Improve writing ability

TYPES OF PEOPLE
 Above Average
 Average
 Below Average
• Doing not Showing
• Showing not Doing
• Balance of both
 To be a good communicator communicate
through verbal, written and body language.

INTRODUCTION
 Only one way to write properly.
 Write in a way that the meaning is clear.
 Follow the basic rules and conventions.
 Write clearly and correctly.

INTRODUCTION
 Words (Vocabulary).
 Sentences.
 Paragraphs/Passages.
 End Product is Essay /
Article / Thesis / Book.

AIM
Assist and guide to improve writing ability

The pink bacterium grew well on a medium
containing glucose and peptone.
 The (termed the definite article - in this case
it defines a particular bacterium, not any type
of bacterium).
 Pink (adjective - a word that describes a
noun).
 Bacterium (noun, and in this case the
subject of the verb - the thing that is
performing the action of the verb).
ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE
Cont….

The pink bacterium grew well on a medium containing
glucose and peptone.
 Grew- Verb (in past form).
 Well (adverb - a word that describes a verb, in the
same way as an adjective describes a noun).
 On (preposition - a word placed before a noun or a
phrase to indicate some relationship with what
follows).
 A (indefinite article - like the definite article, but in this
case it means any medium not the medium).
THE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE
Cont….

The pink bacterium grew well on a medium
containing glucose and peptone.
 Medium (noun).
 Containing (participle - a word that serves
as an adjective (describing the medium in this
case) but is derived from a verb, "to contain").
 Glucose (noun).
 And (conjunction - a "joining" word).
 Peptone (noun).
THE ELEMENTS OF A SENTENCE

 To qualify as a sentence, it must have two elements:
a noun and a verb.
 Can have lots of other elements - these just add extra
information.
 Dogs bark. (perfect sentence - has necessary
elements - a noun and a verb. The Noun 'dogs' is the
subject of the verb 'bark').
 I like dogs. (perfect sentence - noun 'I' is the
subject of the verb 'like and the noun 'dogs' is the
object of the verb 'like‘).
THE SIMPLEST SENTENCE
Cont….

Dogs bark. I like dogs.
 These two sentences differ only because of the
types of verb they contain.
 The verb 'bark' (to bark) is called intransitive - it
does not have an object (we cannot bark
something) (I laughed. I cried. The book fell. The
horse galloped. The sun set.)
 The verb 'like' (to like) is transitive - it must have
an object (we cannot like without saying what you
like) (I baked some cookies. I rode the bicycle. I
moved the chair. I stitched a quilt.)
THE SIMPLEST SENTENCE

 By adding adverbs. For example: Dogs bark
loudly.
 By adding adjectives. For example: Noisy
dogs bark.
 Add both: Noisy dogs bark loudly.
 Can use prepositions. For example: Noisy
dogs bark loudly when they are frightened.
 We could go on and on, adding more and
more information provided that our sentence
continues to express a single train of thought.
BUILDING ON THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

BUILDING ON THE SIMPLE SENTENCES
 But we can not introduce a completely new
train of thought into our sentence.
 For example: Noisy dogs bark loudly when
they are frightened, I don't like that. Wrong
Sentence.
 We can do two things to correct this
common error:
 Make two sentences separated by a full
stop (the simplest solution).
 Use a semicolon instead of a comma.

THE 10 MOST COMMON ERRORS
 Its and it's.
 Use of Commas to Separate Sentences.
 Use of Commas to Separate a Verb from its
Subject or Object.
 Make the Verb Agree with Noun/Pronoun.
 Faulty Spelling.
 Latin and Greek Word Endings.
 But, However, For Example, etc.
 Making List.
 Reference to Published Works.
 Some Common Little Problems (Either, Or,
Which and That, Imply and Infer, I, Me and
Myself, etc).

 Never separate a verb from its subject or
object by a comma.
 Never join sentences by a comma.
 Never lose way in a sentence.
 Write in a way that comes naturally following
the basic rules.
 Avoid colloquialisms.
WRITING STYLE - THE BASICS
Cont….

Cont….
 Organise materials so that the work has a clear
structure with logical flow.
 Don't try to be clever : use simple, common words
instead of obscure words.
 Use a simple and direct form of writing.
 Make sure that the meaning is absolutely clear.
 Produce a draft, and expect to rework it two or three
times before it is ready.
WRITING STYLE - THE BASICS

Common Error (Its and It's)
Cont….
 It's means 'it is‘ and its means 'belonging to it‘.
 Plurals - When the plural ends with an "s" then
we put the apostrophe after the "s".
 The mouth belonging to a single horse is 'The
horse's mouth' but the mouths belonging to
several horses are 'The horses' mouths'.
 The teeth belonging to one animal are the
animal's teeth, but the teeth belonging to
several animals are animals' teeth.

Cont….
Personal Pronouns
 A book belonging to her is hers, a book
belonging to them is theirs.
 Similarly, your book is yours, and our book is
ours. No apostrophe is needed.
 And - let's repeat it once more - a thing
belonging to it is its. Again, no apostrophe.

Cont….
Talking about Years
 It is wrong to write 'In the 1990's there was
much turmoil.'
 The use of an apostrophe here suggests that
something belongs to the 1990.
 We are writing about the 1990s as a span of
years.
 It is correct to write 'In the 1990s.

Common Error : Commas to Separate Sentence
Cont….
 Punctuation can cause a lot of problems.
 The more complex the sentence, the more scope there
is for problems to arise.
Advice
 Write short sentences, and use only full stops, commas
and quotation marks.
 If we run into problems with a complex or lengthy
sentence, then rearrange the sentence to avoid the
problems.
 The correct use of colons, semicolons, commas and
dashes can add variety to writing.

 Commas are used as a 'soft break' within a
sentence, rather like a breathing space when
speaking.
 Two common errors:
 Error 1. When a comma separates a
verb from its subject or object.
 The same applies to verbs and their
objects. We would never write the sentence
'I like, dogs.'
Cont….
Commas: When to Use / When Not to Use

Error 2. Use of a Comma in Place of a Full Stop
Example. ‘The fungus found on these trees was
shown to be non-virulent, if this fungus was transferred
to a tree infected with virulent fungi the infection was
arrested.’
Solution
 Make one point, use a full-stop, then make the next
point.
 Alternatively, we can use a semicolon in place of a
full-stop; this would indicate that the two points are
sufficiently related and deserve being braced in a
single sentence.
Commas : When to Use / When Not to Use

Use Commas in Lists
Example. At the zoo we saw lions, tigers, bears
and elephants.
 Usually we do not put a comma before 'and’.
 If we did so (bears, and elephants), the effect
would be to make some point about seeing
elephants.
 It could be to emphasise that we even saw
elephants or it could be to suggest that of course
we saw elephants.
Cont….
Commas : When to Use/When Not to Use

Use of Commas as Brackets
Example. Mitochondria, which generate ATP, are easily seen
after staining with the dye Janus green.
 We use commas to isolate the extra information that is not
essential to the meaning of the sentence.
 The commas and everything within them could be removed,
and still the sentence would make sense both grammatically
and scientifically.
 The use of a pair of commas, serving as brackets, does not
break the golden rule that a verb should not be separated from
its subject or object by a comma.

 Wrong. It was shown, however that the bacterium
was virulent.
 Correct. It was shown, however, that the bacterium
was virulent.
 Wrong. Flies for example, have one pair of wings.
 Correct. Flies, for example, have one pair of wings.
 Correct. For example, flies have one pair of wings.
 Wrong. We see therefore, that flies conform to the
normal pattern for Diptera.
 Correct. We see, therefore, that flies conform to the
 Correct. Therefore, we see that flies conform to the
.Use Commas to Isolate Words
('However', 'Therefore', 'for Example‘)

Advice
 Terms such as however, therefore, thus,
nevertheless, even so, consequently, also, etc.
are to add extra information and (or) to make
sentences flow.
 They are not essential to the (grammatical)
meaning of the sentence, so they should be
separated from it by commas.
 In contrast, words like ‘but’ and ‘and’ are
conjunctions and are integral parts of the
meaning of a sentence. No Comma is needed.

 Correct: I could do it but I will not do it.
 Also correct: I could do it, but I will not do it.
 Correct: I can do it, and I will do it.
 Also correct: I can do it and I will do it.
 Wrong: I could do it, but, I will not do it.
 Wrong: I could do it, however, I will not do it.
 Wrong: I could do it, however I will not do it.
 Correct: I could do it; however, I will not do it.

Hierarchy of ‘Breaks' or ‘Stops'
. Full-stops Absolute break
: Colons Seldom used
; Semicolons Sometime used
, Commas Often used and sometime wrongly
used

The colon (:). The colon is useful for two main
purposes:
 To introduce what follows (which is how I
have just used it).
 To balance or contrast two points.
 Birds have wings: fish have fins.
 Amy has blue eyes: I have brown.
 The Chihuahuan desert has summer
rainfall: the Mojave desert has winter rains.
Cont….

 These sentences can be written as:
 Birds have wings whereas fish have fins.
 Amy has blue eyes and I have brown.
 The Chihuahuan desert has summer
rainfall but the Mojave desert has winter
rains.
 Guidance. Because of this redundancy, the
modern trend is to use the colon only for
making lists, and even then it can cause
problems.

The Semicolon(;). The semicolon has almost
disappeared from the landscape of writing; this is
unfortunate, semicolon can be extremely useful. Its
main use is to link two sentences or themes.
 Dogs bark when they are frightened, I don't
like that. (Wrong)
 Dogs bark when they are frightened; I don't
like that. (Correct)
Guidance. Don't overdo them, but semicolons will
improve our writing by adding variety; they enable
us to avoid strings of short sentences.

The apostrophe (’). Apostrophe is used in two
ways.
 To show where letters have been missed out
of a word - for example, hasn't instead of has
not, isn't instead of is not.
 To show that something belongs to something
else - for example, John's list, the horse's
mouth.
 That's (that is) all very straightforward.

 Latin and Greek word endings.
 Be careful for all those words
that end in -um, -us, -a, -ae, -i,
etc.
Common Error (Faulty Spelling)

 Using Latin Binomials and Common
Names of Organisms.
 Wrong: The Arachnida are found across
the world.
 Correct: Members of the Arachnida are
found across the world.
 Explanation. The Arachnida is a taxonomic
group - one group - so you cannot talk
about it as a plural.
Cont….

A Final Point. You must always "respect"
proper names. For example, the followings
are WRONG:
 The Mucor sporangium is inflated. [Mucor is a
proper noun, so it cannot be used as an
adjective. Instead, write 'The sporangium of
Mucor is inflated’.]
 Canis lupus's skull is large. [Write 'The skull of
Canis lupus is large’.]

Abbreviations
 e.g. meaning 'for example' (for information, it
comes from the Latin, exempli gratia)
 i.e. meaning 'that is' (from the Latin id est). Note
that 'i.e.' specifies particular things, whereas 'e.g.'
gives examples.
 etc. meaning 'and so forth' (from the Latin et
cetera) [Some people, wrongly, write ect.]
 et al. meaning 'and others' (from the Latin et alia).
You would use this only when citing references.

Word Endings: -ise and –ize
 Often the choice of -ise or -ize is optional.
 Increasingly we are moving towards -ise as
the preferred option.
 Example: Optimise, theorise, hypothesise,
plagiarise, equalise, etc.
Cont….

 There are no simple rules governing the use of
hyphens (un-coordinated, well-written, etc.), so
judgment and common sense are required.
 A walking-stick certainly is different from a walking
stick, but a reader is unlikely to be confused if you
miss out the hyphen.
 It is normal to write ninety-first (and similar)
instead of ninety first.
Cont….
Common Error (Hyphens)

 It makes sense to use hyphens for compound
adjectives (e.g. a gorse-covered hill, a well-chosen
site, a time-limited offer.)
 A black-backed jackal is different from a black
backed jackal (which must be black all over, as well
as having a back).
 It is usual to hyphenate when a noun is used as
an adjective (e.g. tooth-decay, mountain-bike).
 The prefix 'non-' is often hyphenated (e.g. non-
usable, non-stick, non-smoker) but 'un-' is usually
non-hyphenated (unusable, unstuck, unexciting).
Cont….

 Times such as 9 o' clock (9 of the clock)
should not be hyphenated.
 You might be alarmed if you read "Tonight
you should look up the rectum" - even if that is
technically correct, it would be sensible to
hyphenate (look-up) the compound verb (to
look-up, meaning to consult).
 Instead of using hyphens, think about joining
the words together if this seems reasonable.
 For example, a web site (or web-site) could
equally well be a website.

 There are five common endings to the
singular form: -a (as in alga), -us (as in
fungus), -um (as in bacterium), -is (as in
hypothesis), -on (Greek, as in mitochondrion).
 Each of these has its own plural form: -ae
(as in algae), -i (as in fungi), -a (as in bacteria),
-es (as in hypotheses), -a (Greek, as in
mitochondria).
Some Anglicised Latin Words: Singular and Plural
Cont….

 One alga, several algae (and similarly for corona,
papilla).
 One fungus, several fungi (and similarly for pilus,
locas).
 One bacterium, several bacteria (and similarly for
sporangium, cerebellum, medium, datum - yes, data is
the plural form).
 One hypothesis, several hypotheses (and
similarly for thesis, prognosis, diagnosis, proboscis,
testis).
 One mitochondrion, several mitochondria
(similarly for phenomenon, protozoon).
Some Anglicised Latin Words: Singular and Plural

SOME ANGLICISED LATIN WORDS: SINGULAR AND PLURAL
Singular Plural Comments
alga algae
ascus asci
bacterium bacteria
chaeta chaetae
datum (seldom
used)
data
Write "these data",
"the data show"
fimbria fimbriae
flagellum flagella
fungus fungi
genus genera

hypha hyphae
labium labia
locus loci
maxilla maxillae
medium media
Never write "this
culture media"
mitochondrion mitochondria
septum septa
A septum, several
septa
phenomenon phenomena
We noticed a
phenomenon.
phylum phyla

pilus pili
podium podia
protozoan (or protozoon) protozoa
pseudopodium pseudopodia
seta setae
sporangium sporangia
stoma stomata
Leaves have stomata (but,
stomates according to
Americans)
taxon (any taxonomic
category)
taxa
none
None means "not one". So
you write "none is", not
"none are".

Correct
Wrong (or, at least, not what
you meant!)
accommodation, accommodate accomodation
acknowledge aknowledge
acquire aquire
address, addressed adress
affect (verb - to influence
something) (see also effect
further down this list)
effect (as a verb) - when you
affect (verb) something you cause
an effect (noun)
attach, attached attatch, attatched
beginning begining
changeable changable
carnivorous (and herbivorous,
omnivorous)
carniverous, herbiverous,
omniverous
conceive concieve
SPELLING - SOME COMMONLY MISSPELT WORDS

Correct
you meant!)
current (present, now) currant (a thing you find in a bun)
deleterious deliterious
dependent (this is a participle -
something is dependent on
something else; e.g. children are
dependent on their parents)
dependant (but correct as a noun
- a person who depends on
another; e.g. children are
dependants)
desert (a dry place)
dessert (not a dry place)
something you eat in a
pretentious restaurant
desperate desparate
desiccate, desiccation dessicate, dessication
deterrent deterent
develop develope

Correct
you meant!)
disappear dissappear
effect (usually a noun, but used as a verb in a
very restricted sense- e.g. to effect (bring
about) a change)
environment enviroment
existence existance
favour favor (American spelling)
gauge (e.g. to judge something, or a thing that
measures)
guage
independent independant
inoculate innoculate

Correct
you meant!)
led (verb - the form used in the past
tense; e.g. it led to or he led me)
lead (the present tense of the verb; e.g.
I lead a good life) but often wrongly
used in place of led
legitimate
licence (noun, e.g. driving licence)
license (this is correct as a verb - to
permit or authorise)
lie (verb - let sleeping dogs lie, to lie on
a bed). It becomes laid or lay in the
past tense (yesterday the dogs lay for
hours; I laid it down)
lay (what hens do), becomes layed in
the past tense
lose (to lose something) loose (your clothing can be loose)
maintenance maintainance

Correct
Wrong (or, at least, not what you
meant!)
may be (e.g. It may be blue, or correct,
etc.)
maybe (this means perhaps; it
does not mean may be)
necessary
occur, occurred, occurrence occured, occurence
omnivorous omniverous
possess (own) posses, posess
practice (noun - a doctor's practice) practise
practise (verb - a doctor practises, and so
does a juggler if he wants to be good)
privilege privalege, privaledge
principal (main)

Correct
Wrong (or, at least, not what you
meant!)
principle (one of those rules you hold
dear)
proceed procede
receive recieve
separate (remember that you can
separate a pair)
seperate
stationary (still) stationery (paper, sold by a stationer)
supersede (to replace) supercede, superceed
succeed, success
taxonomic (because a group is a taxon) taxanomic
tumour tumor (American spelling)
unmistakable unmistakeable
unnecessary

Cont….
Common Error (Making Lists)
 Lists cause lots of problems only because of
punctuation.
 Stick to the rules and you will never go wrong.
 Example 1. Birds are interesting for the
following reasons.
 They lay eggs.
 They have feathers.
 They do not have fur.

Example 2. Birds are interesting because: (a)
they lay eggs, (b) they have feathers, (c) they
do not have fur.
Example 3. Birds are interesting because:
 They lay eggs.
 They have feathers.
 They do not have fur.
Cont….

Example 4. Birds are interesting because:
 They lay eggs, which are hard-shelled, in
contrast to those of reptiles.
 They have feathers, which serve both for
flight and for thermoregulation.
 They do not have fur, in contrast to
mammals.
Cont….

One Final Point about Lists. Lists are always
neater if the listed things are equivalent. For
example, the following is not a tidy list.
 Birds are interesting because:
 They lay eggs.
 The wings are feathered.
 Birds' eggs are oval.

SOME GUIDANCE ON SYTLE
 Use short Sentences.
 Guidance:
 Short sentences can make strong, single
points.
 The best writing uses a combination of
short and long sentences, to give variety
and keep the reader interested.
Cont….

On Starting a Sentence
 Might not like sentences that begin with But or And.
 Thousands of sentences that begin with 'And’.
 Words like 'however' (for but) or 'additionally’ (for
and).
 However (But), you have to admit that each sentence
makes a point.
 Additionally (And), it is hard to go wrong if you keep your
sentences simple.
 Guidance. You can start a sentence with And or But,
but don't overdo it. 'But' has become quite
acceptable; 'And' less so.

On Ending a Sentence
 There used to be a rule that you do not end a
sentence with a preposition.
 A preposition is not a word to end a sentence
with.
 A preposition is not a word with which to end a
sentence.
 Advice. If it 'sounds' right then it is
probably alright.

Story of Sir Winston Churchill.
 ‘This is the sort of English up with which I will
not put’.
 Churchill knew that this is wrong - after all,
he did receive the Nobel Prize for Literature.
 The sentence should be: This is the sort of
English that I will not put up with.
 Compound verb - 'to put up with’.
Cont….

On 'Active' Versus 'Passive' Construction
 Always best to write in the 'active' (direct)
sense/voice rather than the 'passive' (indirect).
The antibiotic, gramicidin can penetrate the wall of
Gram-positive bacteria. - Active because the word
(noun) that is doing the penetrating occurs before the
verb.
The wall of Gram-positive bacteria can be penetrated
by the antibiotic, gramicidin. - Passive.
Cont….

On Word Order
 Always try to put the words that relate to one
another as close together as possible.
 Do not keep the reader waiting to understand the
sentence.
 Use common, everyday words rather than obscure
or complex words. Don't be pompous.
 It is tempting to try to impress the reader by your
erudition. But the best writing speaks for itself.
 It gets the message across simply and effectively.
Cont….

On Word Order
1. ONLY I hit him in the eye yesterday (No one else did)
2. I ONLY hit him in the eye yesterday (Did not slap him)
3. I hit ONLY him in the eye yesterday (I did not hit others)
4. I hit him ONLY in the eye yesterday (I did not hit outside the eye)
5. I hit him in ONLY the eye yesterday (Not other organs)
6. I hit him in the ONLY eye yesterday (He doesn't have another eye)
7. I hit him in the eye ONLY yesterday (Not today)
8. I hit him in the eye yesterday ONLY (Did not wait for today)

Single sentence from Darwin's ‘On the Origin of Species’
 'Yet reason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and
complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful
to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever
so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case;
and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an
animal under changing conditions in life, then the difficulty in believing
that a perfect eye could be formed by natural selection, though
insuperable in our imagination, can hardly be considered real.’
 It might be difficult for us to believe that a perfect eye could be formed by
natural selection. But this would be feasible - even likely - if the following
three conditions hold: (a) if there are numerous gradations from a perfect
and complex eye to a very imperfect and simple eye, each grade being
useful to its possessor; (b) if the eye varies ever so slightly, and the
variations are inherited; (c) if any variation or modification is useful to an
animal under changing conditions in life.

 In a long or complex sentence it is very easy
to lose your track and create grammatical
nonsense.
The area of ground is small. – Correct.
 The area of ground consisting of gardens
and fields are small. – Wrong.
 The area (singular) must always be followed
by is, even if it is an area containing lots of
things.
Cont….
Make the Verb 'Agree With' the Noun

He is one of my best friends I have.
 The only way to avoid this sort of error is to
go through each sentence, asking
Does the subject of the verb (singular or
plural) agree with the form of the verb I have
used?
Make the Verb 'Agree With' the Noun

 None means “not one”. So you never write 'none are' or
'none were'. Write none is or none was.
 “None of them has turned up". The "rule" that none always takes
a singular verb is, alas, another myth. Plural is not only
acceptable, but often sounds more natural.
 “None of the current squad are good enough to play in the
Championship”. "None are more ignorant than those learned
Pedants, whose Lives have been entirely consumed in Colleges,
and among Books.“
 Advice. When used as pronouns (substitutes for
nouns), neither, either, each and every (including
everyone) should always take a singular verb.
Common Error Singular Versus Plural

 We decided to buy the dog with the long hair, the
short legs and the turned-up nose because the dog
with the long hair, the short legs and the turned-up
nose touched our hearts.
 Instead of this we could have replaced the underlined
phrase with it (though, to avoid any possible confusion,
we might say exactly what touched our hearts - the dog
or the turned-up nose).
Make the Pronoun Relate to the Noun

Fewer / Less
Fewer is used for numbers of things; less is used for
amounts.
 If You had less weight then the scales would show
fewer kilograms.
 If you had less credibility then fewer people would
seek your advice.
 If you had less sugar in your coffee then you would
have fewer problems with your teeth.
SOME COMMON LITTLE PROBLEMS

Meter/Metre
 A meter is something that records
measurements. Thermometer, pedometer,
mileometer (also spelled milometer).
 A metre is 39.37 inches. Centimetres,
kilometres and millimetres are spelled
similarly.

As/Like/Such as
The only problem likely to occur is the use of like in place of as.
 Do it as I showed you. (Correct)
 Do it like I showed you. (Wrong)
 Do it as the professional does it. (Correct)
 Do it like the professional does it. (Wrong)
 Do it like a professional.(Correct)
The Rule
 Use 'as' before a clause (which, by definition, contains a verb).
 Use 'like' before a noun or phrase (which does not contain a verb).
 Yes, the common expression 'Like I said' is wrong!
Cont….

Either...Or /Neither...Nor
 The rule is that whatever follows either (or neither) must be
matched (grammatically) by whatever follows or (or nor).
 Either cats or dogs.
 Neither you nor I.
 Either we go or we stay.
 But not: Either we go or stay.
 We either go or stay. - Correct.
 We had a choice of either the cat or a litter of kittens - Correct.
 We had a choice either of the cat or of a litter of kittens – Correct.
 But not: We had a choice either of the cat or a litter of
kittens.
 In other words, think of either...or as to the two sides of a
see-saw - they need to be balanced.

I, Me and Myself
 The key is to think about the subject and the object
of a verb.
 I is always the subject. Me is always the object. So
the following are correct:
 He gave it to me.
 I like dogs, because dogs like me.
 The present was given to you and me.
 They have asked John and me to a party.
 It was me who said it.

 ‘Myself’ is needed rarely. It should be used
only to emphasise.
 I do not like it myself, but I can see why you
might like it.
 Perhaps the best advice is to let your ear
be the judge.
 'I like me' is (I think) technically correct.
 ‘I like myself’ (if you dared to say it at all).

Who, Whom, Who's, Whose
 'Who does this to whom?’, asked the actress, looking
anxiously at the script.
 Who is the subject.
 Whom is the object of whatever will be done.
 ‘To whom should I reply?’
 Here Whom is the object - The person who will receive
the reply, not the person who will give the reply.
 Who should I reply to? (Wrong)
The correct form would be Whom should I reply to?
(Whom is the object of the reply.)
Cont….

Who, Whom, Who's, Whose
 Who's and whose mean different things.
 Who's means ‘who is’.
 Whose means belonging to whoever we are talking
about.
Who's going to do this?
The person whose job it is.

Which and That
 Which and that might seem interchangeable - and often are
treated as such.
 But there are cases where the whole meaning of a
sentence hinges on the use of which or that.
 He died from a disease that affects the liver.
 He died from a disease which affects the liver.
 In sentence 1, it is termed a defining clause. It precisely
defines the disease as a disease that affects the liver.
 In sentence 2, we have a non-defining clause. It tells us
more about the disease but the implication.
Cont….

Guidance. Whenever you write something, ask
yourself:
 "Can I put a comma before 'which' and still
keep the meaning I want to convey?"
 You should always put a comma before 'which' but
never before 'that’.
 The River Thames, which flows through London is highly
polluted.
But never write ;
The River Thames that flows through London is highly
polluted.

Imply and Infer
These two words mean different things:
 To imply is to suggest or to signify or to mean.
 To infer is to derive or to conclude from or to deduce.
Example: ‘The author implies that sharks are able to tear their
food, so I infer that sharks have teeth’.
 An implication is something that is suggested, but not stated
specifically.
 In contrast, an inference is a deduction.
Cont….

Cont….
Maybe / May be
 Maybe means perhaps. For example, Maybe I will do it.
 May be is a (conditional) verb. For example. It may be
significant that...
 It is wrong to write It maybe significant that... because
this makes no sense at all. You are saying "It perhaps
significant that...".

Might, May and Can
Might, May and Can sometimes cause confusion, so it is
wise to use them to express different things:
 Might, to indicate that something is a possibility - it
might happen or it might have worked or it might be
significant that...etc.
 May, to mean giving permission - yes, you may go to
the cinema (I allow you to go).
 Can, to mean something you know to be possible -
hydrogen can react with oxygen.

 Dashes and brackets serve the same
function - to add extra information that is not
essential to the meaning of a sentence.
 Can use a single dash if the extra (non-
essential) information runs to the end of the
sentence.
DASHES AND BRACKETS

 Examples:
 Several ions (e.g. chloride, nitrate, sulphate) can
affect the sensitivity of the assay.
 The ions mentioned earlier - i.e. chloride, nitrate,
sulphate - can affect the sensitivity of the assay.
 In both sentences we could have used either
brackets or dashes.
 We can use abbreviations (i.e., e.g.) within brackets
or dashes, whereas it would be difficult to use these
abbreviations in the normal flow of a sentence.
 And, finally, e.g. and i.e. mean entirely different
things!
DASHES AND BRACKETS

FEW TIPS TO IMPROVE WRITING
 To be a good writer is to start writing everyday. As
Mark Twain said, “The secret of getting ahead is
getting started.”
 Be a good reader first. Read great writers for
inspiration. If you read them enough, their excellent
writing style will rub off onto your dazzling blog.
 Pay attention to punctuation, especially to the
correct use of commas and periods. These two
punctuation marks regulate the flow of your thoughts,
and they can make your text confusing even if the
words are clear.
Cont….

 Try not to edit while you’re creating your first draft.
Creating and editing are two separate processes
using different sides of the brain, and if you try doing
both at once, you’ll lose.
Write daily for 30 minutes minimum! It’s easy to
notice the difference in a short time. Suddenly, ideas
come to you and you think of other things to write.
 Write out 8 to 10 pages from the book of your
favorite writer… in longhand. This helps to get started
and swing into the style to write in.
Cont….

 Learn the rules of good writing… then learn when
and how to break them.
 While spell-checking programs serve as a good
tool, they should not be relied upon to detect all
mistakes.
 Regardless of the length of the article, always read
and review what you have written.
Cont….

 Learn to take criticism and seek it out at every
opportunity.
 Don’t get upset even if you think the criticism is
harsh, don’t be offended even if you think it’s wrong,
and always thank those who take the time to offer it.
 Right click on a word to use the thesaurus. Do it
again on the new word and make the best use of your
vocabulary.
Cont….

 After editing the work on screen or in print, read the
text aloud. Awkward sentences and errors that
slipped through earlier edits show up readily when
reading out loud.
 Avoid long sentences. Avoid wordiness.
 A sentence should contain no unnecessary words,
a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same
reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary
lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.
Cont….

 Wait until paper is done before examining word
usage and vocabulary choices. So at the end, take
time to examine choice of words.
 Have fun selecting the exact words to pinpoint
thoughts or points.
 Try using new words. i.e avoid repeating words.
This way we learn the usage of different words.
 Do edit your previous articles.
Cont….

 Start with small paragraphs like writing an article for
a Newspaper, and proceed from there.
 Try to write in simple way. Express your views with
most appropriate words.
 Use others writer’s sentences and paragraphs as
models and then emulate the syntactic structure with
your own content. We learn more about grammar and
punctuation that way.
Cont….

50 TIPS TO IMPROVE WRITING
I. Nuts and Bolts
1. Begin sentences with subjects and verbs. Make meaning early, then
let weaker elements branch to the right.
2. Order words for emphasis. Place strong words at the beginning and
at the end.
3. Activate your verbs. Strong verbs create action, save words, and
reveal the players.
4. Be passive-aggressive. Use passive verbs to showcase the “victim”
of action.
5. Watch those adverbs. Use them to change the meaning of the verb.
ROY PETER
CLARK

I. Nuts and Bolts
6. Take it easy on the -ings. Prefer the simple present or past.
7. Fear not the long sentence. Take the reader on a journey of
language and meaning.
8. Establish a pattern, then give it a twist. Build parallel
constructions, but cut across the grain.
9. Let punctuation control pace and space. Learn the rules, but
realize you have more options than you think.
10. Cut big, then small. Prune the big limbs, then shake out the
dead leaves.

II. Special Effects
11. Prefer the simple over the technical. Use shorter words, sentences
and paragraphs at points of complexity.
12. Give key words their space. Do not repeat a distinctive word
unless you intend a specific effect.
13. Play with words, even in serious stories. Choose words the
average writer avoids but the average reader understands.
14. Get the name of the dog. Dig for the concrete and specific, details
that appeal to the senses.
15. Pay attention to names. Interesting names attract the writer and
the reader.
16. Seek original images. Reject clichés and first-level creativity.

II. Special Effects
17. Riff on the creative language of others. Make word lists, free-associate, be
surprised by language.
18. Set the pace with sentence length. Vary sentences to influence the reader’s
speed.
19. Vary the lengths of paragraphs. Go short or long — or make a “turn”– to
match your intent.
20. Choose the number of elements with a purpose in mind. One, two, three, or
four: Each sends a secret message to the reader.
21. Know when to back off and when to show off. When the topic is most
serious, understate; when least serious, exaggerate.
22. Climb up and down the ladder of abstraction. Learn when to show, when to
tell, and when to do both.
23. Tune your voice. Read drafts aloud.

III. Blueprints
24. Work from a plan. Index the big parts of your work.
25. Learn the difference between reports and stories. Use one to render
information, the other to render experience.
26. Use dialogue as a form of action. Dialogue advances narrative; quotes
delay it.
27. Reveal traits of character. Show characteristics through scenes, details,
and dialogue.
28. Put odd and interesting things next to each other. Help the reader learn
from contrast.
29. Foreshadow dramatic events or powerful conclusions. Plant important
clues early.
30. To generate suspense, use internal cliffhangers. To propel readers, make
them wait.

III. Blueprints
31. Build your work around a key question. Good stories need an engine, a
question the action answers for the reader.
32. Place gold coins along the path. Reward the reader with high points,
especially in the middle.
33. Repeat, repeat, repeat. Purposeful repetition links the parts.
34. Write from different cinematic angles. Turn your notebook into a “camera.”
35. Report and write for scenes. Then align them in a meaningful sequence.
36. Mix narrative modes. Combine story forms using the “broken line.”
37. In short pieces of writing, don’t waste a syllable. Shape shorter works with
wit and polish.
38. Prefer archetypes to stereotypes. Use subtle symbols, not crashing cymbals.
39. Write toward an ending. Help readers close the circle of meaning.

IV. Useful Habits
40. Draft a mission statement for your work. To sharpen your learning,
write about your writing.
41. Turn procrastination into rehearsal. Plan and write it first in your
head.
42. Do your homework well in advance. Prepare for the expected —
and unexpected.
43. Read for both form and content. Examine the machinery beneath
the text.
44. Save string. For big projects, save scraps others would toss.

IV. Useful Habits
45. Break long projects into parts. Then assemble the pieces into
something whole.
46. Take interest in all crafts that support your work. To do your best,
help others do their best.
47. Recruit your own support group. Create a corps of helpers for
feedback.
48. Limit self-criticism in early drafts. Turn it loose during revision.
49. Learn from your critics. Tolerate even unreasonable criticism.
50. Own the tools of your craft. Build a writing workbench to store your
tools.

TEN BEST SENTENCES
 Its vanished trees, the trees that had made way for Gatsby’s house,
had once pandered in whispers to the last and greatest of all human
dreams; for a transitory enchanted moment man must have held his
breath in the presence of this continent, compelled into an aesthetic
contemplation he neither understood nor desired, face to face for the
last time in history with something commensurate to his capacity for
wonder.
—F. Scott Fitzgerald, “The Great Gatsby”
 I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of
experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the
uncreated conscience of my race.
—James Joyce, “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”

TEN BEST SENTENCES
 This private estate was far enough away from the explosion so that its
bamboos, pines, laurel, and maples were still alive, and the green place invited
refugees—partly because they believed that if the Americans came back, they
would bomb only buildings; partly because the foliage seemed a center of
coolness and life, and the estate’s exquisitely precise rock gardens, with their
quiet pools and arching bridges, were very Japanese, normal, secure; and also
partly (according to some who were there) because of an irresistible, atavistic
urge to hide under leaves.
—John Hersey, “Hiroshima”
 It was a fine cry—loud and long—but it had no bottom and it had no top, just
circles and circles of sorrow.
—Toni Morrison, “Sula”

TEN BEST SENTENCES
 For what do we live, but to make sport for our neighbors, and
laugh at them in our turn?
—Jane Austen, “Pride and Prejudice”
 It was the United States of America in the cold late spring of
1967, and the market was steady and the G.N.P. high and a great
many articulate people seemed to have a sense of high social
purpose and it might have been a spring of brave hopes and
national promise, but it was not, and more and more people had
the uneasy apprehension that it was not.
—Joan Didion, “Slouching Towards Bethlehem”

TEN BEST SENTENCES
 Anger was washed away in the river along with any obligation.
—Ernest Hemingway, “A Farewell to Arms”
 There are many pleasant fictions of the law in constant
operation, but there is not one so pleasant or practically
humorous as that which supposes every man to be of equal value
in its impartial eye, and the benefits of all laws to be equally
attainable by all men, without the smallest reference to the
furniture of their pockets.
—Charles Dickens, ”Nicholas Nickleby”

TEN BEST SENTENCES
 In many ways he was like America itself, big and strong, full of good intentions,
a roll of fat jiggling at his belly, slow of foot but always plodding along, always
there when you needed him, a believer in the virtues of simplicity and directness
and hard labor.
—Tim O’Brien, “The Things They Carried”
 There is nothing more atrociously cruel than an adored child.
—Vladimir Nabokov, “Lolita”
 Like the waters of the river, like the motorists on the highway, and like the
yellow trains streaking down the Santa Fe tracks, drama, in the shape of
exceptional happenings, had never stopped there.
—Truman Capote, ”In Cold Blood”

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