The document discusses the iceberg phenomenon in epidemiology. It explains that the tip of the iceberg represents clinical cases that physicians see, while the larger submerged part represents undiagnosed, latent, and asymptomatic cases. This hidden portion of disease or infection in the community poses a challenge to public health. Examples are given of diseases like hypertension and diabetes where the undetected prevalence far exceeds known cases. Controlling the reservoir of infection, through measures like early diagnosis, notification, isolation, and treatment, is an important part of disease prevention and control efforts aimed at the submerged portion of the iceberg.
Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease occurrence and distribution in terms of time, place, and person. It provides an overview of health problems and clues to possible causes. Key steps include defining the population and disease, then describing disease occurrence and trends over time, geographic variations, and differences by personal attributes like age and sex. Disease is measured through indicators like mortality and morbidity rates. Comparisons are made to other data to form hypotheses about disease etiology.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states in populations. It differs from clinical medicine in that it focuses on groups rather than individuals and uses quantitative tools to study communities. Epidemiology has many uses including healthcare management by making community diagnoses, understanding disease processes, guiding public health practice through disease investigation and surveillance, and informing clinical practice and research through evaluating treatments and assessing effectiveness of diagnostic procedures. Overall, epidemiology provides essential population-level insights that aid in healthcare planning, policy development, and clinical decision-making.
Screening can be used for case detection, disease control, research, and education. Case detection involves prescriptive screening to identify unrecognized disease for an individual's benefit, such as screening for anemia, breast cancer, cervical cancer, or hemolytic disease in newborns. Disease control involves prospective screening examined for the benefit of others to control infectious disease spread, like tuberculosis screening of immigrants. Research screening is performed to study chronic diseases and determine prevalence and incidence. Educational screening creates public awareness and trains health professionals.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease patterns, while analytical epidemiology tests hypotheses about disease determinants. A case-control study compares exposures in individuals with (cases) and without (controls) a disease to identify potential risk factors. It proceeds backwards from effect to cause by first identifying cases and then finding controls to measure past exposures, which are then analyzed using measures like odds ratios.
India is the highest TB burden country in the world & accounts for nearly 1/5th (20 per cent) of global burden of tuberculosis, 2/3rd of cases in SEAR. Every year approximately 1.8 million persons develop tuberculosis, of which about 0.8 million are new smear positive highly'- infectious cases.Annual risk of becoming infected with TB is 1.5 % and once infected there is 10 % life-time risk of developing TB disease
Epidemiological methods are used to study the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. There are two main approaches: observational studies and experimental studies. Observational studies include descriptive and analytical methods. Descriptive methods involve measuring disease occurrence without interference to understand time, place, and person distributions. Analytical methods include case-control and cohort studies to test hypotheses about associations between suspected causes and diseases.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants among populations. It then discusses the aims of epidemiology according to the International Epidemiological Association. This includes describing disease distribution and magnitude, identifying risk factors, and providing data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control services. The document also covers the scope, uses, and terminologies of epidemiology such as infection, contamination, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. It aims to describe disease distribution, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control disease. Key concepts include measuring disease frequency through rates, examining disease distribution by time, place and person, and identifying disease determinants and causes. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, diagnose community health issues, plan and evaluate health services, assess individual disease risks, further the natural history of disease, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease occurrence and distribution in terms of time, place, and person. It provides an overview of health problems and clues to possible causes. Key steps include defining the population and disease, then describing disease occurrence and trends over time, geographic variations, and differences by personal attributes like age and sex. Disease is measured through indicators like mortality and morbidity rates. Comparisons are made to other data to form hypotheses about disease etiology.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states in populations. It differs from clinical medicine in that it focuses on groups rather than individuals and uses quantitative tools to study communities. Epidemiology has many uses including healthcare management by making community diagnoses, understanding disease processes, guiding public health practice through disease investigation and surveillance, and informing clinical practice and research through evaluating treatments and assessing effectiveness of diagnostic procedures. Overall, epidemiology provides essential population-level insights that aid in healthcare planning, policy development, and clinical decision-making.
Screening can be used for case detection, disease control, research, and education. Case detection involves prescriptive screening to identify unrecognized disease for an individual's benefit, such as screening for anemia, breast cancer, cervical cancer, or hemolytic disease in newborns. Disease control involves prospective screening examined for the benefit of others to control infectious disease spread, like tuberculosis screening of immigrants. Research screening is performed to study chronic diseases and determine prevalence and incidence. Educational screening creates public awareness and trains health professionals.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease patterns, while analytical epidemiology tests hypotheses about disease determinants. A case-control study compares exposures in individuals with (cases) and without (controls) a disease to identify potential risk factors. It proceeds backwards from effect to cause by first identifying cases and then finding controls to measure past exposures, which are then analyzed using measures like odds ratios.
India is the highest TB burden country in the world & accounts for nearly 1/5th (20 per cent) of global burden of tuberculosis, 2/3rd of cases in SEAR. Every year approximately 1.8 million persons develop tuberculosis, of which about 0.8 million are new smear positive highly'- infectious cases.Annual risk of becoming infected with TB is 1.5 % and once infected there is 10 % life-time risk of developing TB disease
Epidemiological methods are used to study the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. There are two main approaches: observational studies and experimental studies. Observational studies include descriptive and analytical methods. Descriptive methods involve measuring disease occurrence without interference to understand time, place, and person distributions. Analytical methods include case-control and cohort studies to test hypotheses about associations between suspected causes and diseases.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants among populations. It then discusses the aims of epidemiology according to the International Epidemiological Association. This includes describing disease distribution and magnitude, identifying risk factors, and providing data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control services. The document also covers the scope, uses, and terminologies of epidemiology such as infection, contamination, endemic, epidemic, and pandemic.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. It aims to describe disease distribution, identify risk factors, and provide data to prevent and control disease. Key concepts include measuring disease frequency through rates, examining disease distribution by time, place and person, and identifying disease determinants and causes. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, diagnose community health issues, plan and evaluate health services, assess individual disease risks, further the natural history of disease, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology, including definitions of key terms, the history and scope of epidemiology, study designs, and methods of measuring disease frequency and distribution in populations. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease patterns in human populations and the application of this study to disease control. The summary discusses the origins of epidemiology in Hippocrates' work and its development through pioneers like John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow. It also outlines common study designs like cross-sectional and longitudinal studies and how epidemiology is used to describe, analyze, and prevent disease.
Poliomyelitis Community health nursing 1 kenilvhoramahir
This document provides information on communicable diseases polio and dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease). It discusses the epidemiological triad, agent, host factors and environmental factors for each disease. For polio, it outlines prevention through immunization with oral and inactivated polio vaccines. For dracunculiasis, it notes the agent is a parasite transmitted through contaminated water containing cyclops, and that India has been declared free of the disease.
The document discusses the iceberg phenomenon, which describes a situation where a large percentage of a problem is hidden from view. Only a small "tip of the iceberg" is apparent. It provides examples of diagnosed, undiagnosed, and wrongly diagnosed diseases as well as risk factors. Several factors can determine the size of a disease iceberg, including agent, host, and environmental factors. The iceberg concept can be useful for detecting subclinical cases, controlling disease, and understanding the natural history of disease. It also discusses how the iceberg concept can be applied to primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies.
This document discusses epidemiological methods for studying the distribution and determinants of health events and applying that knowledge to disease control. It defines descriptive epidemiology as the study of disease occurrence, distribution, and patterns in populations. Descriptive methods are observational and can be cross-sectional or longitudinal. Descriptive epidemiology provides insights into disease frequency, trends, and risk factors to inform public health planning and resource allocation.
This document defines epidemiology and discusses key related concepts. It begins by defining epidemiology as "the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations." It then discusses key epidemiological terms like distribution, determinants, frequency, pattern, and the aims of epidemiology. The history of epidemiology is also summarized, highlighting the contributions of John Snow in identifying the water source of a cholera outbreak and Hippocrates' focus on environmental influences. Uses of epidemiology are listed as studying disease trends, planning health services, and searching for disease causes.
Principles and methods of epidemiology.pptxsaurabhwilliam
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in human populations. This document discusses the principles and methods of epidemiological studies. It defines epidemiology and outlines its aims, which include identifying disease etiology and informing prevention and treatment priorities. Descriptive studies examine disease distribution and frequency to generate hypotheses, while analytical studies test hypotheses about risk factors. Key analytical study types are case-control, prospective cohort, and retrospective cohort studies, which compare exposures between groups with and without disease. Experimental studies actively allocate exposures to test their effects under controlled conditions.
The document discusses an epidemiological study on worm infestation in Surkhet district, Nepal. It provides background on common types of worms that can infect humans. Worm infestation is a major public health problem, especially among children, due to poor sanitation and hygiene. The study aims to understand the epidemiology of worm infestation in the district by examining factors like time, place, and person. Secondary data from the past 3 years will be reviewed to analyze trends and distributions of worm infestation cases. The findings will help authorities better plan prevention and treatment services.
This document discusses Polio myelitis (polio), including its definition, epidemiological triad of agent, host, and environment, transmission, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and prevention. Polio is caused by the poliovirus, primarily affecting children under 3 years old. It spreads through the fecal-oral route or droplets. Prevention focuses on vaccination, sanitation, surveillance, and health education to stop transmission. India was declared polio-free in 2014 through successful vaccination programs.
The document discusses the natural history of disease in the following areas:
1. It describes the phases a disease progresses through without treatment, including pre-pathogenesis, pathogenesis, and incubation periods.
2. It outlines several factors that can influence disease, including agent factors (e.g. viruses, bacteria), host factors (e.g. age, genetics), and environmental factors (e.g. physical, social).
3. It discusses concepts in disease prevention and intervention, including primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention as well as modes of intervention like health
The document provides an overview of epidemiology including:
- The definition and origins of epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations.
- Key concepts in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, mortality, morbidity, incidence, prevalence and descriptive vs analytical study methods.
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution by person, place and time to identify potential risk factors. Analytical studies further test hypothesized associations between suspected causes and effects.
- Examples of rates and ratios used to measure disease occurrence include crude death rates, case fatality rates, and proportional mortality rates. Incidence and prevalence are used to measure disease frequency and burden.
This document discusses and compares case-control and cohort studies in epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states in populations and applying this to control health problems. Analytical epidemiology focuses on testing hypotheses about individuals within populations. Both case-control and cohort studies are described as types of analytical epidemiology. Case-control studies are retrospective while cohort studies are prospective. The key differences and advantages/disadvantages of each study type are outlined.
This document provides an overview of the dynamics of disease transmission. It discusses the key elements involved, including:
1) The infectious agent - the pathogen that causes disease. It covers aspects like infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence.
2) The source or reservoir - where the infectious agent lives and multiplies, such as humans, animals, or the environment. It can be the starting point for disease occurrence.
3) Modes of transmission - how the pathogen moves between the reservoir and a susceptible host. This includes direct contact, droplets, vectors, and indirect transmission through vehicles like food, water, fomites etc.
It describes other important epidemiological concepts like incubation period, generation
This document discusses the "web of causation" model for chronic disease epidemiology. It uses myocardial infarction (MI) as an example of a disease with multiple interacting causes. The model shows various biological and environmental factors that can increase MI risk, and how they are interrelated. It emphasizes that prevention efforts may be most effective by addressing multiple risk factors through public health strategies like health education and policies targeting diet, exercise, tobacco, and alcohol. Both population-wide primary prevention and high-risk patient secondary prevention are important to control disease in this model.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology and public health. It discusses epidemiology as the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations in order to prevent disease and promote health. Descriptive epidemiology defines disease occurrence, while analytical epidemiology analyzes determinants. The main methods are descriptive, analytical, and experimental. Epidemiology aims to elucidate disease patterns, describe population health, identify risk factors, and evaluate interventions. Measures of disease include numbers, ratios, proportions, and rates.
Epidemiology is the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations. Some key points about epidemiology include:
- It aims to describe disease problems, identify causes, and provide data to plan prevention and control efforts.
- Rates, ratios, and proportions are measurement tools used to compare disease occurrence between populations and time periods.
- Mortality data from death records can provide information about disease occurrence but have limitations like incomplete reporting.
- Morbidity data examines illness in populations and can be measured through incidence rates (new cases over time) and prevalence (all current cases).
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution while analytical studies identify risk factors and experimental studies test hypotheses.
Natural history of disease describes the typical course a disease takes from exposure to outcome without treatment intervention. It includes induction time, incubation period, latency, stages of subclinical and clinical disease, and possible outcomes of recovery, disability, or death. Spectrum of disease refers to the full range of manifestations a disease can take in a population from precursor to severe states depending on interactions between host, agent, and environment factors. Studying natural history and spectrum is important for disease prevention by identifying appropriate intervention stages.
This ppt contains all the information about the epidemiology of Malaria. It is useful for students of the medical field learning Preventive and social medicine, Swasthavritta (Ayurved), and everyone who is interested in knowing about it
An epidemic occurs when there is an unusual increase in the occurrence of a disease within a community or region beyond what is normally expected. To determine if an epidemic has occurred, one must consider the magnitude of cases, factors responsible, and cause/mode of transmission. Investigating an epidemic involves 10 steps: 1) verifying diagnoses, 2) confirming the epidemic's existence, 3) defining the at-risk population, 4) rapidly searching for all case characteristics, 5) analyzing data, 6) formulating hypotheses, 7) testing hypotheses, 8) evaluating ecological factors, 9) further investigating the at-risk population, and 10) writing a report of the background, methodology, data analysis, and control recommendations.
The document defines key concepts in epidemiology and communicable disease transmission. It discusses:
- Epidemiology as the study of health-related events in populations and applying findings to control health problems.
- The epidemiologic triad of host, agent, and environment factors influencing disease.
- Communicable diseases as illnesses transmitted directly or indirectly between humans, animals, or the environment.
- The importance of studying communicable disease epidemiology to understand changing disease patterns and potential infectious causes of chronic diseases.
2nd year BSc Nursing - Unit- 3 BSc CHN_-Epidemiology.pptxthiru murugan
2nd Year B.Sc Nursing Community Health Nursing – IEPIDEMIOLOGY
By,
M. Thiru Murugan
UNIT-III: EPIDEMIOLOGY:
Definition, concept, aims, scope, uses and terminology used in epidemiology
Dynamics of disease transmission : epidemiological triad
Morbidity and mortality : measurements
Levels of prevention
Methods of epidemiology:
Descriptive
Analytical: Epidemic investigation
Experimental
Epidemiology
INTRODUCTION: Epidemiology is derived from Greek word “epidemic”
EPI – up on, DEMOS – people; LOGOS – study. Epidemiology means the study of disease in human population.
DEFINITION: “epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to control the health problems”.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Host, Agent, and Environment Model:
Host: The host is a susceptible human or animal who harbors and nourishes a disease causing agent. Many physical, psychological, and lifestyle factors influence the host's susceptibility and response to an agent.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Agent: An agent is a factor that causes to a health problem or condition.
Causative agents can be Biological, Physical, Psychological, Economical, Nutritional, Environmental etc..
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Environment: The environment refers to all the external factors surrounding the host that might influence vulnerability or resistance.
The physical environment
The psychosocial environment
AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Aims:
to describe the distribution and size of disease problems in human population.
to identify the etiological factors.
to provide the data essential to the planning, implementation and evaluation.
SCOPE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
I. According To Disease Group:
Infectious Disease Epidemiology
Cardio Vascular Epidemiology
Cancer Epidemiology
II. According To Group Of Factors
Nutritive Epidemiology
Reproductive Epidemiology
Environmental Epidemiology
Clinical Epidemiology
Molecular Epidemiology
Genetic Epidemiology
Computational Epidemiology
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Identify the causes of diseases.
Helps to describe the health status of the population.
Control the disease transmission.
Planning, implementing and evaluating health programmes on evidence basis.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
INFECTION: The entry and development or multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animal.
ENDEMIC: The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographical area or population group, without importation from outside.
EPIDEMIC: an out break of disease in a community in excess of normal expectation and derived from a common or propagated source.
SPORADIC: The cases occurs irregularly, haphazardly from time to time and generally infrequently.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
PANDEMIC: An epidemic which spreads from country to country or over the whole world.
ZOONOSES: Diseases or infections which are natu
This document discusses the epidemiological triad model of disease causation. It states that there are three major factors responsible for disease: the agent, host, and environment. The agent refers to the primary cause of disease. The host is the human that comes into contact with the agent. And the environment includes external factors that can influence the interaction between agent and host. For a communicable disease to occur, there must be an interaction between these three factors.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology, including definitions of key terms, the history and scope of epidemiology, study designs, and methods of measuring disease frequency and distribution in populations. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease patterns in human populations and the application of this study to disease control. The summary discusses the origins of epidemiology in Hippocrates' work and its development through pioneers like John Graunt, William Farr, and John Snow. It also outlines common study designs like cross-sectional and longitudinal studies and how epidemiology is used to describe, analyze, and prevent disease.
Poliomyelitis Community health nursing 1 kenilvhoramahir
This document provides information on communicable diseases polio and dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease). It discusses the epidemiological triad, agent, host factors and environmental factors for each disease. For polio, it outlines prevention through immunization with oral and inactivated polio vaccines. For dracunculiasis, it notes the agent is a parasite transmitted through contaminated water containing cyclops, and that India has been declared free of the disease.
The document discusses the iceberg phenomenon, which describes a situation where a large percentage of a problem is hidden from view. Only a small "tip of the iceberg" is apparent. It provides examples of diagnosed, undiagnosed, and wrongly diagnosed diseases as well as risk factors. Several factors can determine the size of a disease iceberg, including agent, host, and environmental factors. The iceberg concept can be useful for detecting subclinical cases, controlling disease, and understanding the natural history of disease. It also discusses how the iceberg concept can be applied to primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention strategies.
This document discusses epidemiological methods for studying the distribution and determinants of health events and applying that knowledge to disease control. It defines descriptive epidemiology as the study of disease occurrence, distribution, and patterns in populations. Descriptive methods are observational and can be cross-sectional or longitudinal. Descriptive epidemiology provides insights into disease frequency, trends, and risk factors to inform public health planning and resource allocation.
This document defines epidemiology and discusses key related concepts. It begins by defining epidemiology as "the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations." It then discusses key epidemiological terms like distribution, determinants, frequency, pattern, and the aims of epidemiology. The history of epidemiology is also summarized, highlighting the contributions of John Snow in identifying the water source of a cholera outbreak and Hippocrates' focus on environmental influences. Uses of epidemiology are listed as studying disease trends, planning health services, and searching for disease causes.
Principles and methods of epidemiology.pptxsaurabhwilliam
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in human populations. This document discusses the principles and methods of epidemiological studies. It defines epidemiology and outlines its aims, which include identifying disease etiology and informing prevention and treatment priorities. Descriptive studies examine disease distribution and frequency to generate hypotheses, while analytical studies test hypotheses about risk factors. Key analytical study types are case-control, prospective cohort, and retrospective cohort studies, which compare exposures between groups with and without disease. Experimental studies actively allocate exposures to test their effects under controlled conditions.
The document discusses an epidemiological study on worm infestation in Surkhet district, Nepal. It provides background on common types of worms that can infect humans. Worm infestation is a major public health problem, especially among children, due to poor sanitation and hygiene. The study aims to understand the epidemiology of worm infestation in the district by examining factors like time, place, and person. Secondary data from the past 3 years will be reviewed to analyze trends and distributions of worm infestation cases. The findings will help authorities better plan prevention and treatment services.
This document discusses Polio myelitis (polio), including its definition, epidemiological triad of agent, host, and environment, transmission, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and prevention. Polio is caused by the poliovirus, primarily affecting children under 3 years old. It spreads through the fecal-oral route or droplets. Prevention focuses on vaccination, sanitation, surveillance, and health education to stop transmission. India was declared polio-free in 2014 through successful vaccination programs.
The document discusses the natural history of disease in the following areas:
1. It describes the phases a disease progresses through without treatment, including pre-pathogenesis, pathogenesis, and incubation periods.
2. It outlines several factors that can influence disease, including agent factors (e.g. viruses, bacteria), host factors (e.g. age, genetics), and environmental factors (e.g. physical, social).
3. It discusses concepts in disease prevention and intervention, including primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention as well as modes of intervention like health
The document provides an overview of epidemiology including:
- The definition and origins of epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations.
- Key concepts in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, mortality, morbidity, incidence, prevalence and descriptive vs analytical study methods.
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution by person, place and time to identify potential risk factors. Analytical studies further test hypothesized associations between suspected causes and effects.
- Examples of rates and ratios used to measure disease occurrence include crude death rates, case fatality rates, and proportional mortality rates. Incidence and prevalence are used to measure disease frequency and burden.
This document discusses and compares case-control and cohort studies in epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states in populations and applying this to control health problems. Analytical epidemiology focuses on testing hypotheses about individuals within populations. Both case-control and cohort studies are described as types of analytical epidemiology. Case-control studies are retrospective while cohort studies are prospective. The key differences and advantages/disadvantages of each study type are outlined.
This document provides an overview of the dynamics of disease transmission. It discusses the key elements involved, including:
1) The infectious agent - the pathogen that causes disease. It covers aspects like infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence.
2) The source or reservoir - where the infectious agent lives and multiplies, such as humans, animals, or the environment. It can be the starting point for disease occurrence.
3) Modes of transmission - how the pathogen moves between the reservoir and a susceptible host. This includes direct contact, droplets, vectors, and indirect transmission through vehicles like food, water, fomites etc.
It describes other important epidemiological concepts like incubation period, generation
This document discusses the "web of causation" model for chronic disease epidemiology. It uses myocardial infarction (MI) as an example of a disease with multiple interacting causes. The model shows various biological and environmental factors that can increase MI risk, and how they are interrelated. It emphasizes that prevention efforts may be most effective by addressing multiple risk factors through public health strategies like health education and policies targeting diet, exercise, tobacco, and alcohol. Both population-wide primary prevention and high-risk patient secondary prevention are important to control disease in this model.
This document defines key concepts in epidemiology and public health. It discusses epidemiology as the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations in order to prevent disease and promote health. Descriptive epidemiology defines disease occurrence, while analytical epidemiology analyzes determinants. The main methods are descriptive, analytical, and experimental. Epidemiology aims to elucidate disease patterns, describe population health, identify risk factors, and evaluate interventions. Measures of disease include numbers, ratios, proportions, and rates.
Epidemiology is the study of disease frequency, distribution, and determinants in populations. Some key points about epidemiology include:
- It aims to describe disease problems, identify causes, and provide data to plan prevention and control efforts.
- Rates, ratios, and proportions are measurement tools used to compare disease occurrence between populations and time periods.
- Mortality data from death records can provide information about disease occurrence but have limitations like incomplete reporting.
- Morbidity data examines illness in populations and can be measured through incidence rates (new cases over time) and prevalence (all current cases).
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution while analytical studies identify risk factors and experimental studies test hypotheses.
Natural history of disease describes the typical course a disease takes from exposure to outcome without treatment intervention. It includes induction time, incubation period, latency, stages of subclinical and clinical disease, and possible outcomes of recovery, disability, or death. Spectrum of disease refers to the full range of manifestations a disease can take in a population from precursor to severe states depending on interactions between host, agent, and environment factors. Studying natural history and spectrum is important for disease prevention by identifying appropriate intervention stages.
This ppt contains all the information about the epidemiology of Malaria. It is useful for students of the medical field learning Preventive and social medicine, Swasthavritta (Ayurved), and everyone who is interested in knowing about it
An epidemic occurs when there is an unusual increase in the occurrence of a disease within a community or region beyond what is normally expected. To determine if an epidemic has occurred, one must consider the magnitude of cases, factors responsible, and cause/mode of transmission. Investigating an epidemic involves 10 steps: 1) verifying diagnoses, 2) confirming the epidemic's existence, 3) defining the at-risk population, 4) rapidly searching for all case characteristics, 5) analyzing data, 6) formulating hypotheses, 7) testing hypotheses, 8) evaluating ecological factors, 9) further investigating the at-risk population, and 10) writing a report of the background, methodology, data analysis, and control recommendations.
The document defines key concepts in epidemiology and communicable disease transmission. It discusses:
- Epidemiology as the study of health-related events in populations and applying findings to control health problems.
- The epidemiologic triad of host, agent, and environment factors influencing disease.
- Communicable diseases as illnesses transmitted directly or indirectly between humans, animals, or the environment.
- The importance of studying communicable disease epidemiology to understand changing disease patterns and potential infectious causes of chronic diseases.
2nd year BSc Nursing - Unit- 3 BSc CHN_-Epidemiology.pptxthiru murugan
2nd Year B.Sc Nursing Community Health Nursing – IEPIDEMIOLOGY
By,
M. Thiru Murugan
UNIT-III: EPIDEMIOLOGY:
Definition, concept, aims, scope, uses and terminology used in epidemiology
Dynamics of disease transmission : epidemiological triad
Morbidity and mortality : measurements
Levels of prevention
Methods of epidemiology:
Descriptive
Analytical: Epidemic investigation
Experimental
Epidemiology
INTRODUCTION: Epidemiology is derived from Greek word “epidemic”
EPI – up on, DEMOS – people; LOGOS – study. Epidemiology means the study of disease in human population.
DEFINITION: “epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health related states or events in specified populations and the application of this study to control the health problems”.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Host, Agent, and Environment Model:
Host: The host is a susceptible human or animal who harbors and nourishes a disease causing agent. Many physical, psychological, and lifestyle factors influence the host's susceptibility and response to an agent.
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Agent: An agent is a factor that causes to a health problem or condition.
Causative agents can be Biological, Physical, Psychological, Economical, Nutritional, Environmental etc..
Concepts Basic to Epidemiology:
Environment: The environment refers to all the external factors surrounding the host that might influence vulnerability or resistance.
The physical environment
The psychosocial environment
AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Aims:
to describe the distribution and size of disease problems in human population.
to identify the etiological factors.
to provide the data essential to the planning, implementation and evaluation.
SCOPE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
I. According To Disease Group:
Infectious Disease Epidemiology
Cardio Vascular Epidemiology
Cancer Epidemiology
II. According To Group Of Factors
Nutritive Epidemiology
Reproductive Epidemiology
Environmental Epidemiology
Clinical Epidemiology
Molecular Epidemiology
Genetic Epidemiology
Computational Epidemiology
USES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Identify the causes of diseases.
Helps to describe the health status of the population.
Control the disease transmission.
Planning, implementing and evaluating health programmes on evidence basis.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
INFECTION: The entry and development or multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animal.
ENDEMIC: The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographical area or population group, without importation from outside.
EPIDEMIC: an out break of disease in a community in excess of normal expectation and derived from a common or propagated source.
SPORADIC: The cases occurs irregularly, haphazardly from time to time and generally infrequently.
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN EPIDEMIOLOGY
PANDEMIC: An epidemic which spreads from country to country or over the whole world.
ZOONOSES: Diseases or infections which are natu
This document discusses the epidemiological triad model of disease causation. It states that there are three major factors responsible for disease: the agent, host, and environment. The agent refers to the primary cause of disease. The host is the human that comes into contact with the agent. And the environment includes external factors that can influence the interaction between agent and host. For a communicable disease to occur, there must be an interaction between these three factors.
1. There are several theories of disease causation including germ theory, epidemiological triad theory, multifactorial causation theory, and web of causation.
2. The dynamics of disease transmission involve a reservoir, mode of transmission, and susceptible host. Common reservoirs are humans, animals, and the environment. Modes of transmission include direct contact, droplets, vectors, vehicles, and fomites.
3. For successful transmission and infection, pathogens must enter the host, infect tissues, exit the host, and survive in the environment until infecting a new host. Preventing transmission requires interrupting any part of this cycle.
The document discusses key concepts in epidemiology. It begins by defining epidemiology and its objectives, which include studying disease patterns and determinants in populations to aid health planning. It then covers epidemiological terms like incidence, prevalence, reservoirs, modes of transmission and susceptible hosts. Different theories of disease causation are presented, including the germ theory that pathogens cause disease, and the epidemiological triad model showing the interaction between an external agent, host factors and the environment. The document provides an overview of fundamental epidemiological concepts.
Epidemiology and cycle of microbial diseasesChhaya Sawant
This document discusses epidemiology, which is the study of disease patterns in populations. It defines key epidemiology terms like morbidity, prevalence, and mortality rates. The document also outlines the cycle of microbial disease, from the reservoir of an infectious agent to transmission between hosts through various routes. It describes factors that influence disease epidemiology, like dose, incubation period, and population characteristics. The roles and objectives of epidemiologists in identifying disease causes, risks, and appropriate control measures are also covered.
CM7.2 enumerate ,discuss and describe modes of transmission in disease preven...Anjali Singh
The presentation includes the topic of reservoirs, sources, and various modes of transmission of disease and their epidemiological significance in the prevention and control of diseases.
the topic also includes various examples to know the natural history of a given disease and how it will be applicable in a given epidemic situation
This document discusses communicable disease transmission and prevention. It defines communicable diseases and outlines the six factors in the chain of disease transmission: infectious agent, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry, and susceptible host. It then describes the three main levels of disease prevention and three methods for controlling communicable diseases: eliminating the reservoir, interrupting transmission, and protecting susceptible hosts. Examples are provided for each method.
This document provides definitions and concepts related to epidemiology and communicable diseases. It begins with defining epidemiology as the study of health-related states and events in populations. It then discusses the epidemiologic triad of host, agent, and environment. Key concepts covered include the definition of communicable diseases, importance of studying their epidemiology, relevant terminology, and the chain of infection involving the source or reservoir, modes of transmission, and susceptible host. Dynamics of disease transmission and concepts such as virulence, incubation period, and transmission probability ratio are also defined.
Introduction of Communicable and Tropical DiseasesChanda Jabeen
This document provides definitions and explanations of key concepts related to communicable and tropical diseases. It discusses:
- The definition of communicable diseases as illnesses that can be directly or indirectly transmitted between humans, animals, or the environment.
- Dynamics of disease transmission, known as the "chain of infection," which involves a source/reservoir of the disease, modes of transmission (direct or indirect), and a susceptible host.
- Modes of transmission including direct contact, droplets, vehicles, vectors that can transmit mechanically or biologically, and airborne transmission.
- Key terms like carriers, endemic, epidemic, pandemic, and vectors.
The document aims to educate students on communicable disease
The document discusses the dynamics of disease transmission. It explains that transmission requires an infectious agent, a source or reservoir where the agent lives and reproduces, a means of exit from the reservoir, and a mode of transmission. It provides details on types of reservoirs, carriers, incubation periods, and classifications of carriers by type, portal of exit, and duration. Common examples are used to illustrate key transmission concepts.
Epidemiology of Communicable and Non-communicable diseases.pptxIsaacLalrawngbawla1
This document defines key terms related to communicable diseases and epidemiology. It discusses the epidemiological triad of agent, host, and environment. It describes factors such as infection, contamination, infestation, and different types of hosts. It also defines terms like communicable disease, endemic, epidemic, pandemic, and vectors. Finally, it examines different modes of disease transmission including direct contact, droplets, vehicles, and vectors.
A communicable disease is an illness due to a specific infectious (biological)agent or it's toxic products capable of being directly or indirectly transmitted from man to man,from animal to man,from animal to animal,from the environment (through air,water,food etc)to man.
This document defines commonly used terms in infectious disease epidemiology and describes concepts related to disease transmission and prevention/control. It defines terms like infection, communicable disease, and incubation period. It describes the chain of infection and discusses reservoirs, modes of transmission, and susceptible hosts. It outlines the objectives and uses of disease surveillance. It also explains methods for preventing and controlling outbreaks like eliminating reservoirs, breaking transmission routes, and protecting susceptibles through immunization, chemoprophylaxis, and general health measures.
1. 1st GNM Community H Nsg - Unit 4 Epidemiology.pptxthiru murugan
Community Health Nursing IEpidemiology
By,
Thiru murugan
UNIT-IV: Principles of Epidemiology and Epidemiological methods:
Definition and aims of epidemiology, communicable and non-communicable diseases.
Basic tools of measurement in epidemiology
Uses of epidemiology
Disease cycle
Spectrum of disease
Levels of prevention of disease.
Disease transmission – direct and indirect.
Immunizing agents, immunization and national immunization schedule.
Control of infectious diseases.
Disinfection
Epidemiology:
Introduction: Epidemiology is derived from Greek word “epidemic”
EPI – up on,
DEMOS – people;
LOGOS – study.
Epidemiology means the study of disease in human population.
Definition: “epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of diseases or health problems”.
Terminologies used in epidemiology:
Infection: the entry and multiplication of an infectious agent in the body of man or animal.
Endemic: the constant presence of a disease in particular area or population. Ex- malaria, dengue, chikungunya.
Epidemic: an out break of disease from one area to other area in a community. Ex - cholera, polio, small pox
Sporadic: refers to a disease that occurs infrequently and irregularly. Ex - Tetanus, rabies, and plague.
Pandemic: a disease which spreads from country to country or over the whole world. Ex - swine flu, HIV, COVID – 19.
Zoonosis: diseases or infections transmitted from animals to men. Ex - rabies.
Incubation period: this is the time interval between the entry of the disease agent into the body and the appearance of first sign & symptom of the disease.
Carrier: a person who harbors or carry the disease agent with or without having any outward signs and symptoms.
Isolation: a separation of a person with infectious disease (communicable disease) from contact with other human beings to avoid spread of disease.
Quarantine: a quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease
Pathogenicity: ability to cause the disease.
Contagious: a disease that is transmitted through contact.
Reservoir: the habitat ( place for living) where an infectious agent living, grows and multiplies.
Virulence: measure the severity of disease.
Fomites: inanimate articles other than food or water contaminated by the infectious discharges.
Vector: usually an arthropod eg. Mosquito which transfers an infectious agent from an infected person to a healthy person.
Aims
To describe the distribution and size of disease problems in human
To identify the etiological factors.
To provide the data (information) essential to the preparation) implementation (providing) & evaluation (checking the outcome).
Communicable and non-communicable diseases:
Communicable diseases are diseases that spread from person to person. Ex - polio, typhoid, chickenpox, TB,AIDS
Non-communicable disease (NCD) are disease that is not spread from one person to another. Ex - most heart disease
Medical diagnostic Microbiology epidemiology 2024 progress.pdf222101989
This document defines key terms related to epidemiology and the study of diseases. It explains epidemiology as the science evaluating the occurrence, distribution, and control of diseases in populations. Key concepts covered include reservoirs of infection, modes of disease transmission, the chain of infection, and the stages of disease development. Koch's postulates for establishing the causative agent of infectious diseases are also summarized.
Control of communicable diseases dr jamilDr Abu Zar
Communicable diseases pose a major threat in emergency situations when populations are displaced. An outbreak will occur if the balance between the infectious agent, susceptible host population, and environment is disrupted. The document outlines key principles for controlling communicable disease outbreaks, including preventing exposure, reducing susceptibility, and managing illness. Acute respiratory infections, measles, diarrheal diseases, and malaria are the main causes of illness and death during emergencies.
1- Principles of the Infectious Diseases(1) (3).pptxDrSafwan1
This document defines key terms related to infectious diseases and their transmission and prevention. It begins by defining infectious diseases as disorders caused by microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. It then discusses various terms like infection, contamination, epidemics, pandemics, and modes of transmission. The second part covers principles of prevention and control, including primary, secondary and tertiary prevention levels. It also discusses measures that can be applied to the infectious agent, reservoirs, contacts, environment and hosts to interrupt disease transmission.
Epidemiology of infectious diseases dr.ihsan alsaimarydr.Ihsan alsaimary
This document discusses infectious diseases and epidemiology. It defines key terms like infectious disease, communicable disease, and epidemiology. It describes the epidemiologic triad of agent, host, and environment and how they influence disease transmission. It also discusses different types of diseases based on occurrence (endemic, epidemic, pandemic) and transmission (direct, indirect). The causes, modes of transmission, and time periods associated with infectious diseases are explained.
Viral hepatitis can be caused by five different viruses that infect the liver. They are transmitted through contaminated food/water or exposure to blood/bodily fluids. While they cause liver inflammation, the viruses differ in modes of transmission, severity of illness, geographical distribution, and prevention methods.
Vector-borne diseases account for over 17% of infectious diseases worldwide, causing over 700,000 deaths annually. Malaria is a protozoal disease transmitted by the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, with P. falciparum being the deadliest species. In 2021, there were an estimated 247 million malaria cases and 619,000 deaths. Dengue is caused by four distinct serotypes of dengue virus and transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. It affects over half the world's population and causes 100-400 million infections annually. Japanese encephalitis is caused by a flavivirus transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, infecting primarily pigs and birds
Unit-1 Community Health and Community Health Nursing.pptxdeepamanandhar1
The document provides information about a community health nursing course, including its description and focus. The course is designed to provide knowledge about community health nursing concepts and principles. It applies approaches like epidemiology and carries out community diagnoses to identify common health problems. The course also focuses on providing care to individuals, families, groups and communities for disease prevention, health promotion and rehabilitation.
Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes diphtheria, which forms a membrane in the throat or larynx. It is transmitted through respiratory droplets or skin lesions. Children aged 1-5 are most affected. Clinical features include sore throat and difficulty swallowing. Treatment involves isolation, vaccination, and antibiotics. Bordetella pertussis causes whooping cough, which is highly contagious. It affects infants and children the most. Symptoms include coughing fits and whooping sounds. Treatment involves antibiotics and vaccination. Acute respiratory infections are caused by numerous bacteria and viruses. They can affect the upper or lower respiratory tract. Symptoms include cough, fever and difficulty breathing. Treatment depends on the severity and
The document outlines Nepal's history of programs to control diarrhoeal diseases among children, beginning in 1983 with the Control of Diarrhoeal Disease program and evolving into the current Community-Based Integrated Management of Childhood Illness program, which integrates management of newborn care and aims to reduce under-five mortality from diarrhoea and other illnesses through improved case management, health systems, and community care practices.
This document provides information on tuberculosis (TB), including:
- TB is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and primarily affects the lungs. It can spread through airborne droplets or dust.
- An estimated 10 million people fell ill with TB in 2019, including 1.2 million children. It is curable but multidrug-resistant strains remain a challenge.
- Nepal faces a high burden of TB, with an estimated 69,000 cases in 2020. Efforts are ongoing to improve detection, treatment and prevent further spread.
This document discusses the dimensions and determinants of health according to the WHO definition. It outlines the physical, mental, social, spiritual, emotional, and vocational dimensions of health. The determinants of health include biological, behavioral, environmental, socioeconomic, health services, aging population, and gender factors. Responsibility for health is seen as involving individual self-care, community support, state provision of healthcare, and international cooperation.
The document outlines guidelines for managing diarrhoea according to the Community-Based Integrated Management of Newborn and Childhood Illnesses (CB-IMNCI) program in Nepal. It describes assessing patients for dehydration, classifying diarrhoea as persistent or dysentery, and treating dehydration and infections. For young infants, treatment involves checking for serious bacterial infection and classifying/treating dehydration. For older children, it involves assessing for danger signs, malnutrition, and immunization status and providing oral rehydration solution, continued feeding, and antibiotics if needed. The guidelines emphasize continued breastfeeding, referral for severe cases, and follow-up care.
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are caused by pathogens transmitted through sexual contact. Over 20 pathogens can cause STDs, affecting the genital tract and sometimes other sites. Key STDs include gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, genital herpes, and human papillomavirus. Factors influencing STD transmission and prevalence include age, sex, marital status, socioeconomic status, high-risk behaviors, and social determinants. STDs are diagnosed through clinical features and laboratory tests and treated through antimicrobial therapies. Prevention relies on education, screening, partner notification, and barrier methods.
Nepal's health care system is managed by the Ministry of Health and Population and provides services from the federal to local levels. At the local level, health posts and community health units provide basic services like immunizations and treatment. Primary hospitals class A and B offer expanded services including outpatient care, emergency services, and basic surgeries. Secondary hospitals have departments for various specialties and treat more complex cases. Tertiary hospitals provide specialized referral services across various medical and surgical disciplines. The highest levels of care are offered at super-specialty hospitals and supported by federal health science academies for research and education.
The conducting system of the heart generates rhythmic impulses that are conducted throughout the myocardium, coordinating contractions. The sinoatrial node initiates impulses that spread to the atria, then the atrioventricular node relays them to the ventricles via the bundle of His. This causes synchronized atrial and ventricular contractions that pump blood out of the heart. The pulse corresponds to expansion of arteries from ventricular ejection with each heartbeat. Factors like age, exercise, and medications can influence the pulse rate, while features like rhythm, strength and tension provide clinical information.
Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood on the walls of arteries and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). It is written as the systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. The systolic pressure occurs when the heart contracts while the diastolic pressure occurs when the heart is at rest between beats. Blood pressure is dependent on factors like cardiac output, peripheral resistance, blood viscosity, and blood volume. It can be measured using a sphygmomanometer and listening for Korotkoff sounds over the brachial artery. Oxygen saturation measures the percentage of hemoglobin binding sites occupied by oxygen and is measured noninvasively using a pulse oximeter.
Vector-borne diseases are infections transmitted by arthropods like mosquitoes and ticks. They account for over 17% of infectious diseases worldwide and cause 700,000 deaths annually. Malaria is a major vector-borne disease caused by Plasmodium parasites and transmitted via Anopheles mosquitoes. In 2021, there were an estimated 247 million malaria cases and 619,000 deaths. Dengue is another significant vector-borne disease spread by Aedes mosquitoes. The global incidence of dengue has increased dramatically, with an estimated 100-400 million infections annually. Japanese encephalitis, transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, with an estimated 68,000 cases
The document provides an overview of demography and family planning. It discusses key terminology like population, demography, population dynamics, and population size. It also describes the demographic cycle and its five stages. The composition of a population is explained through sex ratio and population pyramids. The main determinants of population change are fertility, mortality, and migration. Fertility and its regulation are discussed in detail. Population explosion and its effects are also summarized.
Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. It is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, usually through contaminated food or water. The disease causes a sustained fever for 3-4 weeks along with gastrointestinal symptoms. Prevention focuses on control of reservoirs through treatment and isolation of cases, improved sanitation and hygiene practices, and immunization in endemic areas.
The document discusses the dimensions of health according to the WHO definition, which include physical, mental, and social dimensions. It also discusses other dimensions such as spiritual, vocational, philosophical, cultural, socio-economic, environmental, educational, nutritional, curative, and preventive. The determinants of health that influence health status are described as biological, behavioral, socio-cultural, environmental, socio-economic, related to health services, aging population, gender, and other factors. Finally, the document outlines the responsibilities for health of individuals, communities, states, and internationally.
The natural history of disease occurs in two phases: the prepathogenesis phase where disease factors exist in the environment but have not entered the host, and the pathogenesis phase where the disease agent enters the susceptible host, multiplies, and causes changes that can result in recovery, disability, or death. The pathogenesis phase can be modified by interventions like immunization or chemotherapy.
Community diagnosis involves comprehensively assessing the health status of a community in relation to its social, physical, and biological environment. It is a multi-step process that includes identifying health needs and resources, collecting and analyzing data, prioritizing issues, planning interventions, implementing actions, and evaluating outcomes. The goal is to help communities understand their health status and make informed decisions to improve community health.
Unit-1 Community Health and Community Health Nursing.pptxdeepamanandhar1
Community health refers to the health of a community as determined by health status, problems, and care. A community is a social group sharing a geographic boundary and common values/interests. Community health nursing aims to promote health, prevent illness, and restore health through activities like education, screening, and home care. As an educator, advocate, manager, collaborator, leader and researcher, the community health nurse identifies health issues, provides services, and conducts research to improve community health.
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Comprehensive Rainy Season Advisory: Safety and Preparedness Tips.pdfDr Rachana Gujar
The "Comprehensive Rainy Season Advisory: Safety and Preparedness Tips" offers essential guidance for navigating rainy weather conditions. It covers strategies for staying safe during storms, flood prevention measures, and advice on preparing for inclement weather. This advisory aims to ensure individuals are equipped with the knowledge and resources to handle the challenges of the rainy season effectively, emphasizing safety, preparedness, and resilience.
At Malayali Kerala Spa Ajman, Full Service includes individualized care for every client. We specifically design each massage session for the individual needs of the client. Our therapists are always willing to adjust the treatments based on the client's instruction and feedback. This guarantees that every client receives the treatment they expect.
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This particular slides consist of- what is hypotension,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is the summary of hypotension:
Hypotension, or low blood pressure, is when the pressure of blood circulating in the body is lower than normal or expected. It's only a problem if it negatively impacts the body and causes symptoms. Normal blood pressure is usually between 90/60 mmHg and 120/80 mmHg, but pressures below 90/60 are generally considered hypotensive.
The best massage spa Ajman is Chandrima Spa Ajman, which was founded in 2023 and is exclusively for men 24 hours a day. As of right now, our parent firm has been providing massage services to over 50,000+ clients in Ajman for the past 10 years. It has about 8+ branches. This demonstrates that Chandrima Spa Ajman is among the most reasonably priced spas in Ajman and the ideal place to unwind and rejuvenate. We provide a wide range of Spa massage treatments, including Indian, Pakistani, Kerala, Malayali, and body-to-body massages. Numerous massage techniques are available, including deep tissue, Swedish, Thai, Russian, and hot stone massages. Our massage therapists produce genuinely unique treatments that generate a revitalized sense of inner serenely by fusing modern techniques, the cleanest natural substances, and traditional holistic therapists.
DECODING THE RISKS - ALCOHOL, TOBACCO & DRUGS.pdfDr Rachana Gujar
Introduction: Substance use education is crucial due to its prevalence and societal impact.
Alcohol Use: Immediate and long-term risks include impaired judgment, health issues, and social consequences.
Tobacco Use: Immediate effects include increased heart rate, while long-term risks encompass cancer and heart disease.
Drug Use: Risks vary depending on the drug type, including health and psychological implications.
Prevention Strategies: Education, healthy coping mechanisms, community support, and policies are vital in preventing substance use.
Harm Reduction Strategies: Safe use practices, medication-assisted treatment, and naloxone availability aim to reduce harm.
Seeking Help for Addiction: Recognizing signs, available treatments, support systems, and resources are essential for recovery.
Personal Stories: Real stories of recovery emphasize hope and resilience.
Interactive Q&A: Engage the audience and encourage discussion.
Conclusion: Recap key points and emphasize the importance of awareness, prevention, and seeking help.
Resources: Provide contact information and links for further support.
Hypertension and it's role of physiotherapy in it.Vishal kr Thakur
This particular slides consist of- what is hypertension,what are it's causes and it's effect on body, risk factors, symptoms,complications, diagnosis and role of physiotherapy in it.
This slide is very helpful for physiotherapy students and also for other medical and healthcare students.
Here is summary of hypertension -
Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a serious medical condition that occurs when blood pressure in the body's arteries is consistently too high. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of blood vessels as the heart pumps it. Hypertension can increase the risk of heart disease, brain disease, kidney disease, and premature death.
Let's Talk About It: Breast Cancer (What is Mindset and Does it Really Matter?)bkling
Your mindset is the way you make sense of the world around you. This lens influences the way you think, the way you feel, and how you might behave in certain situations. Let's talk about mindset myths that can get us into trouble and ways to cultivate a mindset to support your cancer survivorship in authentic ways. Let’s Talk About It!
The facial nerve, also known as cranial nerve VII, is one of the 12 cranial nerves originating from the brain. It's a mixed nerve, meaning it contains both sensory and motor fibres, and it plays a crucial role in controlling various facial muscles, as well as conveying sensory information from the taste buds on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.
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MYASTHENIA GRAVIS POWER POINT PRESENTATIONblessyjannu21
Myasthenia gravis is a neurological disease. It affects the grave muscles in our body. Myasthenia gravis affects how the nerves communicate with the muscles. Drooping eyelids and/or double vision are often the first noticeable sign. It is involving the muscles controlling the eyes movement, facial expression, chewing and swallowing. It also effects the muscles neck and lip movement and respiration.
It is a neuromuscular disease characterized by abnormal weakness of voluntary muscles that improved with rest and the administration of anti-cholinesterase drugs.
The person may find difficult to stand, lift objects and speak or swallow. Medications and surgery can help the patient to relieve the symptoms of this lifelong illness.
2. Pre test
Floating tip of the ice berg represents
a. Carriers
b. Undiagnosed cases
c. Clinical cases
d. Latent cases
ANS: C
3. Iceberg phenomenon
Community may be compared to an iceberg.
The floating tip of the iceberg represents what the
physician sees in the community i.e. clinical cases
Submerged is the part explored and made visible by
the epidemiologists.
4. Iceberg phenomenon
• Vast submerged portion of the iceberg represents the
hidden mass of disease i.e. latent, inapparent, pre-
symptomatic and undiagnosed cases and carriers in
the community.
• The "water – line" represents the boundary line
between the apparent and inapparent disease.
7. Iceberg phenomenon
• In some diseases e.g. hypertension, diabetes, anemia)
the unknown morbidity (i.e. the submerged portion of
the iceberg) far exceeds the known morbidity.
• The hidden part of the iceberg constitutes an
important, undiagnosed reservoir of infection or
disease in the community, and its detection and
control is a challenge to modern techniques in
preventive medicine.
12. Pre test
The person, animal, object or substance from which an
infectious agent passes or is disseminated to the host is
a) Reservoir
b) Source of Infection
c) Host
d) Cases
ANS: Source of infection
13. Dynamics of disease Transmission
(Chain of Infection)
• Communicable diseases are transmitted from the
reservoir/ source of infection to susceptible host.
• There are three links in the chain of transmission.
14. Dynamics of disease Transmission
(Chain of Infection)
Source and Reservoir Modes of transmission Susceptible host
15. Source of Infection
• The source of infection is defined as “the person,
animal, object or substance from which an infectious
agent passes or is disseminated to the host”.
16. Reservoir
“Any person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil, or
substance (or combination of these) in which an
infectious agent lives and multiplies, on which it
depends primarily for survival, and where it
reproduces itself in such manner that it can be
transmitted to a susceptible host”.
19. Human reservoir
• The most important source or reservoir of infection
for human is man himself.
• Human may be
Cases
Carriers
20. Human reservoir
Human reservoir
cases carriers
According to spectrum of disease:
•Clinical cases
(mild/severe-typical/atypical)
•Sub-clinical cases
•Latent infection cases
•Primary case
•Secondary cases
Type:
•Incubatory
•Convalescent
•healthy
Duration:
•Temporary
•Chronic
Portal of exit:
•Urinary
•Intestinal
•Respiratory
•blood
21. Cases
• A case is defined as “ a person in the population
having the particular disease, health disorder or
condition under investigation”.
• The presence of infection in host may be :
Clinical
Sub clinical
Latent
22. Clinical cases
• Clinical illness may be mild or moderate, typical or
atypical, severe or fatal.
• Mild cases may be more important source of infection
than severe cases
23. Subclinical cases
• Also known as inapparent, missed cases.
• The disease agent may multiply in the host but does
not manifest itself by signs and symptoms.
• May be detected only by laboratory test
24. Latent infection
• Infectious agent lies dormant within the host
without symptoms (and often without
demonstrable presence in blood, tissue or
bodily secretions of the host.
25. In epidemiological terminology
• Primary case: first case of a communicable disease
introduced into the population.
• Secondary case: develops from contact with primary
cases.
• Index case: first case which comes to the attention of
investigator.
26. Carrier
• In some diseases, either due to inadequate treatment
or immune response, the disease agent is not
completely eliminated, leading to a carrier state.
27. Carrier
• As a rule a carriers are less infectious than
cases, but epidemiologically, they are more
dangerous than cases.
28. Carrier
• Defined as an infected person or animal that harbours
a specific infectious agents in the absence of
discernible clinical disease and serves as a potential
source of infection for other.
29. Carrier
The elements in a carrier state are:
• The presence of disease agent in the body.
• The absence of recognizable signs and
symptoms
• Spread of disease agent in the discharges or
excretions
32. Incubatory Carrier
Carriers which spread the infectious agent during the
incubation period of disease.
This usually occurs during the last few days of
incubation period.
34. Healthy Carrier
• They are victims of sub clinical infection who have
developed carrier state without suffering from overt
disease.
35. Carrier acc to duration
(a) Temporary carriers:- Carriers which spread
infectious agent for short period of time
(b) Chronic carriers:- Carriers which spread
infectious agent for indefinite period
37. Animal Reservoir
• The source of infection may sometimes be animals
and birds.
• The diseases and infections which are transmissible to
man from vertebrate are called zoonoses.
Eg :- Rabies, Yellow Fever, Influenza
38. Reservoir in non-living things
• Soil and inanimate matter can also act as reservoir of
infection
41. Modes of Disease Transmission
• Direct contact
• Droplet infection
• Contact with soil
• Inoculation into skin or mucosa
• Transplacental (vertical)
A.Direct
• Vechicle borne
• Vector borne
• Air borne
• Fomite borne
• Unclean hands and fingers
B. Indirect
42. Direct transmission
Direct Contact:
implies direct and essentially immediate transfer of
infectious agents from the reservoir or source to a
susceptible individual, without an intermediate
agency.
44. Direct transmission
Direct Contact:
• Direct contact not only reduces the period for which
the organism will have to survive outside the human
host but also ensures a larger dose of infection.
• Diseases transmitted by direct contact include STD
and AIDS, leprosy, leptospirosis, skin and eye
infections.
45. Direct transmission
Droplet infection
• This is direct projection of spray of droplets of saliva
and nasopharyngeal secretions during coughing,
sneezing, talking or spitting.
46. Direct transmission
Droplet infection
• Particle size: 10mmm or > filtered by nose
5mmm or < can reach the alveoli
• The droplet spread is usually limited to a distance of
30-60 cm between source and host
• Eg: Respiratory Infections, Common Cold,
Tuberculosis, Diphtheria
47. Direct transmission
Contact with soil
• The disease agent may be acquired by direct exposure to the
disease agent in the soil
• Eg :- hook worm, tetanus.
51. Indirect transmission
essential requirement for indirect transmission is that
the infectious agent must be capable of surviving
outside the human host in the external environment
and retain its basic properties of pathogenesis and
virulence till it finds a new host.
53. Indirect transmission
1. Vechicle borne
Transmission of the infectious agent through the
agency of water, food, raw vegetables, fruits, milk,
blood etc.
54. Indirect transmission
2. Vector – borne
Vector is defined as an arthropod or any living carrier
that transports an infectious agent to a susceptible
individual.
56. Indirect transmission
Classification of vector borne disease:-
2. By transmission chain
• Man and a non vertebrate host (man-mosquitoe- man
in malaria)
• Man , another vertebrate host and a non vertebrate host
(bird-arthropod-man)
• Man and 2 intermediate host (man-cyclops-fish-man)
58. Indirect transmission
Classification of vector borne disease:-
• By methods in which vectors are involved in the
transmission of parasite
Mechanical transmission
Biological transmission
59. Indirect transmission
Classification of vector borne disease:-
• By methods in which vectors are involved in the
transmission of parasite
Mechanical transmission
Biological transmission
60. Indirect transmission
3. Air Borne
Droplet nuclei
• Tiny particles (1-10 microns range) that represents
the dried residue of droplets
Dust
67. Survival In The Environment
After leaving the human body the organism must
survive in the external environment for sufficient
period till a new host is found
68.
69. Disease control
Is reducing the transmission of disease agent to
such a low level that it ceases to be a public
health problem.
70. Disease control
The term “disease control” describes operation
aimed at reducing:
The incidence of disease
The duration of disease, and consequently the risk
of transmission
The effects of infection, including both the
physical and psychosocial complications
The financial burden to the community.
71. Disease elimination
It is complete interruption of transmission of
disease in a defined geographical area.
Disease elimination is a geographical term, i.e.
can be used only for a country or a region.
Disease elimination supports in disease
eradication.
72. Disease eradication
Is complete extermination of organism
Is tearing out by roots of a disease
Exhibits “all” or “none phenomenon
73. Disease eradication
Permanent reduction to zero of the worldwide
incidence of infection caused by a specific
agent as a result of deliberate efforts;
intervention measures are no longer needed.
Example: smallpox.
74. Terminologies
• Control: The reduction of disease incidence, prevalence,
morbidity or mortality to a locally acceptable level as a result
of deliberate efforts; continued intervention measures are
required to maintain the reduction. Example: diarrhoeal
diseases.
• Elimination of disease: Reduction to zero of the incidence of a
specified disease in a defined geographical area as a result of
deliberate efforts; continued intervention measures are
required. Example: neonatal tetanus.
75. Terminologies
• Eradication: Permanent reduction to zero of the worldwide
incidence of infection caused by a specific agent as a result of
deliberate efforts; intervention measures are no longer needed.
Example: smallpox.
76. Disease control…
Disease control involves all the measures
designed to prevent or reduce as much as
possible the incidence, prevalence and
consequences of disease.
77. Disease control…
Disease control measures include
1. Controlling the reservoir
2. Interruption of transmission
3. Protection of the susceptible host.
78. 1. Controlling the Reservoir
General measures of reservoir control comprise:
Early diagnosis
Notification
Isolation
Treatment
Quarantine
Surveillance
79. 1. Controlling the Reservoir
1. Earlydiagnosis:
The first step in the control of a communicable
disease is its rapid identification.
It is the cornerstone on which the disease
control is built.
80. 1. Controlling the Reservoir
Early diagnosis is needed for:
Treatment of patient
Epidemiological investigation
To trace the source of infection from the known or
index case to the unknown.
To study the time, place and person distribution.
For the institution of prevention and control
measures
81. 1. Controlling the Reservoir
2. Notification:
Once an infectious disease has been
detected or suspected is should be notified
to local health authority, whose
responsibility is to put into operation
control measures, including the provision of
medical care to patients.
82. 1. Controlling the Reservoir
2. Notification:
Important source of epidemiological
information.
Enables early detection of disease
outbreaks, which permits immediate
action to be taken by the health authority
to control their spread.
83. 1.Controlling the Reservoir
3. Epidemiological Investigation:
An epidemiological investigation is called for
whenever there is a disease outbreak.
Investigation covers the identification of the source of
infection and of the factors influencing its spread in
the community.
84. 1.Controlling the Reservoir…
3. Epidemiological Investigation:
Include geographical situation, climatic condition,
social, cultural and behavioral patterns, and more
importantly the character of the agent, reservoir, the
vectors and vehicles, and the susceptible host
populations.
85. 1.Controlling the Reservoir…
4. Isolation:
Oldest communicable disease control measure.
It is defined as "separation, for the period of communicability
of infected persons or animals from others in such places and
under such conditions, as to prevent or limit the direct or
indirect transmission of the infectious agent from those
infected to those who are susceptible, or who may spread the
agent to others".
86. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
4. Isolation:
The purpose of isolation is to protect the
community by preventing transfer of infection
from the reservoir to the possible susceptible
hosts.
87. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
4. Isolation:
Duration of isolation is determined by the duration of
the communicability of the disease and the effect of
chemotherapy on infectivity.
88. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
5. Treatment:
Many communicable diseases have been tamed by
effective drugs.
The objective of treatment is to kill the infectious agent
when it is still in the reservoir, i.e., before it is
disseminated.
Treatment reduces the communicability of disease, cuts
short the duration of illness and prevents development
of secondary cases.
89. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
5. Treatment:
In some diseases (e.g., syphilis, tuberculosis, and
leprosy), early diagnosis and treatment is of primary
importance in interrupting transmission. Treatment is
also extended to carriers.
Treatment can take the form of individual treatment
or mass treatment
90. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
6. Quarantine:
Defined as "the limitation of freedom of movement of
such well persons or domestic animals exposed to
communicable disease for a period of time not longer than
the longest usual incubation period of the disease, in such
manner as to prevent effective contact with those not so
exposed".
91. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
6. Quarantine:
Quarantine measures are also "applied by a health
authority to a ship, an aircraft, a train, road
vehicle, other means of transport or container, to
prevent the spread of disease, reservoirs of
disease or vectors of disease".
In contrast to isolation, quarantine applies to
restrictions on the healthy contacts of an
infectious disease.
92. 1. Controlling the Reservoir…
7. Surveillance:
The continuous scrutiny of the factors that
determine the occurance and distribution of
disease and other conditions of ill-health.
Is the ongoing systematic collection and
analysis of data and the provision of
information which leads to action being taken
to prevent and control a disease.
93. 2.Interruption of Transmission
A major aspect of communicable disease control relates
to "breaking the chain of transmission" or interruption
of transmission.
This may mean changing some components of man's
environment to prevent the infective agent from a
patient or carrier from entering the body of susceptible
person.
94. 2.Interruption of Transmission
For example, water can be a medium for the
transmission of many diseases such as typhoid,
dysentery, hepatitis A, cholera and gastroenteritis.
Water treatment will eliminate these diseases.
Depending upon the level of pollution, this may vary
from simple chlorination to complex treatment.
97. 3. The susceptible host…
The third link in the chain of transmission is the
susceptible host or people at risk. They may be
protected by one or more of the following strategies.
a)Active immunization
b)Passive immunization
c)Combined passive and active immunization
d)Chemoprophylaxis
e) Nonspecific measures
98. 3. The susceptible host…
a)Active immunization:
One effective way of controlling the spread of
infection is to strengthen the host defenses.
Under certain circumstances this may be
accomplished by active immunization, which
is one of the most powerful and cost-effective
weapons of modern medicine.
99. 3. The susceptible host…
a)Active immunization:
There are some infectious diseases whose control is
solely based on active immunization, e.g., polio,
tetanus, diphtheria and measles. Vaccination against
these diseases is given as a routine during infancy
and early childhood with periodic boosters to
maintain adequate levels of immunity.
100. 3. The susceptible host…
a) Active immunization:
Immunization is a mass means of protecting the
greatest number of people.
By reducing the number of susceptible in the
community, it augments "herd immunity" making
the infection more difficult to spread.
101. 3. The susceptible host…
b. Passive Immunization:
Short-term expedient useful only when exposure to infection
has just occurred or is imminent within the next few days. The
duration of immunity induced is short and variable (1-6
weeks).
Process in which antibodies produced in one body (animal or
human) are transferred to another to induce protection against
disease.
102. 3. The susceptible host…
b. Passive Immunization:
Passive immunization has a limited value in the mass control
of disease.
It is also applied for life saving procedure. Eg: Anti-tetanus
serum.
103. 3. The susceptible host…
c. Combined Passive and Active Immunization:
Passive immunization as well as active immunization
is administered for recent protection by readymade
antibody followed by antibodies produced after active
immunization.
104. 3. The susceptible host…
c. Combined Passive and Active Immunization:
In some diseases (e.g., tetanus, diphtheria, rabies)
passive immunization is often undertaken in
conjunction with inactivated vaccine products, to
provide both immediate (but temporary) passive
immunity and slowly developing active immunity.
105. 3. The susceptible host…
d. Chemoprophylaxis:
Chemoprophylaxis implies the protection from, or
prevention of, disease. This may be achieved by
causal prophylaxis, or by clinical prophylaxis :
Causal prophylaxis implies the complete prevention
of infection by the early elimination of the invading
or migrating causal agent.
106. 3. The susceptible host…
d. Chemoprophylaxis:
Clinical prophylaxis implies the prevention of clinical
symptoms; it does not necessarily mean elimination
of infection.
107. 3. The susceptible host…
e. Non-Specific Measures:
Improvements in the quality of life.
Nonspecific measures will also include "legislative
measures”
Community involvement in disease surveillance,
disease control and other public health activities.
109. Pre test
• Prevention of emergence of risk factor is
a. Tertiary prevention
b. Primary prevention
c. Primordial prevention
d. Secondary prevention
ANS: c
110. Pre test
• False about Primary prevention is
a)Early diagnosis and treatment
b)Vaccination
c)Environmental sanitation
d)Health promotion
ANS: a
111. Introduction
The goals of medicine are to promote health,
to preserve health, to restore health when it is
impaired, and to minimize suffering and
distress.
These goals are embodied in the word
“prevention”.
112. definition
Activities designed to protect patients or other
members of the public from actual or potential health
threats and their harmful consequences.”
OR
“Prevention is the action aimed at eradicating,
eliminating or minimizing the impact of disease and
disability.
114. Primordial prevention
a new concept, perceiving special attention in
the prevention of chronic diseases.
Prevention of emergence or development of
risk factors in population groups in which they
have not yet appeared
Primordial prevention begins in childhood.
115. Primordial prevention
Primordial level is best level of prevention for non-
communicable diseases.
The main intervention in primordial prevention is
through individual and mass education.
116. Examples of Primordial prevention
National programs and policies on:
Food and nutrition
Comprehensive Policies for discourage smoking,
Alcohol & Drugs
A 5 year old child is discouraged from adopting
harmful lifestyles, smoking, etc
117. Primary prevention
“action taken prior to the onset of disease, which
removes the possibility that a disease will ever
occur”.
It signifies intervention in the pre- pathogenesis phase
of a disease or health problem
119. approaches for the primary prevention
1. Population or mass strategy
• Directed at the whole population irrespective of
individual risk levels
2. High risk strategy
• Aims to bring preventive care to individuals at
special risk.
120. Examples of primary prevention
Immunization against measles vaccine.
Health education to prevent spread of malaria.
Vitamin A prophylaxis to a child.
121. Secondary prevention
Defined as the action which halts the progress of a
disease at its incipient stage and prevents
complications.
Attempts to arrest the disease process, restore health
by seeking out unrecognized disease and treating it
before irreversible pathological changes take place,
and reverse communicability of infectious diseases
122. Secondary prevention
It protects others in the community from acquiring
the infection and thus provide at once secondary
prevention for the infected ones and primary
prevention for their potential contacts.
123. Interventions for Secondary prevention
1.Early diagnosis
• Detection of disturbances of homoeostatic and
compensatory mechanism while biochemical,
morphological and functional changes are still
reversible”
2. Treatment
• Shortens period of communicability, reduce mortality
and prevents occurrence of further cases (secondary
cases) or any long term disability.
124. Examples of Secondary prevention
1.Early diagnosis
• E.g.“screening for disease” for breast cancer (using
mammography) and cervical cancer (using pap smear),
sputum smear exam for AFB
2. Treatment
• E.g. DOTS for TB
125.
126. Tertiary Prevention
• Disease process has advanced beyond its early stages.
• Defined as all measures available to reduce or limit
impairments and disabilities, minimize suffering
caused by existing departures from good health and to
promote the patients adjustment to irremediable
conditions.
127. Tertiary Prevention
Intervention in Late Pathogenesis Phase.
When defect and disability are more or less stabilized,
rehabilitation may play a preventable role.
129. Interventions for Tertiary Prevention
I. Disability Limitation:
It prevents the transition of disease from impairment
to handicap.
Example: Physiotherapy in Poliomyelitis.
130. sequence with which a disease turns into a
handicap
The sequence with which a disease turns into a handicap is as
follows:
Disease: A disease is a particular abnormal condition that
negatively affects the structure or function of part or all of an
organism.
Impairment: Any loss or abnormality of psychological,
physiological or anatomic structure or function.
.
131. sequence with which a disease turns into a
handicap …
Disability: Any restriction or lack of ability to perform an
activity in the manner considered normal for a human being.
Handicap: Disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from
impairment or disability, that limits or prevents the fulfillment
of a role that is normal for that individual.
132. sequence of impairement turns into a handicap …
For example:
Event Classification Interpretation
Accident Disease Impairs function of a person
Loss of foot Impairment Loss of anatomical structure in the form of
foot
Cannot walk Disability Walking is a normal routine daily activity of a
human being
Unemployment Handicap Loses out his job because he cannot walk, so
cannot fulfill his role in the society, i.e,
earning for his family members.
134. sequence of impairement turns into a handicap …
For example:
A person who is born blind (the impairment) is unable to
read printed material, which is how most information is
widely disseminated (the disability). If this person is
prevented from attending school or applying for a job
because of this impairment and disability, this is a
handicap.
135. Interventions for Tertiary Prevention
II. Rehabilitation
Combined and coordinated use of medical,
social, educational, and vocational measures for
training and retraining the individual to the highest
possible level of functional ability.”
Example: Crutches in Poliomyelitis.
137. reference
Park, K. (2019). Park`s Textbook of Preventive and
Social Medicine. M/s Banarsidas Bhanot publishers.
Gupta, MC, Mahajan, BK. (2013). Mahajan and Gupta
Textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine. Brothers
Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.
Jain, B. (2016). Review of Preventive and Social
Medicine. The Health Sciences Publisher.
Ghimire, B. (2019). A Textbook of Social Medicine.
Jaypee Community Health Nursing. Vidyarthi Pustak
Bhandar.
138. mcqs
First case which comes to the attention of
investigator is
a) Primary case
b) Secondary case
c) Index case
d) Carrier
139. mcqs
Victims of sub clinical infection who have developed
carrier state without suffering from overt disease
a) Healthy carrier
b) Incubatory carrier
c) Temporary carrier
d) Convalescent carrier
140. mcqs
The disease control describes ongoing operation aimed at reducing the
1. Incidence of disease
2. Financial burden to the community
3. Effects of infection
4. Duration of disease and its transmission
Of these statement;
a) 1,2 & 3 are correct
b) 1,3 & 4 are correct
c) 1,2 &4 are correct
d) 1,2,3,4 are correct
ANS: d
141. mcqs
In iceberg phenomenon of disease presymptomatic
cases are considered
a. Floating tip
b. Waterline
c. Submerged portion
d. What physician sees in community
ANS: c
142. mcqs
Decrease in the incidence of a disease to a level
where it ceases to be a public health problem
a. Control
b. Elimination
c. Eradication
d. Surveillance
ANS: a
143. mcqs
Causative agent is present but there is no
transmission is known as:
a. Elimination
b. Control
c. Surveillance
d. Eradication
ANS: a
144. mcqs
Which of the following is the most logical sequence?
a. Impairment- Disease- Disability- Handicap
b. Disease- Impairment- Disability- Handicap
c. Impairment- Disability- Handicap- Disease
d. Disease- Disability-Impairment- Handicap
ANS: b
145. mcqs
Continuous scrutiny of the factors that determine the
occurrence and distribution of and disease other condition of
ill health is definition of
a. Diagnosis
b. Surveillance
c. Disease control
d. System analysis
ANS: b
147. mcqs
All of the following comes under primary prevention
except:
a.Helmets
b.Sputum test for TB
c.Use of condoms
d.Vaccines
ANS: b
148. mcqs
Floating tip of the ice berg represents
a. Carriers
b. Undiagnosed cases
c. Clinical cases
d. Latent cases
ANS: c
149. mcqs
Childhood obesity prevention is a type of
a. Primary prevention
b. Secondary prevention
c. Primordial prevention
d. Tertiary prevention
ANS: c
150. mcqs
Any restriction or lack of ability to perform an
activity in the manner or within the range considered
normal for a human being is called
a. Impairement
b. Handicap
c. Disability
d. Disease
ANS: c
151. mcqs
False about Primary prevention is
a. Early diagnosis and treatment
b. Vaccination
c. Environmental sanitation
d. Health promotion
ANS: a
152. mcqs
A village community was given health education to
prevent spread of malaria. Identify the level of
prevention.
a. Primordial
b. Primary prevention
c. Secondary prevention
d. Tertiary prevention
e. ANS: b
153. Question
A urine strip for sugar detection was employed to
screen diabetics in community. Identify the level of
prevention and mode of intervention.
ANS: Secondary level of prevention
Early Diagnosis mode of intervention
154. Question
A child coming to Immunization clinic for OPV
Vaccine. Identify the level of prevention and mode of
intervention.
ANS: Primary level of prevention
Specific protection mode of intervention.