This document discusses the accessibility challenges to science education in Cambodia. It notes that 75% of teachers, 96% of university students, and 67% of primary/secondary school pupils were killed or starved under the Khmer Rouge regime, with long-term impacts on Cambodia's education system. Currently, 71.2% of children aged 12-14 are not enrolled in secondary school. The document provides a theoretical framework and analyzes the formal rules, informal constraints, enforcement characteristics, and efforts to align the system to better support students with disabilities. It emphasizes overcoming institutional blockages rather than focusing solely on resource issues or compliance with accessibility guidelines.

1. Accessibility Challenges
to Science Education
in Cambodia
World Conference on Science and Technology
Education, September 29 – October 3, 2013

2. Objectives
• Framework to analyze accessibility challenges for disabled
learners in developing countries
• Exploration from perspective of science teacher education
in Cambodia
Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

3. 75 % of teachers
96 % of university students
67 % of all primary and secondary school pupils
…were killed/starved when the Khmer Rouge was in power.
Long-term Impact on the Education System and
Human & Social Capital in Cambodia
Cambodia: the legacy of Pol Pot
71.2% of children aged 12-14 are not enrolled in secondary schools

4. Education Indicator Year Cambodia
Net enrollment primary education (%) 2011 98
Gross enrollment primary education (%) 2011 126
Completion rate primary education (%) 2011 90
Progression to secondary school (%) 2010 80
Overaged primary school attendance (%) 2010 42
% population 15-24 not complete primary edu. (%) 2010 32
Pupil-teacher ratio, primary 2010 48
Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary 2007 29
Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24) 2009 87
Education Indicators

5. • EFA Development Index 2010
(N = 127)
Source: UNESCO 2012
Cambodia: Quality of Education
EDI
Component Value Ranking
1. UPE 0.957 59
2. Literacy 0.739 94
3. Gender 0.883 97
4. Quality 0.621 111
Overall EDI 0.801 100

6. Significance
• Worldwide disability prevalence:
ca. 15% (UN-ESCAP, 2012)
• Higher prevalence in developing
countries
– Higher vulnerability (nutrition, medical care)
– Armed conflicts
• Cambodia
– Official prevalence: 6.3% (2009)
– Ratification & Implementation UNCRPD
(2012-2013)
– Incheon strategy (ASEAN)
Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

7. Theoretical Framework
Theory of Institutional Change (North, 1994; Konur, 2002)
Formal Rules Informal Constraints
Enforcement
Characteristics
Alignment

8. Formal Rules
• Legislation, guidelines, standards
• Can be changed quickly, but…
– Path dependency
• Existing structures benefit from status quo
• E.g. centralizing tendencies limiting initiatives at local level
– External factors
• Regional integration
• International education benchmarks

9. Informal Constraints
Norms of behaviour, conventions, self-imposed codes of conduct
– Disability as result of ‘bad karma’ (Mak Sau-Man, 2009)
– Prejudice against education for disabled children (Stubbs, 2008)
– Discourse based on ‘what they can’t do’ (Seale, 2013)
– Interpretation of ‘reasonable’ adjustments (Konur, 2006)
– Values and expectations (e.g. AT, ‘special’ treatments) (Seale, 2013)
Cultural Economic Social Technology

10. Informal Constraints
– Poor return on education investments (Banerjee & Duflo, 2011)
– Limited employment opportunities & low social mobility (Mak Sau-
Man, 2009)
– Informal payments (Benveniste et al., 2008)
Photo: The Cambodia Trust (CC)
Cultural Economic Social Technology

11. Informal Constraints
– Avoiding dependency, stigmatization & isolation (Seale, 2013)
• Deal with uncomfortable relationship (e.g. jealousy)
• Networks of formal and informal support networks
– Inclusive education is not just about schools
Cultural Economic Social Technology

12. Informal Constraints
– Limited resources, implementation challenges, conflicting
priorities
– Sole focus on compliance with WCAG 2.0 unsuitable (Kelly et al.,
2010)
• Legacy software, lack of infrastructure
• Awareness & diagnostics of learning difficulties (e.g. dyslexia)
• Simple aids (e.g. glasses, audiobooks)
• Learning materials (e.g large size posters, books in large print)
Cultural Economic Social Technology

13. Enforcement Characteristics
• Weak enforcement characteristics
– Awareness of standards and good practices
– Focus on administrative compliance
– Limited capacity of organisational structures representing
students and parents
Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

14. Working towards alignment
• Weak incentive & accountability structures
– Low incentives to invest in skills and knowledge
– High cost & few immediate benefits
– Low accountability
– Low empowerment
– Reliance on informal networks
Misalignment Alignment

15. Working towards alignment
• Primacy of overcoming institutional blockages over
resource shortages (North, 1994)
– Awareness raising activities
– Positive role models (staff and graduates with disabilities)
– Information on rights and procedures
– Data collection
– Organisational capacity of disabled students, parents
– Bridging capital between disabled and non-disabled students
Misalignment Alignment

16. Conclusions
• Importance of informal constraints
& enforcement characteristics for
generating change
• Need for wider, social vision on
accessibility beyond compliance
with guidelines such as WCAG 2.0
• Focus on removing institutional
blockages by strengthening
incentive & accountability
structures
Photo credit:s UNICEF Cambodia

17. More Information
• Links
– http://vvob.be/cambodia/
– http://www.slideshare.net/StefaanVandeWalle/
– http://www3.open.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/course/h810.htm
• Contact
– @stefaanvw
– Stefaan.vandewalle@vvob.be
• References
– See paper
Photo credit: jbird