According to the U.S. Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2008), Bioterrorism is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants.
The successful management of a pest by means of another living organism (parasitoids, predators and pathogens) that are encouraged and disseminated by man is called biological
control. In such programme the natural enemies are introduced, encouraged, multiplied by artificial means and disseminated by the man with his own efforts instead of leaving it to nature.
Mass production of Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycota; Hyphomycetes)balram2424
Types of Entomopathogenic Fungi like
Verticillium lecanii
Beauveria bassiana
Nomuraea rileyi
Metarrhizium anisopliae(detailed procedure of mass production in bio control lab)
The successful management of a pest by means of another living organism (parasitoids, predators and pathogens) that are encouraged and disseminated by man is called biological
control. In such programme the natural enemies are introduced, encouraged, multiplied by artificial means and disseminated by the man with his own efforts instead of leaving it to nature.
Mass production of Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycota; Hyphomycetes)balram2424
Types of Entomopathogenic Fungi like
Verticillium lecanii
Beauveria bassiana
Nomuraea rileyi
Metarrhizium anisopliae(detailed procedure of mass production in bio control lab)
Gut microflora and their role in susceptibility of lepidopteran pests to baci...Prema Latha
This topic to be covered Types of insect-microbe interactions, Microbial diversity in insects, Role of gut microflora on the susceptibility of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Mode of Action of Bt, Role of gut microflora on the susceptibility of Bt and more case studies supported to this topic.
The Sterile Insect Technique, best known by its acronym SIT and also identified as the Sterile Insect Release Method (SIRM), is a biologically-based method for the management of key insect pests of agricultural and medical/veterinary importance. In the FAO glossary, the Sterile Insect Technique is defined as "a method of pest control using area-wide inundative releases of sterile insects to reduce reproduction in a field population of the same species". It is therefore a type of "birth control" in which wild female insects of the pest population do not reproduce when they are inseminated by released, radiation-sterilized males. Sterilization is induced through the effects of irradiation on the reproductive cells of the insects. SIT does not involve the release of insects modified through transgenic (genetic engineering) processes. In this type of autocidal control, sequential releases of the sterilized insects in adequate sterile to wild male overflooding ratio's lead to a reduction in pest population numbers
An entomopathogenic fungus can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them.Targets are distributed among 10 insect orders:
Hemiptera (59.6%), Coleoptera (40.9%), Lepidoptera (17.5%), Thysanoptera (14.6%), Orthoptera (9.4%), Diptera (7.0%), Hymenoptera (2.9%), Isoptera (2.3%), Siphonoptera (1.2%), and Blattodea(0.6%).
Here I would like to share my doctoral credit seminar on thrips as insect vectors for plant pathogens.I hope it would enhance your understanding...............
COVID-19 and Immunity The 21th Threat, By Prof. Mohamed Labib Salem, PhD
Prof. of Immunology, Faculty of Science
Director, Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Tanta University, Egypt
Talk outlines
Historical Pandemic outbreaks
Basics of Coronavirus and COVID-19
Immune Responses to the new Coronavirus
Anti-Coronavirus treatments
My contribution
The Most Deadly Pandemic Threaten the World by Dr. Mohamed Labib SalemProfMohamedLabibSale
The Most Deadly Pandemic Threaten the World
Dr. Mohamed Labib Salem, PhD
Prof. of Immunology, Faculty of Science
Director, Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Tanta University, Egypt
بدعوة كريمة من: مجموعة العلم والمجتمع أحد مجموعات أكاديمية الشباب المصري – أكاديمية البحث العلمي والتكنولوجيا
Gut microflora and their role in susceptibility of lepidopteran pests to baci...Prema Latha
This topic to be covered Types of insect-microbe interactions, Microbial diversity in insects, Role of gut microflora on the susceptibility of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), Mode of Action of Bt, Role of gut microflora on the susceptibility of Bt and more case studies supported to this topic.
The Sterile Insect Technique, best known by its acronym SIT and also identified as the Sterile Insect Release Method (SIRM), is a biologically-based method for the management of key insect pests of agricultural and medical/veterinary importance. In the FAO glossary, the Sterile Insect Technique is defined as "a method of pest control using area-wide inundative releases of sterile insects to reduce reproduction in a field population of the same species". It is therefore a type of "birth control" in which wild female insects of the pest population do not reproduce when they are inseminated by released, radiation-sterilized males. Sterilization is induced through the effects of irradiation on the reproductive cells of the insects. SIT does not involve the release of insects modified through transgenic (genetic engineering) processes. In this type of autocidal control, sequential releases of the sterilized insects in adequate sterile to wild male overflooding ratio's lead to a reduction in pest population numbers
An entomopathogenic fungus can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them.Targets are distributed among 10 insect orders:
Hemiptera (59.6%), Coleoptera (40.9%), Lepidoptera (17.5%), Thysanoptera (14.6%), Orthoptera (9.4%), Diptera (7.0%), Hymenoptera (2.9%), Isoptera (2.3%), Siphonoptera (1.2%), and Blattodea(0.6%).
Here I would like to share my doctoral credit seminar on thrips as insect vectors for plant pathogens.I hope it would enhance your understanding...............
COVID-19 and Immunity The 21th Threat, By Prof. Mohamed Labib Salem, PhD
Prof. of Immunology, Faculty of Science
Director, Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Tanta University, Egypt
Talk outlines
Historical Pandemic outbreaks
Basics of Coronavirus and COVID-19
Immune Responses to the new Coronavirus
Anti-Coronavirus treatments
My contribution
The Most Deadly Pandemic Threaten the World by Dr. Mohamed Labib SalemProfMohamedLabibSale
The Most Deadly Pandemic Threaten the World
Dr. Mohamed Labib Salem, PhD
Prof. of Immunology, Faculty of Science
Director, Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, Tanta University, Egypt
بدعوة كريمة من: مجموعة العلم والمجتمع أحد مجموعات أكاديمية الشباب المصري – أكاديمية البحث العلمي والتكنولوجيا
Historical Background on Genesis of Epidemics, Plant Quarantine & Phytosani...Mir G.
With the increasing international travel and trade globalization, the persistence of trans-boundary plant/animal/human diseases in the world poses a serious risk to world humans/animal/ agriculture/food security and jeopardizes international trade. See the timeline of pandemics/epidemics that, in ravaging human populations and changed history. Many destructive plant pathogens have emerged via human-assisted global migration movement from their native geographic range to a new environment. Examples of dangerous pathogens/diseases disseminated during the transboundary movement of seeds and other planting materials in international trade and exchange caused havoc and leading to profound political, economic, and social consequences. In this context, the awareness of quarantine & certification measures are compulsory in the present scenario.
Definition
Biological Agents as Causes of Mass Destruction
Sources of Biological Agents
Types of Biological Agents
Epidemics
Bioterrorism
History : Major events across the globe
Impact of Biological Disaster
Prevention of Biological Disaster
Antimicrobial drug use and its implicationsBhoj Raj Singh
There is no place on the earth surface where potentially dangerous drug resistant bacteria have not reached. They have infiltrated even into wilderness of virgin and barren islands including the Arctic region. After discovery of antimicrobial agents in the first half of 20th century, clinicians felt relieved as these wonder drugs substantially reduced the threat of infectious diseases. Over the years, antimicrobials have saved lives, eased the suffering of millions of people. And have contributed to the major gains in life expectancy (WHO 2000, 2005). However, these wonder drugs have started to loose ground rapidly. With each application of antibiotic to kill bacteria a new micro environment is created where the sensitive microbes get killed but the resistant organisms start to flourish. New selection pressure each time leads to rapid evolution in bacteria. As a result, now almost all important infection causing bacteria are armoured to survive in antibiotic loaded environment with much deadlier infective power.
Cotton, known as “White Gold”, is the premier commercial crop in India. Among the different constraints that limit the yield of cotton in India, insect pests are considered to be the most serious. Among these insect pests nowadays, Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) is most important. It is highly polyphagous pest and feeds on over 600 plant species including many agricultural crops (Oliveira et al., 2001). During last week of September, 1994 the whitefly assumed an epidemic form on cotton and brinjal crops at farmers fields throughout the Haryana state (Sharma and Batra, 1995). There are 24 different biotypes of whitefly. It transmits more than 111 species of plant pathogenic viruses (Jones, 2003). There are many approaches for controlling this pest viz., physical, cultural,biotechnological, biological, chemical, biopesticides and biorationals. Yellow sticky traps in various forms can catch large no. of whiteflies (Gerling and Horowitz, 1984). Use of light emitting diodes increase the attractiveness, specificity and adaptability of these visual traps (Stukenberg, 2014). There are cultural practices such as avoidance in time, avoidance in space and behavioural manipulations to manage whiteflies (Hilje et al., 2001). A reflective mulch (also called silver and metallic) treatment resulted in a lower incidence of adult whiteflies as compared with a standard black mulch treatment (Simmons et al., 2010). Biopesticides such as fungi and azadirachtin are also used to manage whitefly. In pot culture, 2% concentration of mineral oil + neem oil and mineral oil + Pongamia glabra seed oil were effective against Bemisia tabaci with a mean population reduction of 81.83% and 81.52% respectively (Chandra Shekhar et al., 2015). Five species of predators : Serangium parcesetosum, Brumoides suturalis, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Coccinella septempunctata, Chrysoperla zastrowi and a parasitoid, Encarsia lutea were identified in Haryana (Kedar et al., 2014). Pyriproxyfen 10 EC @ 125gm a.i/ha was found most effective Insect Growth Regulator against whitefly (Kumar et al., 2014). Imidacloprid proved to be the most effective insecticide against whitefly upto seven days after application (Afzal et al., 2014). Spiromesifen 240 SC @ 0.4 ml/lt followed by buprofezin 10 EC @ 1.0 ml/lt were found as the most effective treatments with more than 75 per cent mean reduction in nymphal population of whiteflies (Maha Lakshmi et al., 2015). A chitin inhibitor gene Tma12 from a fern Tectaria spp. was identified for whitefly defence. RNA interference (RNAi)- mediated gene silencing was explored for the control of Bemisia tabaci (Upadhyay et al., 2011).
Status of Transgenics in Pest Management: Global and Indian ScenarioJayantyadav94
A transgenic crop plant contains a foreign gene or group of genes which have been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring them through pollination. Up to 17 million farmers in 24 countries planted 189.8 million hectares (469 million acres) in 2017, an increase of 3% or 4.7 million hectares (11.6 million acres) from 2016.
Defense Mechanism in Plants Against InsectsJayantyadav94
Plants and insects living together for more than 350 million years
Evolutionary between plants and insects resulted in the development of defence system in plants that has the ability to recognize signals from damaged cells
Activates the plant immune response against the insects
Plants have the ability to distinguish between herbivory and mechanical damage, such as hail and wind, as well as to recognize oviposition.
This feature is needed to avoid wasting expensive defence resources, since production and release of defence responses only benefits herbivore challenged plants.
Sound Strategies: the 65-million-year-old battle between Bats and InsectsJayantyadav94
An ancient battle rages high above our heads in the night sky as bats, the consummate nocturnal predators hunt their insect prey using ultrasonic sonar. One of the most important factors in the successful adaptive radiation of bats is their effective echolocation system. Echolocating bats emit ultrasonic pulses and listen for the presence, delay, and harmonic structure of the echoes reflected from the objects in the environment (Jones and Teeling, 2006). The frequency of the echolocation calls varies from 8 to 215 kHz depending on the bat species. The pulse repetition rate of the calls can vary from roughly 3 to approximately 200 pulses s−1 (Simmons et al., 1979). The echolocation sequence of hunting insectivorous bats involves three main phases: search, approach, and terminal (buzz) (Griffin et al., 1960). Many, if not most, cases of insect hearing probably originated as a means for detecting and avoiding predators such as sensitivity to ultrasound appears to have coevolved with echolocation signaling by insectivorous bats (Greenfield, 2016). In moths bat-detection was the principal purpose of hearing, as evidenced by comparable hearing physiology with best sensitivity in the bat echolocation range, 20–60 kHz, across moths in spite of diverse ear morphology (Nakano et al., 2015). Tympanic organs (ears) of moths are sufficiently sensitive to detect the echolocation cries of most bats before the bats can register their echo (Greenfield, 2014 and Goerlitz et al., 2010). In addition to hearing ultrasound, many moths belonging to sub-family Arctiinae are also capable of producing ultrasound in the form of short, repetitive clicks in response to tactile stimulation and the ultrasonic signals of echolocating bats when they detect the sonar signals of attacking bats (Corcoran et al., 2010). Anti-bat sounds function in acoustic aposematism, startle, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry and sonar jamming. Beetles, mantids, lacewings, crickets, mole crickets, katydids, and locusts can detect the sonar emissions of bats and exhibit various forms of anti-bat behavior. Researchers are beginning to use sophisticated high-speed infrared videography and high-frequency microphone arrays to study bat-insect interactions under natural conditions that will yield a multitude of exciting predator-prey interactions in the future.
Role of Synergists in Resistance ManagementJayantyadav94
Any chemical which in itself is not toxic to insects as dosages used, but when combined with an insecticide greatly enhances the toxicity of insecticide is known as synergist. Process of activation is synergism. Helps in penetration and stabilization of insecticides, and prevents the detoxification of insecticides
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
4. What is Bioterrorism???
According to the U.S. Center for Disease Control and
Prevention (2008), Bioterrorism is the deliberate release
of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to
cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants.
• Biocrime
• Biological warfare
• Biological weapons
• Food terrorism
5. Classification of bioterrorism
agents
Class A
Easily disseminated
High mortality rates
Major public health impact
Public panic and social disruption
Class B
Moderately easy to disseminate
Low mortality rates
Class C
Emerging pathogens
Could be engineered for mass dissemination in
the future
6. INTRODUCTION
• The use of insects as weapons of war, tools of terrorism, and
instruments of torture extends from the opportunism of prehistorical
assaults to the calculated tactics of modern, asymmetric conflicts.
Insects are used to:
• Involve the infliction of pain
• Cause direct damage to agriculture
• Cause disease acting as vector of microbes
7. PREHISTORICAL TACTICS
• The earliest use of insects was in the Upper Paleolithic period
• Tossing a nest of bees, hornets, wasps, or ants (Neufeld 1980)
• The Tiv people used large, specially crafted horns filled with
bees
• The San bushmen extracted a potent poison from the larvae and
pupae of chrysomelid beetles (Diamphidia nigroornata and D.
vittatipennis) found in the soil beneath corkwood trees
(Lockwood 2009)
8. ANCIENT HISTORY: INFLICTING SUFFERING
Hornets were evidently used to knock out opponents
The plagues of Egypt described in Exodus have been interpreted as biting
midges and locust-induced famine inflicted great suffering on the
Egyptians (Wotton 2007)
Middle Eastern cultures used pottery hives as “bee grenades”
Pederin a toxin secreted by Paederus beetles (Mayor , 2003)
Siberian tribes used flies for torture and execution
9. The Hatrians prepared for the Roman assault battle referred to “poisonous
flying insects”
Romans made extensive use of bees as catapult payloads in other siege
(Ambrose 1974)
Romans cornered the Pontic army and laid siege, but the Romans were
routed when they tried to bore beneath the city walls and Mithridates’ troops
released bees into the tunnels
The Roman Empire: Weaponization of Stinging Arthropods
10. Fleas and Collateral Casualties
Mongols sieged city of kaffa and this continued for three years, until the
Mongol camp was devastated by bubonic plague
There was role of insects in this outbreak
Enough infected fleas remained within the clothing of the dead Mongols to
spread the bacteria among the city’s rats, dogs, cats and humans
(Lockwood 2009)
By 1350, the resulting pandemic stretched across Europe, killing 25 million
people more than one-quarter of the continent’s population
11. Insect-Borne Disease in the Napoleonic Wars
In 1799, the Ottoman Empire declared war on France, prompting Napoleon Bonaparte to
invade Syria with 13,000 troops
As Napoleon’s flea-infested troops laid siege at Acre, disease increased in prevalence
and Napoleon accepted defeat
In 1812, Napoleon amassed 4,50,000 soldiers for invasion of Russia with ultimate
objective of taking India
The Grand Army become infested with lice-and infected with typhus. French lost 80,000
soldiers to disease within one month
Napoleon returned home having lost more than 2,00,000 men to disease
(Peterson 2008)
12. Insect-Borne Disease in the U.S. Civil War
In 1862, 4,88,000 soldiers who perished in civil war, in which the two-thirds
died of disease
“I am fighting, sir, every day! Is it nothing that I compel the enemy to inhabit the
swamps, like frogs, and lessen their strength every hour, without firing a shot?”
(Steiner 1968)
More than 20,000 union army men were hospitalized due to malaria
Union army finally had to withdraw their forces after realizing that their opponents
had used entomological weapon
13. Insects as Instruments of Torture
In 18th century Apache Indians used ants to cause painful death
Victims had honey smeared on their body before being staked over anthills
Torture chamber consisting of a 7-m-deep pit covered with an iron grill and
stocked with assassin bugs (Reduviidae) and sheep ticks (Dermacentor
marginatus)
“Masses of flesh had been gnawed off [the prisoners’] bones” after two months in
the pit (Maclean 1959)
14. THE WORLD WARS: World War I
Beginning in 1914, the Eastern Front became a worst-case scenario for typhus
(Holmes 2001)
By november 1914, Louse-borne typhus began to spread among the refugees
and the Serbian army
Russia, however, was not spared from the epidemic, from 1917 to 1922, there
were at least 20 million cases leaving 3 to 10 million dead
The Western Front had learned from the Crimean War that disease was deadlier
than bombs or bullets, with three-quarters of the casualties resulting from typhus
(Tschanz 2008)
15. World War I
Strategic quarantine by limiting the exchange of troops with the Eastern Front
The British Sanitary Units adopted dry-cleaning methods
Although typhus was kept under control, trench fever emerged in France and
Belgium, afflicting 800,000 men with few fatalities
“passive” form of entomological warfare was used throughout twentieth
century
(Lockwood 2009)
16. World War II: The Japanese
Shiro ishii – trained Doctor, microbiologist and military officer
When Russian infiltrators were caught with vials of pathogenic bacteria
The newly designated Unit 731 studied the greatest potential of insects as a weapons
Unit 731 developed the Uji bomb a ceramic shell casing with a small explosive charge
that released its 10-liter payload over a target
(Barenblatt 2004)
Fleas were initially reared on prisoners, but mass production involved thousands of
incubators stocked with rodents. Unit 731 soon had the capacity to produce 45 kg of
fleas every 3 to 4 months, with the potential for more than 500 million fleas per year
17. World War II: The Japanese
After the success of Ishii’s experiments on humans, the program grew to 15,000
scientists working at Pingfan as well as
1. Anda Station (Field test delivery methods on human targets)
2. Detachment 100 (Tick-borne piroplasmosis against horses)
3. Unit Ei 1644 ( For mass-producing fleas and typhus infested lice)
4. Unit 673 (Epidemic hemorrhagic fever) (Barenblatt 2004)
The Japanese discovered that fleas could be released directly from low-flying
aircraft using specialized sprayers
18. World War II: The Japanese
Unit 731 conducted entomological warfare causing at least 1,00,000 casualties
The Japanese continued efforts to contaminate Chinese water supplies with
cholera but had little success
The latter device was divided in a section packed with a slurry of bacteria and a
compartment loaded with house flies (Musca domestica)
Approximately 60,000 of the refugees died of cholera, and villages were
infected as far as in area of 200 km (Barenblatt 2004)
19. World War II: European Developments
Mass rearing and release systems for the Colorado potato beetle, a pest that had
been accidentally introduced into Europe (Grubinger 2008)
Germans initiated an insecticide development program (Clarke 1968)
German espionage revealed that the Americans had delivered thousands of
Colorado potato beetles to the British
In response of that Germany’s Colorado Potato Beetle Research Institute was
converted into facilities for weaponizing insects
Between 1941 and 1944, at least 15 species of insects were used in
bioterrorism
20. World War II: European Developments
The Germans determined that 20 to 40 million beetles were needed to
inflict serious damage on England’s potato crop
Total of 54,000 beetles, of which only 154 were recovered a result that
the Germans interpreted to mean that the insects were dispersing widely
(Garrett 1996)
British naturalist recounted that cardboard box-bombs filled with 50 to
100 beetles were dropped on the Isle of Wight
21. World War II: The United States, Great Britain, and
Canada
British warned USA that Germans would be prepared to introduce an
epidemic of yellow fever
“Studies be made to determine whether mosquitoes can be infected with
several diseases simultaneously ”
Canadians spreading yellow fever using infected Aedes aegypti
British conducted preliminary work on the use of house flies to vector
Salmonella and focused on weaponizing anthrax
(Regis 1999)
22. World War II: The United States, Great Britain, and
Canada
U.S. Office of Strategic Services (OSS) collaborated with Canadian
entomological warfare experts to dislodge the Nazi force
The logistical challenges of mass-producing, contaminating, and releasing
flies
(OSS) developed a synthetic version with a chemical attractant to draw
the insects to bacterially coated bait
When typhus threatened American troops after they landed in Naples, a lice
control program was initiated
Within a few months, the U.S. army dusted more than 3 million people with
127 tons of DDT and suppressed the incipient epidemic
(Schultz 1992)
23. Operation Big Itch
Operation Big Itch was a September 1954 series of tests at Dugway Ground in
Utah
The fleas were loaded into two types of munitions and dropped from the air. The
E14 bomb and E23 bomb, which could be clustered into the E86 cluster bomb
and E77 bomb, respectively
The E14 was designed to hold 1,00,000 fleas and the E23 was designed to hold
2,00,000 fleas but the E23 failed in over half of the preliminary Big Itch tests
Fleas survive the drop from an airplane but they also soon attached themselves
to hosts
(Hay 1999)
24. The Korean bioterrorism War
Korean War began on June 25, 1950
In 1952, North Korea officially alleged to the United Nations that the U.S.
Military had been “systematically scattering large quantities of bacteria-carrying
insects (Croddy 2002)
China expanded the accusations – one week 68 airdrops of contaminated
insects (Endicott and Hagerman 1998)
Massive report documenting the use of 14 different arthropods, infected with
at least eight different pathogens (ISC 1952)
25. International Scientific Commission (ISC) report on bioterrorism
1.Eye witnesses reported insects falling from American planes
2. Large numbers of springtails in a cement stadium
3.Unusual times, e.g., migratory locusts in mid-March
4. Americans’ capacity to breed selectively for cold tolerance
26. The Vietnam War
The three major entomological warfare tactics were used
1. First, insect borne disease was pursued by USA in south-east Asia
2. Second, the North Vietnamese accused the Americans of releasing insects to
destroy rice and fruit trees (Cookson and Nottingham 1969)
3. Third, both sides sought to use stinging insects
a) There were also reports of the North Vietnamese training bees to attack
anyone wearing an American uniform
b) Americans considered using pheromones to “mark target individuals and
then release bees to attack them” (Ambrose 1974)
27. The U.S.-Cuban Conflict
• The primary target was to be Cuba’s sugarcane crop, and the primary agent was
the sugarcane leafhopper, Perkinsiella vitiensis, which transmits the virus that
causes Fiji disease
• Rice hoja blanca virus, a plant hopper-borne pathogen studied at Fort Detrick
(Whitby 2002)
•A five-month epidemic of dengue fever, a mosquito-borne disease, resulted in
3,44,203 cases and 158 deaths (Kouri et al 1986)
28. 28
MODERN, ASYMMETRICAL WARFARE: Contemporary Torture
First half of the twentieth century, Soviet jailers used bed bugs, Cimex
lectularius, as instruments of torture in the gulags (Solzhenitsyn 1974)
In modern China, prisoners have been stripped and handcuffed to poles during
the summer at dusk or dawn in areas with high densities of mosquitoes
U.S. interrogators used insects as a form of psychological torture on an
entomophobic captive (MacAskill 2009)
29. Entomological terrorism can be organized into 3 major categories:
1. Insects as weapons of direct attacks
2. Agents of agroterrorism
3. Disease vectors
30. 1. Direct attacks
Military personnel will have natural exposures to biting, stinging, or toxic
insects
One documented threat to military personnel that could be used in direct
attack is paederus beetle
Though they are relatively free of vector-borne disease
Intense pain and temporary blindness have been reported when pederin is
introduced to the eyes
(Derek et al 2010)
31. 2. AGROTERRORISM
The Medflies species are found in Hawaii, but are not established on the
US mainland
In 1989, an ecoterrorist group known as the “Breeders” threatened to
release Medflies in California if the state did not stop its pesticide spraying
program
In 1990 USA spent 6.5 million dollar on research to use caterpillar as
biological weapon against crops
(Derek et al 2010)
33. 3. DISEASE VECTORS: Rift valley fever (RVF)
Rift Valley fever is an excellent example of a disease that would require little
effort to deliver to the United States
Occurs in various regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar
Numerous mosquito species transmit the virus that causes RVF
High attack rates in livestock, with 30% mortality and abortion rates
approaching 100%.
(Derek et al 2010)
35. Contemporary Terrorism
Agricultural terrorism has been a concern since the early 1960s, when the
USDA warned of the nation’s vulnerability to the Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis
capitata), khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium), Asiatic rice borer (Chilo
suppressalis), silver “Y” moth (Autographa gamma), Sunn pest (Eurygaster
integriceps), dura stem borer (Sesamia cretica), and several species of potato
weevils (Lockwood 2009)
1991 arrival of the sweet potato whitefly (Bemisia tabaci ), caused $300 million
damage to California Agriculture
The livestock industry is also a viable target according to a 2003 report of the
National Research Council (NRC)
The NRC report also included the possibility of insect-borne diseases as
terrorist weapons
36. Contemporary Terrorism
Entomological terrorism using genetically modified vectors or insect-borne
pathogens is a possible tactic
Research at Fort Detrick pursued the development of insect strains with
insecticide resistance and with enhanced biting activity
Mosquitoes could be genetically engineered to transmit HIV (Lockwood 2009)
Whitefly-transmitted plant virus could be genetically modified to produce
botulinum toxin so that vast areas of corn would be rendered deadly
(MacKenzie 1999)
38. Biosecurity
A comprehensive approach, main aim is necessary to minimize the risk of
harm caused by non native to agriculture, the economy, the environment,
and human health
Biosecurity is therefore the sum of risk management practices in defense
against biological threats. (NASDA 2001)
Prevent harm from both intentional and unintentional introductions of
organisms
Biosecurity measures
Prevention
Early detection
Rapid alert and response
39. India’s Biosecurity regulations
India’s Agriculture Biosecurity Bill tabled in the lower house of
Parliament in year 2013 is still pending
The Bill hopes to establish an Agricultural Biosecurity Authority of
India
The bill is expected to replace the century-old Destructive Insects and
Pests Act (DIPA) and the Livestock Importation Act. A Plant Quarantine
Order was passed in 1962 under the DIPA to attain better proficiency in
quarantining the inflow of harmful insects and plants
The National Farmers Commission subsequently made recommendations
for setting up a centralised National Agricultural Biosecurity System
40. Bioterrorism threat to India and our Bioterrorism Preparedness
There are no confirmed incidents of bioterrorism attack in India
Some of suspected attacks are as follows:
1994, Pneumonic plague attack in Surat
1996, Dengue hemorrhagic fever attack in Delhi
1999, Anthrax attack in Midnapore
2001, the Mystery encephalitis attack in Siliguri.
But in India, we still have no such dedicated law, India’s has so far, put efforts
mainly via NDMA, NDRF and DRDO
Our country lacks an effective public health system and that is why, any event of
bioterrorism can create havoc in the country
41. FUTURE ISSUES
Continued archaeological research
Japanese biological warfare program of World War II have yet to be
revealed
The secrecy surrounding entomological weapons by the United States
and other nations in the 1950s and 1960s
The complexity of the politics and history during the Cold War
42. CONCLUSIONS
For Millennia insects were used as “found” weapons as tactical
arms.
In recent times sociopolitical changes have put insects back into
the realm of human conflict
Factors like nationalism, racism, and economics served to justify
use of insects as weapons
“six-legged” cutters of primitively armed insects being used as
terrorists, waging a war against modern society.