The document discusses several studies on individualism and collectivism. Some key findings include: - Individualism is linked to greater independence and self-esteem, while collectivism is linked to greater social responsibility and group harmony. - Individualistic cultures value independence more than collectivistic cultures. - Task interdependence can increase cooperation in individualistic cultures more than collectivistic cultures. - Different cultures prefer different approaches to teamwork, accountability, communication and reward allocation.

1. Balqees Saud Al-Makhmari

2.  Hofstede (1973) conducted a large international survey questioning 117,000 IBM
employees from more than 70 countries over a period of six years in total.
 He noticed key differences between countries and identified trends , which he
categorized into six dimensions :
 Power Distance Index (PDI)
 Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)
 Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS)
 Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
 Pragmatic Versus Normative (PRA)
 Indulgence Versus Restraint (IVR)

3.  Both words were used for the first time in the 19th century for political ideologies.
 In the 1960s they emerge it in personality psychology.
 IC was coined by Hofstede (1980) , which is used to describe differences in
attitudes , values and behaviors in both social and national .
 Its address the importance of individual VS the group.
 Bonita's friend son who is an Omani , who got a fully funded scholarship from the
government , he said : now I am coming back to give back to my country .
 The difference between the two concepts is “ what can I give instead of what can I
take ”

4.  Definition : Is a society in which the ties between individuals are everyone is
expected to look after her himself and the immediate family (father mother and
children ) . Orientation toward the self . I
 Values ( irrational values) : independence , creativity , uniqueness and personal
achievement ,can be linked to greater self esteem and greater normlessness.
 Countries ( 14 countries western countries , north American , Australian and
USA is the highest)
 “To be your own person , not following others ideas and simply living in your own
values “
 “Having more power in choices”

5.  Definition : is a society in which individuals from birth onwards are part of strong
in groups usually the family sometimes the extended family sometimes and the
village society. WE
 Values ( rational values ) : group harmony , solidarity , fitting in , sharing , mutual
support , strong sense of community , can be linked to greater social responsibility
,reduced normlessness , lower self esteem and greater powerlessness and social
isolation.
 Countries ( Non western ) Latin America is the highest in collectivism .
 People in Oman are friendly , openly and totally different from UK.

6.  Background : Test the effect of I/C orientations ( solidarity work preference ,
supremacy of individual goals , competitiveness , self reliance dimensions and
perceived task interdependence on two employees attitudes ( team loyalty and
prosocial behavior )
 Study Findings :
 1- individualism orientation is negatively related to team loyalty and pro social
behavior .
 Grace’s prefer to work by her self because its quicker , easier and working on
her own specific process.
 Grace’s gave her parents her own saved money to help them building their new
house.
 2- a positive interaction between perceived task interdependence and
individualist orientation .
 Grace’s getting her job done without waiting for any thankfulness.

7.  Background : Examine the influence of stress ( life events ) and IC in job
satisfaction of manager in different private sector organization in India (
collectivistic country ).
 Study Finding:
 1- I/C is an important predictor of its role in job satisfaction of managerial
personnel .
 2- High individualist managers having higher job satisfaction than collectivist
managers .
 Both Grace and Benita are satisfied with their jobs , satisfaction means to Grace
is the job required is done without any thankfulness . To Benita’s satisfaction in
form of expanding professionalism ,personality and feel welcomed from the people
she coached.

8.  Background : Examine factors moderating the relationship between
individualism and WOM transmission .
 Study Findings :
 1- high individualism consumers are more willing than low individualism
consumers to transmit WOM in real and online worlds.
 2- high individualism consumers participate more in satisfactory WOM
experience.
 Grace’s good experience with Awasr network company was transferred to her
friends through posting a Facebook post.
 3- high individualism consumers more likely to engage in high social risk WOM
conditions .
 4- high individualism consumers participate more in unsolicited WOM condition .

9.  Background : investigate if cross cultural differences in socialization goals as function
of power distance and I/C and to see if power distance moderates the relationship
between education and socialization goals.
 Study Findings:
 1- Parents from individualistic societies are more likely to mention independence ,
imagination , self expression and less likely to mention obedience as socialization
goals.
 Independence come with respect in Grace’s family , as long as the children willing to
earn so they will get it . E.g. full independency after 18 years in UK.
 In Bonita's family , her son is fully independent .
 In Oman , the parents value obedience and politeness more than in UK.
 2- In high power distance countries , individuals with lower education mention more
frequently hard work as a socialization goal .

10.  Background : Examine from a cross cultural perspective , preferred parental disciplinary methods. As it is difficult to
learn what is considered acceptable disciplinary methods for every country throughout the world.
 Study Findings :
 1- Fatalistic culture :immigrants parents were reported to parent differently once resettled in their own country. (
more controlling and stern ) , avoid society , achieving order through rules and corporal punishments .
USA as it is the most common destination for immigrants.
 Bonita son’s moved to live with her in age of 33!
 Grace’s father don’t allow her to go to parties or Cinema late . “ independence with respect”
 In Ramadhan Grace wear scarf ,long slaves and not eating in front of fasting people .
 2- Egalitarian culture: equality , quality relation with children , rarely use corporal punishments , allow children to
develop their own way and children with right to access their parents . E.g. middle east
 3- Hierarchal culture : Full obedience, attainment of specific goals. E.g. India
 4- Individualistic culture : group conformity is less , discipline is permissive children are praised for a good behavior
and their children are more independency. E.g. US
 In the Uk children are walking to schools , but in Oman their parents drive them to schools.
 Grace slept in her own room from age of 2 .

11.  Background : How individuals patterns of endorsement of individualist and collectivist attitudes ( self
reliance , group oriented interdependence and competitiveness ) are distributed across national
context.
 Study Findings :
 1- Most European ,western countries : are self reliant non competitors , followed by interdependent
non competitors.
 Bonita's doesn't like competition as it is sometimes is unhealthy ,in which it will affect the work
negatively.
 Grace’s opinion of helping others to win is , I am living with own values of helping others to succeed.
 2- Spain , Portugal , Belgium ,US , Argentina and Chile classified as interdependent non competitor ,
and then self reliant non competitor
 3- middle east participants were self reliant competitors .
 4- Eastern Asia : Self relent non competitors and competitors.
 5- The combination of competitiveness and self reliance were found in poor countries
 6- The combination of competitiveness and interdependence was common in less affluent countries .

12.  Back ground : To find out how culture affects behavioral cooperation through mechanism selection or modification .
 Study findings :
 1- Goal interdependence is more effective for gaining cooperation in an individualist culture , while goal sharing is more
effective in collectivist culture.
 Grace’s prefer to work by her self because its quicker , easier and working on own specific process.
 2- Cooperation in an individualist culture increases to the extent that the new group identity enhance personal identities ,
while new group identity complements existing group identities in collectivist culture.
 3- Cognition based trust will be more positively related to co-operation in individualist culture , whereas affect based trust will
be more positively related to cooperation in a collectivist culture.
 4- Individual based accountability is more effective for fostering cooperation in an individualist culture , whereas group based
accountability is more effective in a collectivist culture.
 5- Mediated partial communication will evoke higher levels of cooperation in an individualist culture , whereas face to face
communication will evoke higher in a collectivist culture.
 Language barriers will be the reason behind it ( choosing words more carefully) . As an expat , I am not part of inner circle
 6- Equity based reward allocation system will be positively related to cooperation in both short and long term work relation ,
whereas in a collectivist culture ,equity reward related to cooperation in short term and equality related to long ones .

13.  Back ground : measuring irrational beliefs by using SPB and Belief scale to test
individualism , collectivism and psychological adjustments.
 Results finding:
 1- Individualism makes a crucial contribution to the development of a well
balanced personality.
 2- Neither I nor C can be fully heathy alone.
 3- Individualist values ( irrational values ): can be linked to greater self esteem
and greater normlessness.
 4- Collectivist values ( rational values ) can be linked to greater social
responsibility ,reduced normlessness , lower self esteem and greater
powerlessness and social isolation.

14.  Background : Explore the major independent variables (I/C , subordinate group membership ,
and subordinate performance variations).
 Study findings :
 1- Idiocentric behavior is more common in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures
.Whereas ,allocentric behavior is more common in collectivistic cultures.
 2- I/C at the cultural level of analysis will have a direct effect on allocator reward behavior.
 3- Collectivistic allocators allow recipient group membership to impact their allocation decisions
to a significantly greater degree , demonstrate more equal allocation behaviors among in-group
members , demonstrate more equitable allocation behaviors among outgroup members.
 4- individualist allocators allow recipient performance level variation to impact their allocation
decisions to a significantly greater degree , demonstrate more equal allocation behaviors among
out group members , demonstrate more equitable ( performance based )allocation behaviors
among in-group members.
 5-Collectistic allocators exhibit a significantly greater in-group bias.

15.  Back ground :Investigation is done on whether individualism and collectivism on
above three levels influenced well a person could make inferences about thoughts and
feelings of another person .
 Study Findings :
 1-The effect of country IC on TOM and the implications for experimental cross cultural
research : Anxiety , excessive prudence and slower time perception could have
influenced how the Vietnamese participants handled the tasks and lead to longer
reaction times.
 2- The effect of individual IC and situational IC on TOM : Situational IC interacted
with the type of ToM in the Vietnamese sample , being placed in a situation that cued
individualism , compared to being placed in a situation that cued collectivism resulted
in less accurate understanding of another person's feelings . ( affective ToM)
 3- The main effect of types of ToM and their interaction with IC :

16.  Privacy ( Bonita’s neighbors asked her about her son , who is this man ?)
 Task over relationship ( when Bonita's mother passed away , she left everything to go
back to UK)
 Culture differences ( in Oman is more safe , less infrastructure , men are everywhere )
 Direct communication ( in UK strict guidelines , in Oman its direct to seniority )
 Conflict ( best action to overcome this , stay away of it )
 Being unique (I rather be my self , I wont change any thing to make others happy ! In
work they think I am measurable ,but I am doing my work above everything .
 Equality ( everyone should be equal , for e.g. in healthcare system )
 Respect others ( I respect sonority level but if I will demonstrate my opinion with the
right turn of voice )

17.  Adjusting them selves in Oman : no need to adjust , as the people here are more
friendly , for e.g. my client introduce me to her family for a dinner .
 Benefits : good salary , good experience , lifestyle , expand professionalism and
more understanding of global perspective ,religious and cultures .
 Challenges : language barrier , access to healthcare system , not clear process ,
and difficulties to be accepted by Omani women.

18.  Neither I nor C can be fully heathy alone.
 Each of them is the best function to adopt at given set of cultural circumstances .
 As more and more cultures come in contact with one another through immigration
and globalization, proved difficulty in determine acceptable method for every
country throughout the world . So, professional in different fields must have better
understanding of cross cultural methods in order to recognize and not rely on their
own culture to judge others behaviors and attitudes which may lead sometimes to
a conflict / abuse.
 Multicultural companies should create a perception of task interdependence and
design work accordingly, that design will align both individual goals and
organizational goals. In addition, Positive work attitudes and behavior are
occurred in all societies and cultures, so organizations must work at fostering and
sustaining cooperation to reach success at the end.

19.  The companies should have need analysis to clearly study their target consumers
with specific cultures in order to design a marketing messages that best fit specific
culture .
 a third culture of communitarianism may have developed dual emphasize and
balance on both cultures. it is better to accept and appreciate culture differences
by familiarize your-self with culture bias, it is advisable in multicultural group
where both individualist and collectivist may include, a third culture of
communitarianism may have developed dual emphasize and balance on both
cultures.