction in an ecosystem;
analyze how the human population affects the different ecosystems; and
apply the knowledge of biodiversity in the maintenance of an ecosystem and vice versa.
The document provides an overview of topics and activities for a unit on biodiversity and evolution. It discusses the importance of biodiversity, including species, genetic, and ecosystem diversity. It introduces key concepts such as evolution by natural selection and plate tectonics changing the environment and influencing the evolution of species over time.
Evolution natural selection_and_speciation 6 kingsJames H. Workman
The document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes how Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution after observing variations between species on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Darwin proposed that organisms evolve over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that increase an individual's chances of survival and reproduction. The document then provides examples of evidence that support evolution, including the fossil record, comparative anatomy and biochemistry, and experiments like the Miller-Urey experiment that show how basic organic molecules could have formed on early Earth.
Evolution, Natural Selection, Taxonomy, and Anthropologycgales
The document discusses evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes how Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution after observing variations between species on his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Darwin proposed that organisms evolve over generations through natural selection of heritable traits that increase an individual's chance of survival and reproduction. The document then provides examples of evidence that support evolution, including fossils, comparative anatomy and biochemistry, and experiments simulating early Earth conditions.
This document discusses taxonomy and systematics. It defines taxonomy as the theory and practice of classifying organisms, while systematics is the broader science of studying organism diversity and relationships. The key points are:
1. Taxonomy involves naming and arranging taxa in a hierarchical system of categories like kingdom, phylum, class etc.
2. A taxon is a formally recognized group of organisms at any level, while a category designates the taxonomic rank.
3. The history of taxonomy involved shifts from downward to upward classification as empirical methods replaced typological concepts.
4. The biological species concept defines species as interbreeding natural populations reproductively isolated from others.
Herpetology. An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles ( PDFDrive ).pdfSheikhaAMPANG
The diversity of living creatures on our planet is extraordi- nary—and thus, trying to understand how those organisms function, and how and why they do the things they do, is an awesome challenge. To make the challenge a bit more manageable, we traditionally divide the study of biology into many categories, some based on methodology (e.g., “microscopy” or “molecular biology”), some on function (e.g., “ecology” or “physiology”), and some on relatedness among the things that are to be studied (e.g., “ornithology” or “herpetology”). At first sight, this last way of slicing the cake seems a bit old-fashioned—surely we can simply ask the same questions and use the same methods, regard- less of what kind of organism we might be studying? If so, are traditional taxonomy-based divisions just historical relics of the early naturalists, doomed to eventual extinc- tion by the rise of powerful conceptual and methodologi- cal advances? Nothing could be further from the truth. Entrancing as the new approaches and conceptual divisions are, the real- ity of life on Earth is that organisms do fall into instantly recognizable types. Few people would mistake a tree for a lizard, or a whale for an insect. The reason is simple: Evo- lution is an historical process that creates biodiversity by the accumulation of small changes along genealogies, with the vast majority of species becoming extinct during that process. So the end result at any time in Earth’s history is a series of terminal branches from the great tree of life—terminal branches that form larger branches, that in turn coalesce to form even larger branches, and so forth. All the species within each of those larger branches share common ancestors not shared by any species on the other branches, and as a result, the species within each branch resemble each other in many ways. For example, no amphibian embryo grows up with an amniotic membrane around it in the egg, whereas every reptile embryo has one. The evolutionary conservatism of major characteristics such as metabolic rates, reproductive modes, feeding structures, and the like in turn have imposed evolutionary pressures on myriad other features—and the end result is that the diversity of life is packaged into a meaningful set of categories. That is the reason why most of us can easily distinguish a frog from any other kind of animal
and can even tell the difference between a crocodile and a lizard. And it is a major reason why there is immense value in defining a scientific field based on evolutionary relatedness of the creatures being studied, not just on methods or concepts. So “herpetology” is a useful cate- gory: If we really want to understand what animals do, we can’t ignore the history behind each type of organism. Many of its features will be determined by that history, not by current forces. Because of that historical underpinning.
This document provides an overview of key concepts about biodiversity and evolution. It begins by listing learning objectives, such as defining biodiversity and evolution, explaining how they affect life, and relating evolution to speciation. It then introduces topics like Charles Darwin's contributions to the theory of evolution and natural selection. It also summarizes evidence that supports evolution, including fossil records, comparative anatomy, and observable changes in species over time.
1) Evolution is the scientific theory that organisms are related by descent from common ancestors and that biological traits can change over generations through natural selection or genetic drift.
2) Evidence for evolution comes from multiple scientific disciplines including fossils, biogeography, embryology, and genetics. Comparisons of DNA, protein sequences, and anatomical structures among different species provide overwhelming support for the theory of evolution.
3) Natural selection is the primary mechanism of evolution. It occurs when heritable traits increase an organism's ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Over generations, organisms best adapted to their environment will survive and pass on their favorable traits.
This document provides an overview of phylogenetic methodologies. It defines key phylogenetic terms like clade, internal node, and outgroups. It discusses different species concepts and how phylogenetic trees illustrate evolutionary relationships. It also covers popular phylogenetic methodologies like distance methods, maximum parsimony, and maximum likelihood. Distance methods calculate pairwise distances and cluster sequences into trees. UPGMA averages these distances while neighbor joining finds the shortest branches. The document highlights the use of phylogenetic analysis across various fields.
There are many different concepts of what constitutes a species. These concepts include biological, ecological, evolutionary, and phylogenetic species concepts. There is no universal agreement on how to define species. Determining whether species are real, and delineating species boundaries accurately is challenging given the various concepts and lack of consensus on an approach. Higher taxa concepts are also debated in terms of their philosophical reality.
There are many different concepts of what constitutes a species. These concepts include biological, ecological, evolutionary, phylogenetic, and morphological species concepts. There is no universal agreement on how to define species. Applying different concepts can lead to inconsistent estimates of biodiversity. While species are generally considered the basic units of conservation, higher taxa may not be comparable depending on the species concept used.
The document is a set of slides for a lecture on deuterostomes, specifically echinoderms and hemichordates. It includes a phylogenetic tree of animals showing the relationships between major groups like sponges, cnidarians, protostomes, deuterostomes. It also notes some of the key innovations along the branches, such as the development of multicellularity and tissues in the common ancestor of all animals.
The document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It explains that Darwin proposed that all species gradually change over generations through natural selection of inheritable traits that aid survival and reproduction in their environment. Darwin suggested that evolution occurs through natural selection acting on genetic variation between individuals in a population, with favorable traits becoming more common. Over many generations, this process can result in new species developing. The theory was developed further by scientists like Gregor Mendel and discoveries like DNA provided evidence supporting evolution as the mechanism for life's diversity and unity across generations.
ENVIRONMENT~ Renewable Energy Sources and their future prospects.tiwarimanvi3129
This presentation is for us to know that how our Environment need Attention for protection of our natural resources which are depleted day by day that's why we need to take time and shift our attention to renewable energy sources instead of non-renewable sources which are better and Eco-friendly for our environment. these renewable energy sources are so helpful for our planet and for every living organism which depends on environment.
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies.EpconLP
Epcon is One of the World's leading Manufacturing Companies. With over 4000 installations worldwide, EPCON has been pioneering new techniques since 1977 that have become industry standards now. Founded in 1977, Epcon has grown from a one-man operation to a global leader in developing and manufacturing innovative air pollution control technology and industrial heating equipment.
Presented by The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action at GLF Peatlands 2024 - The Global Peatlands Assessment: Mapping, Policy, and Action
Microbial characterisation and identification, and potability of River Kuywa ...Open Access Research Paper
Water contamination is one of the major causes of water borne diseases worldwide. In Kenya, approximately 43% of people lack access to potable water due to human contamination. River Kuywa water is currently experiencing contamination due to human activities. Its water is widely used for domestic, agricultural, industrial and recreational purposes. This study aimed at characterizing bacteria and fungi in river Kuywa water. Water samples were randomly collected from four sites of the river: site A (Matisi), site B (Ngwelo), site C (Nzoia water pump) and site D (Chalicha), during the dry season (January-March 2018) and wet season (April-July 2018) and were transported to Maseno University Microbiology and plant pathology laboratory for analysis. The characterization and identification of bacteria and fungi were carried out using standard microbiological techniques. Nine bacterial genera and three fungi were identified from Kuywa river water. Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus spp., Enterobacter spp., Streptococcus spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Shigella spp., Proteus spp. and Salmonella spp. Fungi were Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus complex and Penicillium species. Wet season recorded highest bacterial and fungal counts (6.61-7.66 and 3.83-6.75cfu/ml) respectively. The results indicated that the river Kuywa water is polluted and therefore unsafe for human consumption before treatment. It is therefore recommended that the communities to ensure that they boil water especially for drinking.
Improving the viability of probiotics by encapsulation methods for developmen...Open Access Research Paper
The popularity of functional foods among scientists and common people has been increasing day by day. Awareness and modernization make the consumer think better regarding food and nutrition. Now a day’s individual knows very well about the relation between food consumption and disease prevalence. Humans have a diversity of microbes in the gut that together form the gut microflora. Probiotics are the health-promoting live microbial cells improve host health through gut and brain connection and fighting against harmful bacteria. Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus are the two bacterial genera which are considered to be probiotic. These good bacteria are facing challenges of viability. There are so many factors such as sensitivity to heat, pH, acidity, osmotic effect, mechanical shear, chemical components, freezing and storage time as well which affects the viability of probiotics in the dairy food matrix as well as in the gut. Multiple efforts have been done in the past and ongoing in present for these beneficial microbial population stability until their destination in the gut. One of a useful technique known as microencapsulation makes the probiotic effective in the diversified conditions and maintain these microbe’s community to the optimum level for achieving targeted benefits. Dairy products are found to be an ideal vehicle for probiotic incorporation. It has been seen that the encapsulated microbial cells show higher viability than the free cells in different processing and storage conditions as well as against bile salts in the gut. They make the food functional when incorporated, without affecting the product sensory characteristics.
Evolving Lifecycles with High Resolution Site Characterization (HRSC) and 3-D...Joshua Orris
The incorporation of a 3DCSM and completion of HRSC provided a tool for enhanced, data-driven, decisions to support a change in remediation closure strategies. Currently, an approved pilot study has been obtained to shut-down the remediation systems (ISCO, P&T) and conduct a hydraulic study under non-pumping conditions. A separate micro-biological bench scale treatability study was competed that yielded positive results for an emerging innovative technology. As a result, a field pilot study has commenced with results expected in nine-twelve months. With the results of the hydraulic study, field pilot studies and an updated risk assessment leading site monitoring optimization cost lifecycle savings upwards of $15MM towards an alternatively evolved best available technology remediation closure strategy.
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Kinetic studies on malachite green dye adsorption from aqueous solutions by A...Open Access Research Paper
Water polluted by dyestuffs compounds is a global threat to health and the environment; accordingly, we prepared a green novel sorbent chemical and Physical system from an algae, chitosan and chitosan nanoparticle and impregnated with algae with chitosan nanocomposite for the sorption of Malachite green dye from water. The algae with chitosan nanocomposite by a simple method and used as a recyclable and effective adsorbent for the removal of malachite green dye from aqueous solutions. Algae, chitosan, chitosan nanoparticle and algae with chitosan nanocomposite were characterized using different physicochemical methods. The functional groups and chemical compounds found in algae, chitosan, chitosan algae, chitosan nanoparticle, and chitosan nanoparticle with algae were identified using FTIR, SEM, and TGADTA/DTG techniques. The optimal adsorption conditions, different dosages, pH and Temperature the amount of algae with chitosan nanocomposite were determined. At optimized conditions and the batch equilibrium studies more than 99% of the dye was removed. The adsorption process data matched well kinetics showed that the reaction order for dye varied with pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. Furthermore, the maximum adsorption capacity of the algae with chitosan nanocomposite toward malachite green dye reached as high as 15.5mg/g, respectively. Finally, multiple times reusing of algae with chitosan nanocomposite and removing dye from a real wastewater has made it a promising and attractive option for further practical applications.
2. GEOG 215 - Housekeeping
• Course email: geog-215@sfu.ca
• Lecture slides and all handouts are posted
on the course web site:
www.sfu.ca/~ianh/geog215/
• “Thumbnail” booklets available from Student
Copy Centre [Maggie Benson Bldg.] (~$12).
• All readings are from the text (MacDonald,
2003).
3. GEOG 215 - Grades, etc.
• Laboratory assignments: 25%
• Poster project: 25%
includes research journal: 5%
• Midterm exam: 20%
• Final exam: 30%
4. What is biogeography?
Biogeography:
the study of the geographical distribution
of organisms, their habitats (ecological
biogeography), and the historical and
biological factors which produced them
(historical biogeography).
Lincoln , R.J., Boxshall, G.A., and Clark, P.F. 1982.
Dictionary of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics.
Cambridge University Press.
5. Goals of biogeography
1. To develop natural laws and concepts that
explain biogeographic processes and account
for the development of biotic distributions.
2. To provide baseline information on the
spatial and temporal distribution of
organisms that can be used to conserve and
manage Earth’s biotic resources and
heritage.
6. Central questions of biogeography
• What organisms are found where?
• How are these organisms adapted
to the local environment?
• How have their distributions
changed through time?
7. “There’s nothing as
ROMANTIC
as biogeography”
Edward Wilson,
Emeritus Professor of Comparative Zoology, Harvard.
(quoted by David Quammen: “The Song of the Dodo” [1996])
9. Is multi-dimensionality romantic?
Time: past future
global
local
SPACE
Why are the pieces laid
out as they are, and how are
their distributions changing?
Evolving and mobile pieces
(life-forms)
Changing table-top
(environment)
12. GEOG 215: Course themes
Life forms
Geological history
and evolution
The physical template
(climate, soils, landforms)
Recent and future
environmental change
Ecological communities
and their dynamics
14. Search for an “atomic” unit
“Of what then is biodiversity composed? Since antiquity
biologists have felt a need to posit an atomic unit by which
diversity can be broken apart, then described, measured,
and reassembled… Western science is built on the
obsessive … search for atomic units with which abstract
laws and principles can be derived. Scientific knowledge is
written in the vocabulary of atoms, subatomic particles,
molecules, organisms, ecosystems, and many other units,
including species. The metaconcept holding all the units
together is hierarchy, which presupposes levels of
organization.”
Wilson, E.O. 1992. The Diversity of Life, Penguin. p. 35
15. Biological hierarchies
Taxonomic Ecological Trophic
order (etc.) biome top carnivores
family community carnivores
genus association herbivores
species species primary producers
subspecies
population
individual
Only in trophic hierarchies
where the focus is energy
flow are species not an
essential unit
16. Some basic terminology
• Taxonomy: classification & naming of
organisms [taxis (Gr.) = “order”]
• Systematics includes evolutionary
relationships of organisms
• Ecology: how organisms interact and are
affected by their environment
• Trophic: how energy flows in an ecological
community
17. Towards a scientific taxonomy
Folk taxonomy:
1. Inuit in one district of Arctic Canada
have 100 names for local birds.
2. Tzeltal-language speakers in Chiapas
have 1100 names for local plants.
Sources:
Irving, L. 1953. The naming of birds by Nunamiut Eskimo. Arctic, 6, 35-43.
Berlin, B. 1966. Folk taxonomies and Biological Classification. Science, 154,
273-275.
18. Taxonomy in the
“Classical World”
Aristotle (384–322 BC ). formulated two
classifications, genos and eidos. Genos
referred to broad categories of animals, (e.g.
reptiles), while eidos were animals in a genos.
Aristotle's system was intentionally
hierarchical with mammals placed at the top of
the hierarchy. Aristotle’s ideas held sway (in
Europe) until the 17th century.
19. Early modern taxonomy
John Ray (1627–1705) introduced the term
species, which he defined (following plant
and animal breeders) as a group of
organisms capable of interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring. His taxonomy
used multiple morphological characters to
classify species (e.g. flowers, seeds, fruits
and roots for plants).
20. Formalized species descriptions based
on diagnostic traits
Linnean taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus
(1707-1778)
(aka Carl von Linné
and Carolus Linnaeus)
Hierarchy based on groupings of
species and genera, not splitting of
larger classes
Latin binomials (Genus, species)
[following the Swiss botanist Bauhin {1560-1634}]
replace long Latin descriptions
(e.g. Sturnella magna = ‘big lark’)
21. Linnean taxonomy:
Eng: eastern meadowlark
Sp: pradero tortilla-con-chile,
Fr: sturnelle des prés
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Aves (birds)
Order: Passeriformes (perching birds)
Family: Fringillidae (finches)
Genus: Sturnella
Species: Sturnella magna
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Subspecies: Up to 17 subspecies recognized (indicates local variation)
Image: Delbert Rust
22. Linnean taxonomy: diagnostic
morphologies of related species
Eastern meadowlarks
(Sturnella magna)
can be distinguished
from western
meadowlarks
(S. neglecta) by the
white (as opposed to
yellow) feathers
behind the lower
mandible.
Or can they?
Sturnella magna S. neglecta
Images: http://birds.cornell.edu/crows/mlarkdiff.htm
23. Why did Linnaeus base his
classification on species?
Are species real?
1. There is general agreement amongst disparate
human groups as to what constitutes separate
“sorts” of organisms, based on differential
morphology, and
2. “Like begets like” - intermediate forms are
rare.
24. The importance of the
species concept
“The species concept is crucial to the study of
biodiversity. It is the grail of systematic biology.
Not to have a natural unit such as the species
would be to abandon a large part of biology into
free fall. ….. Without natural species, ecosystems
could be analyzed only in the broadest terms, using
crude and shifting descriptions of the organisms
that compose them.”
Wilson, E.O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. Penguin. p. 36
25. “Species” in folk vs. scientific
taxonomies
Birds (Inuit)
102 birds
4
(2 names)
98 0
Plants (Tzeltal)
sample of 200 plants
82 68 50
under- 1:1 over-
differentiated differentiated
under-differentiated = fewer names for organisms than species recognized
by science; 1:1 = correspondence; over-differentiated = more names, etc.
(mainly cultivated plants; e.g. four varieties of beans)
27. Intra-specific variation in snow geese
separate species? or
just morpho-colour phases of the same species?
“lesser”
Eng: “greater”
Inuit: k(h)anguk
Eng: blue goose
Inuit: khavik
28.
29. Difficulties in defining species strictly on
morphological traits led to the adoption
of the
biological species concept.
“Species are groups of actually (or
potentially) interbreeding natural
populations which are reproductively
isolated from other such groups.”
Ernst Mayr (1953)
(apply this to previous examples)
30. Meadowlarks
• Western and eastern meadowlarks are almost
identical in appearance.
• Their geographical ranges overlap, but their distinct
songs prevent inter-breeding.
• The species are maintained by sexual signaling.
Images: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/
western
eastern
31. Merits of the biological
species concept
• Emphasises the critical importance of
evolutionary descent,
• Emphasises that species act as
discrete breeding groups - they breed
“true to type”.
• Provides a testable hypothesis - can
they produce viable offspring?
32. Drawbacks of the biological
species concept
• Some organisms that are morphologically
± distinct can interbreed (=“bad species”;
e.g. pines)
• We have knowledge of the breeding
behaviour of only a tiny proportion of the
living species on Earth.
• Impossible to apply to extinct species;
interbreeding cannot be directly
observed.
33. Does DNA “barcoding”
solve the problem?
• Mitochondrial DNA indicates the genetic similarity
between organisms and can be used to establish
an evolutionary time frame;
• mtDNA is passed on from mother to offspring. If
the mutation rate is known, the ancestry of the
lineage can be estimated (e.g. “Mitochondrial Eve”
lived about
~140 000 years ago])
• Many copies per cell; a single gene is all that is
required for “barcoding” plants or animals.
34. How much variation in
mtDNA is there in a taxon?
Cytochrome c
oxidase
subunit I
(COI) gene
Within
species
Within
genus
moths 0.25% 6.5%
birds 0.4% 7.9%
~20x
35. DNA barcodes: meadowlarks
• mtDNA sequencing indicates that the eastern
meadowlark (remember the 17 subspecies) consists of
two “cryptic” [i.e. difficult to differentiate] species.
COI divergence between the two = 4.8%.
Images: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/
Hebert et al., 2004, Pub. Lib. of Science, Biology, vol 2; issue 9
36. DNA barcodes: skippers
• Neotropical skipper
butterfly (Astraptes
fulgerator)
• First described in 1775
• Ranges from south
Texas-northern Mexico
to Argentina
• Is it one species or are
there many “cryptic”
species?
Hebert et al., 2004, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 101, 14812-14817
37. DNA barcodes: skippers
• Single gene tested
from adults reared
from caterpillars in
laboratory.
• 10 species identified
based on significant
differences in COI
gene. Matched to
caterpillar colour
patterns and food
plants.
Hebert et al., 2004, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 101, 14812-14817.
38. How does a palaeontologist assign a
species name to a fossil?
Evidence: shell or bone beds …….. tracks or burrows.
Taxon named from:
Morphology -- yes (hominid fossils illustrate difficulties)
Breeding behaviour -- no
mtDNA -- yes (if DNA is preserved in the specimen )
39. Naming fossils:
South African hominids
Paranthropus crassidens?
or are they all
Paranthropus robustus?
Australopithecus
robustus?
Australopithecus
africanus?
Images: http://www.modernhumanorigins.com/robustus.html
40. The Homo
floresiensis
controversy:
A new human species or
just a local population
(individual?) of Homo
sapiens?
How much morpho-
variation should a
paleontologist allow?
See: Hopkin, M. 2006;
Will the hobbit argument ever be resolved?
Nature, 25 August; doi:10.1038/news060821
41. “Mr T”: a composite specimen of
Triceratops in AMNH
Constructed from 14 dinosaur skeletons;
undoubtedly derived from several different species
42. Species definition in use today
Organisms that share at least
one diagnostic morphological
trait; that can interbreed freely
under natural conditions, and
whose direct ancestors or
descendants can be traced in
the fossil record.
43. Naming species in the field
Biogeographers and field biologists recognize
the superiority of the biological species
concept, but base their field identifications
almost entirely on diagnostic morphological
criteria.
The DNA barcode project envisages that by
the end of this century everyone will own a
mini mtDNA analysis kit that will return a
species name for every organism encountered
on a walk in the woods.
44. Continuing problems:
what is a sub-species?
A sub-species is a geographical race that has
distinctive traits which interbreeds with
other subspecies where their ranges overlap.
“sub-species are recognized according to
whatever traits taxonomists choose to
study”
45. Designating sub-species
Thousands of geographical races possible
because in most species thousands of genes in
operation, and many segregated populations! The
sub-species (as a formal concept) is therefore
now essentially abandoned, but some organisms
covered by the Species-At-Risk Act (Canada)
and Endangered Species Act (U.S.) are sub-
species.
46. *genetic analysis suggests the latter; i.e. that the Vancouver Island marmot
is a darker phase of the relatively common hoary marmot of the mainland
Protecting sub-species: island populations
Q: What is the most
endangered mammal in
Canada?
A: M. vancouverensis?,
or
M. caligata
vancouverensis?*
See also: VI ermine (Mustela erminae anguinae)
VI water shrew (Sorex palustris brooksi)
VI wolverine (Gulo gulo vancouverensis)
47. Cutthroat Trout [Oncorhynchus clarkii]
The most widespread and diverse trout species in the
western hemisphere
15 sub-species in North America as a result of genetic
isolation (one recently extinct)
Many of the subspecies are protected
Rocky Mountain cutthroat [O.c. virginalis, pictured] is but
one example.
Protecting sub-species: local populations
48. Restricted to Everglades of
southern Florida
The subspecies is now a
hybrid of a population of
native North American
“cougars” and South
American “panthers”
released into the wild
Florida panther
[Puma (Felis) concolor coryi]
Protecting sub-species: hybrids