This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics, covering topics such as radioactive decay, nuclear properties, and nuclear reactions. It begins with a brief history of the discovery of radioactivity and then discusses alpha, beta, and gamma decay. It also covers the properties of nuclei such as atomic number, mass number, radius, density, and forces within the nucleus. The document explains radioactive decay, decay rates, half-lives, and activity. It concludes by discussing natural radioactive decay series, nuclear fusion, and nuclear fission.
Dokumen tersebut membahas potensial tanggul dan resonansi transmisi partikel melalui tanggul. Secara khusus dijelaskan bahwa koefisien transmisi memiliki nilai maksimum 1 pada kondisi resonansi, di mana partikel dapat dengan mudah tertransmit melalui tanggul. Koefisien transmisi minimum juga dijelaskan. Dianalisis pula dampak lebar tanggul terhadap koefisien transmisi.
Lorentz Force Magnetic Force on a moving charge in uniform Electric and Mag...Priyanka Jakhar
1) The document discusses the magnetic force on a moving charge and current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. It defines magnetic force and derives the formulae for force on a charge and conductor.
2) Magnetic force on a moving charge is directly proportional to the charge, velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, and magnetic field strength. The formula derived is F = qvBsinθ.
3) Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor is directly proportional to the current, length of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, and magnetic field strength. The formula is F = ILBsinθ.
After going through this presentation one can understand the effects undergoing on Transmission Line
Following are some effects...
1. Skin effect
2. Proximity effect
3. Ferranti effect
The document provides an overview of the discovery and properties of helium. It discusses how helium was first observed in the sun's spectrum in 1868 and isolated on Earth in 1895. Key facts include that helium is the second most abundant element in the universe, it was produced shortly after the Big Bang, and nuclear fusion reactions in the sun convert hydrogen to helium. The document also summarizes helium's chemical and physical properties, phases including liquid helium, isotopes, spectroscopy, astronomy connections, and practical applications such as cryogenics.
The mechanical design of overhead power lines considers minimum safety distances, clearance requirements, and conductor sag based on factors like voltage class, pollution level, and weather conditions. Design is determined by standards that specify minimum distances from earth and between conductors, as well as minimum insulator lengths based on pollution class. Conductor sag is calculated considering maximum permissible tensile stress at different temperatures both with and without additional load from ice, snow or equipment. Proper classification of pollution level and consideration of local conditions is important for determining design criteria that ensure safety clearances are maintained.
This document provides an overview of quantum free electron theory of metals. It discusses:
1. The assumptions of quantum free electron theory, including that electron energy levels are quantized and electron distribution follows Pauli's exclusion principle.
2. Key concepts like density of states, Fermi-Dirac statistics, and the Fermi factor. Expressions are given for density of states and Fermi energy.
3. The successes of quantum free electron theory in explaining experimental results for specific heat capacity, temperature dependence of conductivity, and conductivity dependence on electron concentration - which classical free electron theory could not.
Semiconductor ch.3 part i, Introduction to the Quantum Theory of SolidsMazin A. Al-alousi
This document provides an overview of chapter 3 of the textbook "Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids". It discusses:
1) How the discrete energy levels of isolated atoms split into allowed and forbidden energy bands as atoms are brought closer together to form a solid. This is due to the wavefunctions of electrons overlapping and interacting between neighboring atoms.
2) How the width of energy bands increases as more atoms are added, resulting in a quasi-continuous distribution of energies.
3) Examples of how this splitting occurs for sodium and silicon, forming their distinctive band structure diagrams with allowed valence and conduction bands separated by a forbidden gap.
4) How the minimum energy configuration of electrons in solids is determined
Jurnal Seminar Praktikum Fisika Dasar II (Lensa)Nailul Affida
Percobaan ini bertujuan untuk menentukan jarak fokus lensa positif dan negatif dengan variabel manipulasi jarak benda dan lensa serta variabel respon jarak bayangan. Hasilnya, jarak fokus lensa positif adalah 10,9 cm sedangkan lensa negatif adalah 6,3 cm. Lensa positif mengumpulkan cahaya sehingga bayangannya nyata, sedangkan lensa negatif membutuhkan bantuan lensa positif karena menyebarkan cahaya sehingga bay
Dokumen tersebut membahas potensial tanggul dan resonansi transmisi partikel melalui tanggul. Secara khusus dijelaskan bahwa koefisien transmisi memiliki nilai maksimum 1 pada kondisi resonansi, di mana partikel dapat dengan mudah tertransmit melalui tanggul. Koefisien transmisi minimum juga dijelaskan. Dianalisis pula dampak lebar tanggul terhadap koefisien transmisi.
Lorentz Force Magnetic Force on a moving charge in uniform Electric and Mag...Priyanka Jakhar
1) The document discusses the magnetic force on a moving charge and current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field. It defines magnetic force and derives the formulae for force on a charge and conductor.
2) Magnetic force on a moving charge is directly proportional to the charge, velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, and magnetic field strength. The formula derived is F = qvBsinθ.
3) Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor is directly proportional to the current, length of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field, and magnetic field strength. The formula is F = ILBsinθ.
After going through this presentation one can understand the effects undergoing on Transmission Line
Following are some effects...
1. Skin effect
2. Proximity effect
3. Ferranti effect
The document provides an overview of the discovery and properties of helium. It discusses how helium was first observed in the sun's spectrum in 1868 and isolated on Earth in 1895. Key facts include that helium is the second most abundant element in the universe, it was produced shortly after the Big Bang, and nuclear fusion reactions in the sun convert hydrogen to helium. The document also summarizes helium's chemical and physical properties, phases including liquid helium, isotopes, spectroscopy, astronomy connections, and practical applications such as cryogenics.
The mechanical design of overhead power lines considers minimum safety distances, clearance requirements, and conductor sag based on factors like voltage class, pollution level, and weather conditions. Design is determined by standards that specify minimum distances from earth and between conductors, as well as minimum insulator lengths based on pollution class. Conductor sag is calculated considering maximum permissible tensile stress at different temperatures both with and without additional load from ice, snow or equipment. Proper classification of pollution level and consideration of local conditions is important for determining design criteria that ensure safety clearances are maintained.
This document provides an overview of quantum free electron theory of metals. It discusses:
1. The assumptions of quantum free electron theory, including that electron energy levels are quantized and electron distribution follows Pauli's exclusion principle.
2. Key concepts like density of states, Fermi-Dirac statistics, and the Fermi factor. Expressions are given for density of states and Fermi energy.
3. The successes of quantum free electron theory in explaining experimental results for specific heat capacity, temperature dependence of conductivity, and conductivity dependence on electron concentration - which classical free electron theory could not.
Semiconductor ch.3 part i, Introduction to the Quantum Theory of SolidsMazin A. Al-alousi
This document provides an overview of chapter 3 of the textbook "Introduction to the Quantum Theory of Solids". It discusses:
1) How the discrete energy levels of isolated atoms split into allowed and forbidden energy bands as atoms are brought closer together to form a solid. This is due to the wavefunctions of electrons overlapping and interacting between neighboring atoms.
2) How the width of energy bands increases as more atoms are added, resulting in a quasi-continuous distribution of energies.
3) Examples of how this splitting occurs for sodium and silicon, forming their distinctive band structure diagrams with allowed valence and conduction bands separated by a forbidden gap.
4) How the minimum energy configuration of electrons in solids is determined
Jurnal Seminar Praktikum Fisika Dasar II (Lensa)Nailul Affida
Percobaan ini bertujuan untuk menentukan jarak fokus lensa positif dan negatif dengan variabel manipulasi jarak benda dan lensa serta variabel respon jarak bayangan. Hasilnya, jarak fokus lensa positif adalah 10,9 cm sedangkan lensa negatif adalah 6,3 cm. Lensa positif mengumpulkan cahaya sehingga bayangannya nyata, sedangkan lensa negatif membutuhkan bantuan lensa positif karena menyebarkan cahaya sehingga bay
Dokumen tersebut membahas mengenai prinsip pengukuran suhu dengan Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD). RTD adalah sensor suhu yang menggunakan prinsip perubahan resistansi logam yang dipengaruhi oleh perubahan suhu. Dokumen menjelaskan berbagai prinsip kerja, jenis, konfigurasi, dan perbandingan RTD dengan sensor suhu lain seperti termokopel dan termistor.
2.Switching Characteristics of Diode AMIT SIR lecture 1_repaired.pdfakakhan2
This document discusses switching circuits and different types of switches used in them. It describes mechanical switches, electro-mechanical or relay switches, and electronic switches. It then focuses on diodes and transistors acting as electronic switches. When the voltage across a diode exceeds its threshold, it acts as an open switch by becoming reverse biased. When below the threshold, it acts as a closed switch by becoming forward biased. A transistor also acts as a switch, being off when the base voltage is too negative and on when the base voltage is positive enough to saturate it.
The document outlines the syllabus for a semiconductor subject. It includes 15 chapters that cover topics like crystal structure of solids, quantum mechanics, equilibrium carrier transport, pn junctions, bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, and optical and power devices. It also provides details on some key concepts for semiconductors like electrical conductivity and resistivity. Examples are given for different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic lattices. Miller indices are introduced for representing crystal planes.
The document discusses power insulators used in electricity transmission and distribution. It describes different types of insulators like pin, suspension, strain, stay, and shackle insulators. It also discusses properties, testing, causes of failure, and applications of insulators. Insulators are used to support electrical conductors and provide insulation between conductors and earth to prevent leakage currents. Common insulator materials include glass, porcelain, and plastic.
This document provides a summary of diffraction gratings and their applications. It discusses the physics of diffraction gratings, the different types of gratings including ruled, holographic and replicated gratings. It covers grating mounts and systems, imaging properties, efficiency characteristics, stray light, testing and applications. The document is the sixth edition of a handbook on diffraction gratings published by Newport Corporation.
1) Fresnel's theory of diffraction explains that diffraction occurs due to the interference of secondary wavelets produced by unobstructed portions of the wavefront.
2) When considering the diffraction pattern at a point P, Fresnel divided the wavefront into concentric half-period zones centered on the point's pole O. The contribution of each zone to the intensity at P depends on the zone's area and distance from P.
3) For a large number of zones, the total intensity at P is approximately one fourth of that due to the first zone alone, explaining the dimming of light in diffraction patterns.
Trafo adalah alat yang mengubah tegangan listrik dengan menggunakan medan magnet. Ia terdiri dari kumparan primer dan sekunder yang terhubung oleh inti besi. Trafo bekerja dengan menginduksi tegangan pada kumparan sekunder melalui medan magnet yang dihasilkan kumparan primer. Trafo memiliki berbagai jenis dan hubungan untuk menyesuaikan tegangan antara sumber dan beban listrik.
Powerpoint Hukum Gauss & Energi Potensial Listrik dan Potensial ListrikIndri Sukmawati Rahayu
Powerpoint ini dibuat untuk menyelesaikan tugas Fisika BAB 2 tentang Listrik Statis. Kelompok kami disini akan membahas mengenai Hukum Gauss & Energi Potensial Listrik dan Potensial Listrik
This 22-page document appears to be a physics exam for the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level. It consists of structured questions, data/formulae pages, and sections A and B. Candidates are to answer all questions directly on the paper provided. Calculators and approved data are permitted. Work must be shown and appropriate units used.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang percobaan difraksi dan interferensi gelombang permukaan air menggunakan ripple tank. Tujuan percobaan adalah untuk mengetahui pola difraksi dan interferensi pada celah tunggal dan ganda serta menentukan panjang gelombang. Percobaan dilakukan dengan mengatur frekuensi dan fase generator riak serta mengukur bentuk gelombang yang terbentuk."
self inductance , mutual inductance and coeffecient of couplingsaahil kshatriya
This document discusses self-inductance and mutual inductance. It defines self-inductance as the phenomenon where an induced electromotive force (emf) is created within a coil due to a change in the current passing through the coil. It also defines mutual inductance as the induced emf created in one coil due to a change in current in a neighboring coil. The document provides equations for calculating the mutual inductance between two coils based on their geometry and number of turns. It states that the mutual inductance depends on the number of turns in each coil, their cross-sectional area, and distance between them.
The document discusses radioactive decay and nuclear physics concepts. It describes the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and the Curies. It defines key nuclear physics terms like isotopes, isobars, isotones. It explains the different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, positron decay and gamma emission. It discusses the penetration and ranges of different types of radiation. Finally, it covers the conservation of energy and mass in nuclear reactions based on Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula.
The document discusses different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, gamma radiation and fission. It explains that alpha decay involves emitting an alpha particle (helium nucleus), beta decay occurs when there are too many neutrons or protons, and gamma radiation is emitted during nuclear relaxations. The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms to decay.
Uranium-235 undergoes fission, releasing 0.1% of its mass as energy. A 100 MW power plant would require 96 grams of Uranium-235 to undergo fission per day. Coal provides 32.6 MJ/kg upon burning, so a similar power plant would use 265 metric tons of coal per day. Nuclear fusion in the Sun converts four protons into a helium nucleus, releasing 24.7 MeV of energy. Radioactive decay changes the atomic number and mass number in predictable ways. The half-life of an isotope is the time for half of a sample to decay.
Dokumen tersebut membahas mengenai prinsip pengukuran suhu dengan Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD). RTD adalah sensor suhu yang menggunakan prinsip perubahan resistansi logam yang dipengaruhi oleh perubahan suhu. Dokumen menjelaskan berbagai prinsip kerja, jenis, konfigurasi, dan perbandingan RTD dengan sensor suhu lain seperti termokopel dan termistor.
2.Switching Characteristics of Diode AMIT SIR lecture 1_repaired.pdfakakhan2
This document discusses switching circuits and different types of switches used in them. It describes mechanical switches, electro-mechanical or relay switches, and electronic switches. It then focuses on diodes and transistors acting as electronic switches. When the voltage across a diode exceeds its threshold, it acts as an open switch by becoming reverse biased. When below the threshold, it acts as a closed switch by becoming forward biased. A transistor also acts as a switch, being off when the base voltage is too negative and on when the base voltage is positive enough to saturate it.
The document outlines the syllabus for a semiconductor subject. It includes 15 chapters that cover topics like crystal structure of solids, quantum mechanics, equilibrium carrier transport, pn junctions, bipolar transistors, MOSFETs, and optical and power devices. It also provides details on some key concepts for semiconductors like electrical conductivity and resistivity. Examples are given for different crystal structures including simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic lattices. Miller indices are introduced for representing crystal planes.
The document discusses power insulators used in electricity transmission and distribution. It describes different types of insulators like pin, suspension, strain, stay, and shackle insulators. It also discusses properties, testing, causes of failure, and applications of insulators. Insulators are used to support electrical conductors and provide insulation between conductors and earth to prevent leakage currents. Common insulator materials include glass, porcelain, and plastic.
This document provides a summary of diffraction gratings and their applications. It discusses the physics of diffraction gratings, the different types of gratings including ruled, holographic and replicated gratings. It covers grating mounts and systems, imaging properties, efficiency characteristics, stray light, testing and applications. The document is the sixth edition of a handbook on diffraction gratings published by Newport Corporation.
1) Fresnel's theory of diffraction explains that diffraction occurs due to the interference of secondary wavelets produced by unobstructed portions of the wavefront.
2) When considering the diffraction pattern at a point P, Fresnel divided the wavefront into concentric half-period zones centered on the point's pole O. The contribution of each zone to the intensity at P depends on the zone's area and distance from P.
3) For a large number of zones, the total intensity at P is approximately one fourth of that due to the first zone alone, explaining the dimming of light in diffraction patterns.
Trafo adalah alat yang mengubah tegangan listrik dengan menggunakan medan magnet. Ia terdiri dari kumparan primer dan sekunder yang terhubung oleh inti besi. Trafo bekerja dengan menginduksi tegangan pada kumparan sekunder melalui medan magnet yang dihasilkan kumparan primer. Trafo memiliki berbagai jenis dan hubungan untuk menyesuaikan tegangan antara sumber dan beban listrik.
Powerpoint Hukum Gauss & Energi Potensial Listrik dan Potensial ListrikIndri Sukmawati Rahayu
Powerpoint ini dibuat untuk menyelesaikan tugas Fisika BAB 2 tentang Listrik Statis. Kelompok kami disini akan membahas mengenai Hukum Gauss & Energi Potensial Listrik dan Potensial Listrik
This 22-page document appears to be a physics exam for the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level. It consists of structured questions, data/formulae pages, and sections A and B. Candidates are to answer all questions directly on the paper provided. Calculators and approved data are permitted. Work must be shown and appropriate units used.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang percobaan difraksi dan interferensi gelombang permukaan air menggunakan ripple tank. Tujuan percobaan adalah untuk mengetahui pola difraksi dan interferensi pada celah tunggal dan ganda serta menentukan panjang gelombang. Percobaan dilakukan dengan mengatur frekuensi dan fase generator riak serta mengukur bentuk gelombang yang terbentuk."
self inductance , mutual inductance and coeffecient of couplingsaahil kshatriya
This document discusses self-inductance and mutual inductance. It defines self-inductance as the phenomenon where an induced electromotive force (emf) is created within a coil due to a change in the current passing through the coil. It also defines mutual inductance as the induced emf created in one coil due to a change in current in a neighboring coil. The document provides equations for calculating the mutual inductance between two coils based on their geometry and number of turns. It states that the mutual inductance depends on the number of turns in each coil, their cross-sectional area, and distance between them.
The document discusses radioactive decay and nuclear physics concepts. It describes the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel and the Curies. It defines key nuclear physics terms like isotopes, isobars, isotones. It explains the different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, positron decay and gamma emission. It discusses the penetration and ranges of different types of radiation. Finally, it covers the conservation of energy and mass in nuclear reactions based on Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula.
The document discusses different types of radioactive decay including alpha, beta, gamma radiation and fission. It explains that alpha decay involves emitting an alpha particle (helium nucleus), beta decay occurs when there are too many neutrons or protons, and gamma radiation is emitted during nuclear relaxations. The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of the radioactive atoms to decay.
Uranium-235 undergoes fission, releasing 0.1% of its mass as energy. A 100 MW power plant would require 96 grams of Uranium-235 to undergo fission per day. Coal provides 32.6 MJ/kg upon burning, so a similar power plant would use 265 metric tons of coal per day. Nuclear fusion in the Sun converts four protons into a helium nucleus, releasing 24.7 MeV of energy. Radioactive decay changes the atomic number and mass number in predictable ways. The half-life of an isotope is the time for half of a sample to decay.
This document provides an overview of basic chemistry concepts including:
- The law of multiple proportions and how it is illustrated by nitrogen and hydrogen oxides.
- Definitions of a mole and how it is used to calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 1 mole of methane.
- How stoichiometry is used to calculate the amount of water formed from the combustion of a given amount of methane.
- The concept of a limiting reagent and how to calculate the mass of a product given specific amounts of reactants.
- A summary of the key observations and conclusions from Rutherford's gold foil experiment that led to the nuclear model of the atom.
Nuclear chemistry involves the study of radioactive decay, nuclear stability, and nuclear transformations. Radioactive decay occurs through alpha, beta, gamma, or positron emission, electron capture, or spontaneous fission. The rate of radioactive decay follows first order kinetics and is characterized by half-life. Radiometric dating uses radioactive decay to determine the age of materials. Nuclear stability depends on having an even number of protons and neutrons and being closest to the nuclear stability belt. Nuclear transformations can change the number of protons through various types of radioactive decay.
1. The document discusses radioactivity and radioactive decay, including definitions of key terms like alpha, beta, and gamma radiation.
2. It describes experiments that established the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
3. Characteristics of different types of radioactive decay and particles are provided, such as their ionizing power and ability to penetrate matter. Equations for alpha, beta, and gamma decay are given with examples.
This document provides information on radioactive decay and half-life calculations. It defines key terms like radioactive decay, half-life, alpha decay, beta decay, gamma decay, and transmutation. It also describes how to use the half-life equation and time elapse equation to solve problems involving radioactive decay. Examples are provided to demonstrate solving for time elapsed given half-life and initial amount, and using carbon dating to determine the age of materials.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating determines a sample's age by measuring its remaining radioactive carbon-14.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
1) Nuclear reactions conserve nucleon number, charge, and energy/momentum. Alpha particles are nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma particles are high-energy photons.
2) Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics described by half-life, the time for half of the radioactive atoms to decay. Carbon dating relies on measuring the remaining ratio of 14C to 12C isotopes to determine the age of once-living materials.
Introduction to Class 12 Physics - Nuclei:
In the realm of physics, the study of atomic nuclei constitutes a pivotal and intriguing segment, forming the nucleus of Class 12 Physics. Delving into the heart of matter, this section unravels the intricacies of the atomic nucleus, where protons and neutrons converge to define the essence of elements. From the formidable forces that bind these particles to the dynamic processes of radioactive decay, Class 12 Physics - Nuclei unveils the mysteries that govern the core of our physical reality.
As students embark on this journey, they will explore the minuscule dimensions of the nucleus, grapple with the potent forces that operate within, and unravel the applications that extend from nuclear power generation to medical diagnostics. The study of nuclei encapsulates the very essence of matter and energy, offering profound insights into the fundamental nature of the universe.
Through an exploration of nuclear reactions, radioactivity, and the applications that span from energy production to medical advancements, Class 12 Physics - Nuclei equips students with a comprehensive understanding of the microscopic world that shapes the macroscopic reality we inhabit. The journey into the heart of the atom awaits, promising a voyage into the fundamental building blocks that define the physical universe.
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Introduction to Basic Electronics for Electronics and telecommunication studentsZulqarnainHaider91
The International System of Units document describes the seven base units that form the foundation of the SI system. The seven base units are the meter, kilogram, second, ampere, Kelvin, mole, and candela. Each unit is precisely defined, such as the second being defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of a cesium-133 atom's radiation. The document provides detailed definitions and historical context for each of the seven base units that make up the international standard for measurements.
This document provides information on nuclear chemistry and radioactive decay. It defines key terms like nucleus, nucleons, protons, neutrons, and discusses nuclear stability and different types of radioactive decay. Examples are given to calculate nuclear binding energy from mass defect and the amount of energy released from fission and fusion reactions. The kinetics of radioactive decay are described and follow first order rate laws. Sample problems demonstrate calculating half-lives, decay constants, and the time it takes for only a certain percentage of a radioactive sample to remain.
1. Radioactive decay occurs through three main types: alpha, beta, and gamma decay. Alpha decay involves emitting an alpha particle, beta decay changes the nucleus via electron or positron emission, and gamma decay releases energy without changing the nucleus.
2. Nuclear reactions can be classified as fission or fusion. Fission occurs when heavy nuclei split into lighter ones and releases energy. Fusion combines light nuclei into heavier ones and also releases energy. These reactions are accompanied by changes in mass and binding energy.
3. Atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The Standard Model describes all fundamental particles and their interactions via exchange particles like photons. Quarks combine to form hadrons like protons and
The document summarizes the history and key discoveries related to radioactivity and nuclear physics. It discusses how Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium in 1896, leading the Curies to isolate the elements polonium and radium. It then covers atomic structure, the different types of radioactive decay, units of radioactivity, decay processes, and nuclear reactions including fission and fusion.
This document discusses types of radioactivity and nuclear decay. It describes alpha, beta, gamma radiation and positron emission. It explains that alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons, beta particles are high energy electrons, and gamma rays are high energy electromagnetic radiation without mass or charge. Nuclear decay occurs through radioactive processes like alpha, beta, gamma or positron emission. The rate of radioactive decay is measured by half-life, which is the time for half of a radioactive sample to decay. Radioisotope dating uses half-lives of elements like carbon-14, potassium-40 and uranium-238 to determine the age of materials.
The document discusses nuclear chemistry concepts including isotopes, nuclear reactions, radioactive decay via alpha, beta, and gamma emission, and the effects of radiation exposure. It provides examples of nuclear equations to represent different types of radioactive decay and nuclear reactions. The document also explains different nuclear particles like neutrons, protons, electrons, positrons, and alpha particles that are involved in nuclear reactions and radioactive decay.
The document summarizes early atomic theory and the development of the modern atomic model. It discusses early thinkers like Democritus and Aristotle and their ideas. John Dalton proposed early atomic theory including that atoms are indivisible and unchangeable. J.J. Thomson's work led to the discovery of the electron. Rutherford determined atoms have a small, dense nucleus. Chadwick discovered the neutron in the nucleus. The modern atomic model includes protons, neutrons, and electrons. Radioactivity and nuclear reactions are discussed.
Here are the key differences between nuclear fission and fusion:
- Fission involves splitting a large atom into smaller ones, while fusion combines two lighter atoms into a larger atom.
- Fission does not naturally occur on Earth, while fusion powers stars like the Sun.
- Fission produces many highly radioactive particles as byproducts, while fusion produces few radioactive particles.
- Fission releases millions of times more energy than chemical reactions, but less than fusion. Fusion releases 3-4 times more energy than fission.
In summary, fission and fusion are nuclear reactions that release energy, but fission involves splitting atoms and produces more radiation, while fusion combines atoms and produces more energy with less radiation.
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Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
2. Contents
1- Introduction
4- a) Alpha , b) Beta and c) Gamma Decay
2- Some Nucleus Properties
3- Radioactive Decay
5- Natural radioactive decay series
6- Induced Nuclear reactions
(nuclear fission and nuclear fusion)
7- Radioactive Dating
8- Measuring Radiation Dosage
3. 1/ INTRODUCTION:
By accident, becquerel discovered that uranium salts
spontaneously emit a penetrating radiation that can be
registered on a photographic plate.
Rutherford showed that the radiation had three types:
Alpha, Beta and Gamma
1896
4. 1/ INTRODUCTION:
Rutherford fired a beam of alpha particles at foil of
gold leaf
The results of the experiment are :
1) Most of alpha particles
Passed without deflection.
2) some of alpha particles are
deflected at small angles.
3) few of alpha particles are
deflected at large angles.
1911 Rutherford scattering experiment
5. 1/ INTRODUCTION:
The conclusions of the experiment are :
1) Most of the space inside the atom is empty
2) The positive charge of the atom occupies very little
space
3) That all the positive charge and mass of the atom
were concentrated in a very small volume within
the atom
1911 Rutherford scattering experiment
6. 1/ INTRODUCTION:
Rutherford's Nuclear Model Of Atom :
1) There is a positively charged Centre in an atom
called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an atom
resides in the nucleus.
2) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-
defined orbits.
3) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared
to the size of the atom.
Nucleus of an atom is positively charged ,very dense
, hard and very small
1911 Rutherford scattering experiment
7. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
The materials are made of atoms
The atom is composed of a nucleus and electrons orbiting
around the nucleus.
The nucleus is a very small dense object made up of two
kinds of nucleons [Protons (p), Neutrons (n)].
Atom
Nucleus
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
8. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
𝑚𝑝 ≅ 𝑚𝑛
𝑚𝑝 ≅ 1840 𝑚𝑒
Number of protons is equal to the number of the electrons
in the neutral atom.
9. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
Numbers that characterize the nucleus Z, N and A
Z = Atomic number
N = Neutron number
Number of nucleons in the
nucleus.
Number of protons in the nucleus.
The number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
A = Mass number
𝐴 = 𝑁 + 𝑍
a) Nuclear Terminology
10. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
Example
Find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons
a) Nuclear Terminology
Representation of a nucleus
11. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
Examples
a) Nuclear Terminology
1) Isotopes
The atoms of an element which have the same number of
protons (𝑍1 = 𝑍2) and different number of neutrons are
called Isotopes.
12. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
Example
a) Nuclear Terminology
2) Isobars
The atoms which have the same mass number (𝐴1 = 𝐴2)
but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
13. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
Example
a) Nuclear Terminology
3) Isotones
Atoms which have different atomic number (𝑍1 ≠ 𝑍2) and
different atomic masses (𝐴1 ≠ 𝐴2) but the same number of
neutrons 𝑁1 = 𝑁2 are called Isotones.
15. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
2) The Volume (V) of the nucleus is given by the
formula :
Most nuclei are spherical
b) Nucleus Radius and Volume
1) The Average radius is given by the formula :
𝑟 = 𝑟0 𝐴1/3
; 𝑟0 = 1.2 𝑋 10−15
m
The unit used for measuring distance on the scale of
nuclei is femtometer : 1 𝑓𝑚 = 10−15
𝑚
V =
4
3
𝜋(𝑟0 𝐴
1
3)3
V = 7.24 𝑋 10−45
(A) 𝑚3
17. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
The Mass can also be expressed in 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2
The SI-unit of mass is Kg but in subatomic particles It is
convenient to use atomic mass units ( 𝑢 ) to express
masses.
c) Atomic Mass
Based on definition that the mass of one atom of C is
exactly 12 𝑢
1 𝑢 = 1.660 539 x 10−27
kg
𝑚𝑝 = 1.0073 𝑢 , 𝑚𝑁 = 1.0087 𝑢 , 𝑚𝑒 = 5.486 ∗ 10−4
𝑢
𝑚𝑝 = 938.25 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2 , 𝑚𝑁 = 939.57𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2
, 𝑚𝑒= 0.511𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2
1 𝑢 = 931.494 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐2
18. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
ρ =
𝑚
𝑉
=
𝑍∗𝑚𝑝+𝑁∗𝑚𝑁
4
3
𝜋(𝑟0 𝐴
1
3)3
(𝑚𝑝≅ 𝑚𝑛)
≅
𝐴∗𝑚𝑝
4
3
𝜋(𝑟0 𝐴
1
3)3
=
𝐴∗𝑚𝑝
4
3
𝜋 𝑟0
3 𝐴
=
1.673∗10−27
7.238∗10−45 ≅ 2.3 ∗ 1017 Τ
𝐾𝑔 𝑚3
d) Nucleus Density
That’s mean all nuclei have the same Density
19. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
2) Electrical force: smaller in magnitude, but they
become progressively more important as the number of
protons in the nucleus increases.
1) Nuclear force: the force responsible of nuclei stability,
which overcome the electrical force (repulsion between
protons).
e) Forces in the nucleus
Properties of Nuclear force: strong, short range and
attraction between nucleons.
20. 2/ Some Nuclear Properties
p-p: electric repulsion and nuclear attraction.
e) Forces in the nucleus
p-n: nuclear attraction.
n-n: nuclear attraction
21. 3/ Radioactive Decay
Radioactivity : is the spontaneous emission of radiation.
Radioactivity : is the result of the decay, or disintegration,
of unstable nuclei.
Radioactive nuclei can emit 3 types of radiation in the
process:
a) Definitions
22. 3/ Radioactive Decay
Alpha particles (𝛼): consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons,
and they are positively charged (+2e), have low speed and
short range in matter. [2
4
𝐻𝑒]
Beta particles (𝛽): they could be 𝛽−
(electrons) or 𝛽+
(positrons) , have high speed (near speed of light) and
longer range in matter. [positrons are positively charged electrons]
Gamma ray (𝛾): It is electromagnetic wave (photon)
carrying a high energy away from the nucleus, has speed
of light and it is the most penetrating radiation . [have no
mass or charge]
23. 3/ Radioactive Decay
The number of particles that decay in a given time is
proportional to the total number of particles in a
radioactive sample.
b) The Decay Constant
λ is called the decay constant and determines the
probability of decay per nucleus per second.
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡
= −𝜆𝑁 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑁 = 𝑁0𝑒−𝜆𝑡
N is the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei present.
No is the number of undecayed nuclei at time t = 0
(original number of nuclei).
24. 3/ Radioactive Decay
The decay rate R of a sample is defined as the number of
decays per second.
c) The Decay Rate
𝑅0 = 𝜆𝑁0 is the decay rate at t = 0.
R =
𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑡
= 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁0𝑒−𝜆𝑡
= 𝑅0𝑒−𝜆𝑡
The decay rate is often referred to as the activity of the
sample.
25. 3/ Radioactive Decay
The decay curve follows the equation:
d) Decay Curve and Half-Life
𝑁 = 𝑁0𝑒−𝜆𝑡
Half life 𝑇1/2 is defined as the time required for half the
nuclei present to decay.
𝑇1/2 =
𝐿𝑛2
𝜆
=
0.693
𝜆
26.
27. 3/ Radioactive Decay
c) Decay Curve and Half-Life
t N
0 𝑁0
T 𝑁0/2
2T 𝑁0/4
3T 𝑁0/8
nT 𝑁0/(2𝑛)
28. 3/ Radioactive Decay
Activity (R) in term of decay constant (λ)
e) Activity (R) of a given mass
𝑁𝐴 = 6.023 𝑋1023
𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
is Avogadro’s Number
𝑛 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐴
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ; 𝐴 is Mass number
𝑅 = 𝜆𝑛𝑁𝐴
𝑅 = 𝜆
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐴
𝑁𝐴
29. 3/ Radioactive Decay
Activity (R) in term of Half life T
e) Activity (R) of a given mass
𝑅 =
0.693
𝑇
𝑛𝑁𝐴
Remark
Activity R must have a unit Bq ( Becquerel)
Half life T must have a unit s ( Second)
Constant decay λ must have a unit 𝑠−1
30. 3/ Radioactive Decay
The SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq)
f) Activity Units
1 Bq = 1 disintegration/s
Remark
The curie (Ci) is another unit of activity,
1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010
disintegration/s
1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010
Bq
31. 4/a Alpha Decay
𝑍
𝐴
𝑋 → 𝑍−2
𝐴−4
𝑌 + 2
4
𝐻𝑒
or
𝑍
𝐴
𝑋 → 𝑍−2
𝐴−4
𝑌 + 2
4
𝛼
X is called the parent nucleus
Y is called the daughter nucleus
Example : 92
238
𝑈 → 90
234
𝑇ℎ + 2
4
𝐻𝑒
84
234
𝑃𝑜 → 82
230
𝑃𝑏 + 2
4
𝛼
Alpha particle ( 2
4
𝐻𝑒 , 2
4
𝛼 ) is emitted leaving behind a
residual nucleus that has lost 2 protons and 2 neutrons; 𝛼-
decay is usually observed in heavier unstable nuclei (𝑍
> 82).
32. 4/a Alpha Decay
Alpha particle (2
4
𝐻𝑒) is emitted leaving behind a residual
nucleus that has lost 2 protons and 2 neutrons; 𝛼-decay is
usually observed in heavier unstable nuclei (𝑍 > 82).
33. 4/b Beta Decay
In Beta decay, an electron (𝑒−
) or a positron (𝑒+
) is emitted
by nucleus
When a nucleus emits an electron, the nucleus
loses a neutron and gains a proton.
When a nucleus emits an positron, the nucleus
loses a proton and gains a neutron.
35. 4/c Gamma Decay
Gamma rays are given off when an excited nucleus
decays to a lower energy state.
The decay occurs by emitting a high energy photon
called gamma-ray photons
Example:
18
40
𝐴𝑟∗ → 18
40
𝐴𝑟 + 𝛾
The 𝑿∗
indicates a nucleus in an excited state.
36. 5/ Natural radioactive decay series
Decay series : The sequence of radioactive daughter nuclides that are formed
by the radioactive decay of a parent nuclide to a final stable daughter nuclide.
There are three natural decay series that include the heavy elements
1) Thorium series : begins with 90
232
𝑇ℎ and end with 82
208
𝑃𝑏 ( its emits 6 𝛼 and 4
𝛽− in decay prosses)
90
232
𝑇ℎ → 82
208
𝑃𝑏 + 6 2
4
𝐻𝑒 + 4 −1
0
𝑒 + 4ഥ
𝜈
2) Uranium series : begins with 92
238
𝑈 and end with 82
206
𝑃𝑏 ( its emits 8 𝛼 and 6
𝛽− in decay prosses)
92
238
𝑈 → 82
206
𝑃𝑏 + 8 2
4
𝐻𝑒 + 6 −1
0
𝑒 + 6 ҧ
𝜈
3) Actinium series : begins with 92
235
𝑈 and end with 82
207
𝑃𝑏 ( its emits 7 𝛼 and 4
𝛽− in decay prosses)
92
235
𝑈 → 82
207
𝑃𝑏 + 7 2
4
𝐻𝑒 + 4 −1
0
𝑒 + 4 ҧ
𝜈
Each of the three series ends with an isotope of lead
38. 6/ Induced Nuclear reactions
1) Nuclear fusion : is a reaction in which two or more light
nuclei are combined to form one or more heavy nuclei
and subatomic particles (neutrons or protons).
The fusion process releases a large amount of energy
(Nuclear fusion occur inside the center of stars)
39. 6/ Induced Nuclear reactions
2) Nuclear Fission : is a reaction in which the heavy nucleus
splits into two or more smaller nuclei.
The fission process often produces gamma photons, and
releases a very large amount of energy
40. 7/ Radioactive dating
Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years ; the production of
C-14 is explained by the next nuclear equation:
7
14
𝑁 + 0
1
𝑛 → 6
14
𝐶 + 1
1
𝑝
Neutrons are produced in upper atmosphere by interaction
of cosmic-ray with atomic nuclei
Once an organism dies, the input of radiocarbon stops and
the ratio of radiocarbon to ordinary carbon 6
12
𝐶 decreases
steadily as the 6
14
𝐶 decays. Thus the quantity of 6
14
𝐶
remaining indicates the date of death
6
14
𝐶 → 7
14
𝑁 + −1
0
𝛽 + ҧ
𝜈
The decay of C-14 is explained by the next nuclear equation:
41. 8/ Measuring Radiation Dosage
a) major categories of radiation
1. Positive ions (protons and alpha particles)
2. Electrons and Positrons (beta particles)
3. Photons (gamma rays and X-rays)
4. Neutrons
42. 8/ Measuring Radiation Dosage
b) Absorbed dose
This is a measure of radiation dose (as energy per unit
mass) actually absorbed by a specific object, such as
patient’s hand or chest.
SI unit: gray (Gy).
Other unit: rad,
1Gy =100 rad.
1Gy = 1 J/Kg
43. 8/ Measuring Radiation Dosage
c) Dose Equivalent
Although different types of radiation (gamma ray and
neutrons…) may deliver the same amount of energy to
the body, they do not have the same biological effect.
The dose equivalent allows us to express the biological
effect
SI unit: Sievert (Sv)
Other unit: rem
1 Sv = 100 rem