This document discusses the relationship between philosophy and education. It explores whether philosophical theories can logically or causally influence educational practices. The author argues there are two opposing views on this - the "structure theory" which sees relevance as intrinsic, and the "game theory" which views relevance as constructed. The document then examines different types of potential relevance between philosophy and education, including logical, causal, aesthetic, and teleological relevance. It focuses specifically on debates around logical relevance, and whether philosophical statements can be logically connected to statements about education.
This document proposes an "ecology of meanings" model to explain communication processes. It integrates Jean Piaget's model of exchange values, Jean-Blaise Grize's communication model of schematization, and Jurgen Habermas' theory of communicative action. The model views communication science as interdisciplinary, accounting for both universal/necessary and particular/contingent knowledge. It adopts a critical constructivist approach, seeing knowledge as constructed between subject and object through processes of assimilation and accommodation, achieving momentary equilibriums. The model aims to understand communication as connecting social systems and lifeworlds, and as political action.
The principle of constructive mathematizability of any theory: A sketch of fo...Vasil Penchev
A principle, according to which any scientific theory can be mathematized, is investigated. That theory is presupposed to be a consistent text, which can be exhaustedly represented by a certain mathematical structure constructively. In thus used, the term “theory” includes all hypotheses as yet unconfirmed as already rejected. The investigation of the sketch of a possible proof of the principle demonstrates that it should be accepted rather a metamathematical axiom about the relation of mathematics and reality.
Its investigation needs philosophical means. Husserl’s phenomenology is what is used, and then the conception of “bracketing reality” is modelled to generalize Peano arithmetic in its relation to set theory in the foundation of mathematics. The obtained model is equivalent to the generalization of Peano arithmetic by means of replacing the axiom of induction with that of transfinite induction.
Accepting or rejecting the principle, two kinds of mathematics appear differing from each other by its relation to reality. Accepting the principle, mathematics has to include reality within itself in a kind of Pythagoreanism. These two kinds are called in paper correspondingly Hilbert mathematics and Gödel mathematics. The sketch of the proof of the principle demonstrates that the generalization of Peano arithmetic as above can be interpreted as a model of Hilbert mathematics into Gödel mathematics therefore showing that the former is not less consistent than the latter, and the principle is an independent axiom.
An information interpretation of Hilbert mathematics is involved. It is a kind of ontology of information. Thus the problem which of the two mathematics is more relevant to our being (rather than reality for reality is external only to Gödel mathematics) is discussed. An information interpretation of the Schrödinger equation is involved to illustrate the above problem.
Does language create consciousness? This presentation explores this assertion and possible ways of improving the presentation of technical information.
Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematicsPaul Ernest
- Social constructivism views mathematical knowledge as a social and historical construct. It rejects the notion that mathematical knowledge is absolutely valid or certain.
- Key aspects of social constructivism include viewing mathematical concepts and proofs as evolving through a conversational process of proposing ideas and subjecting them to criticism and refinement. Mathematical knowledge is seen as intersubjective rather than purely objective.
- On this view, mathematical texts and concepts can be understood as participating in an ongoing conversation, with proponents putting forth ideas and critics examining them for weaknesses. The acceptance of mathematical ideas and proofs occurs through this social and dialogical process rather than being intrinsically certain.
Decoding word association 1 lexical dev within and mental lexicon for language 2Col Mukteshwar Prasad
Learning a language entails complex processes of learning, storing and accessing words within the mind. The mental space where this phenomena occurs has been called the mental lexicon.
The mental lexicon is a metaphor for the complex organizational system of the mind that allows learners to access information in a variety of ways.
All Indians do learn at least two languages one mother tongue and another English for job opportunities.Word Association Test is a Sub Conscious test in SSB. Hence understanding how these English words are stored in Mental Lexicon is important
The document discusses Gestalt psychology and its key principles. Gestalt psychology was founded in the early 20th century and focused on patterns and configurations in perception rather than individual elements. It emphasized that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The document outlines several Gestalt principles of organization including proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, prägnanz, and figure/ground relationships. It also discusses some of the founding psychologists of Gestalt theory, including Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka.
The document provides an overview of the key differences between analytic and continental philosophy. It traces the origins of the split back to Kant's distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal realms. In response, Hegel rejected this distinction by arguing for an overarching Idea that unites all of reality. Meanwhile, the Vienna Circle rejected Kant's notion of synthetic a priori cognition and aimed to eliminate metaphysics, focusing instead on problems that could be solved through logic and empirical verification. These divergent responses to Kant helped establish the distinct methodologies of continental and analytic philosophy that continue today.
Gestalt psychology was seen as an alternative to behaviorism and structuralism. The early Gestalt thinkers felt that behaviorism dealt too much with collecting, tallying, and treating only specific problems, or parts of a whole.
This document proposes an "ecology of meanings" model to explain communication processes. It integrates Jean Piaget's model of exchange values, Jean-Blaise Grize's communication model of schematization, and Jurgen Habermas' theory of communicative action. The model views communication science as interdisciplinary, accounting for both universal/necessary and particular/contingent knowledge. It adopts a critical constructivist approach, seeing knowledge as constructed between subject and object through processes of assimilation and accommodation, achieving momentary equilibriums. The model aims to understand communication as connecting social systems and lifeworlds, and as political action.
The principle of constructive mathematizability of any theory: A sketch of fo...Vasil Penchev
A principle, according to which any scientific theory can be mathematized, is investigated. That theory is presupposed to be a consistent text, which can be exhaustedly represented by a certain mathematical structure constructively. In thus used, the term “theory” includes all hypotheses as yet unconfirmed as already rejected. The investigation of the sketch of a possible proof of the principle demonstrates that it should be accepted rather a metamathematical axiom about the relation of mathematics and reality.
Its investigation needs philosophical means. Husserl’s phenomenology is what is used, and then the conception of “bracketing reality” is modelled to generalize Peano arithmetic in its relation to set theory in the foundation of mathematics. The obtained model is equivalent to the generalization of Peano arithmetic by means of replacing the axiom of induction with that of transfinite induction.
Accepting or rejecting the principle, two kinds of mathematics appear differing from each other by its relation to reality. Accepting the principle, mathematics has to include reality within itself in a kind of Pythagoreanism. These two kinds are called in paper correspondingly Hilbert mathematics and Gödel mathematics. The sketch of the proof of the principle demonstrates that the generalization of Peano arithmetic as above can be interpreted as a model of Hilbert mathematics into Gödel mathematics therefore showing that the former is not less consistent than the latter, and the principle is an independent axiom.
An information interpretation of Hilbert mathematics is involved. It is a kind of ontology of information. Thus the problem which of the two mathematics is more relevant to our being (rather than reality for reality is external only to Gödel mathematics) is discussed. An information interpretation of the Schrödinger equation is involved to illustrate the above problem.
Does language create consciousness? This presentation explores this assertion and possible ways of improving the presentation of technical information.
Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematicsPaul Ernest
- Social constructivism views mathematical knowledge as a social and historical construct. It rejects the notion that mathematical knowledge is absolutely valid or certain.
- Key aspects of social constructivism include viewing mathematical concepts and proofs as evolving through a conversational process of proposing ideas and subjecting them to criticism and refinement. Mathematical knowledge is seen as intersubjective rather than purely objective.
- On this view, mathematical texts and concepts can be understood as participating in an ongoing conversation, with proponents putting forth ideas and critics examining them for weaknesses. The acceptance of mathematical ideas and proofs occurs through this social and dialogical process rather than being intrinsically certain.
Decoding word association 1 lexical dev within and mental lexicon for language 2Col Mukteshwar Prasad
Learning a language entails complex processes of learning, storing and accessing words within the mind. The mental space where this phenomena occurs has been called the mental lexicon.
The mental lexicon is a metaphor for the complex organizational system of the mind that allows learners to access information in a variety of ways.
All Indians do learn at least two languages one mother tongue and another English for job opportunities.Word Association Test is a Sub Conscious test in SSB. Hence understanding how these English words are stored in Mental Lexicon is important
The document discusses Gestalt psychology and its key principles. Gestalt psychology was founded in the early 20th century and focused on patterns and configurations in perception rather than individual elements. It emphasized that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The document outlines several Gestalt principles of organization including proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, prägnanz, and figure/ground relationships. It also discusses some of the founding psychologists of Gestalt theory, including Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, and Kurt Koffka.
The document provides an overview of the key differences between analytic and continental philosophy. It traces the origins of the split back to Kant's distinction between the noumenal and phenomenal realms. In response, Hegel rejected this distinction by arguing for an overarching Idea that unites all of reality. Meanwhile, the Vienna Circle rejected Kant's notion of synthetic a priori cognition and aimed to eliminate metaphysics, focusing instead on problems that could be solved through logic and empirical verification. These divergent responses to Kant helped establish the distinct methodologies of continental and analytic philosophy that continue today.
Gestalt psychology was seen as an alternative to behaviorism and structuralism. The early Gestalt thinkers felt that behaviorism dealt too much with collecting, tallying, and treating only specific problems, or parts of a whole.
The document discusses the relationship between science and metaphysics. It examines several approaches to this relationship, including viewing them on a continuum, finding similarities in their methods of modeling, and emphasizing their differences. The key point is that while science and metaphysics may use similar language and concepts of modality, possibility, and necessity, the document argues that the modalities used in scientific modeling are fundamentally different than those used in metaphysical modeling. Specifically, fictional entities and idealizations in metaphysics are constrained only by conceivability, while in science they are constrained by theoretical and empirical factors. Emphasizing these differences, rather than similarities, can advance both fields.
This document summarizes key differences between analytic and continental philosophy traditions. It then provides an overview and ordering of articles in the collection that discuss ideas from hermeneutics, post-modernism, and critical realism. The document examines debates between thinkers like Rorty, Foucault, Bhaskar, and Harre regarding the nature of truth, power/knowledge, and the relationship between individuals and social structures.
Mathematical foundations of consciousnessPronoy Sikdar
1. The document proposes mathematical foundations for consciousness based on set theory and non-well-founded sets. It employs Zermelo-Fränkel axioms and introduces the anti-foundation axiom to characterize sets and enable studying them from the outside.
2. Operators like the Russell operator R are introduced to distinguish between normal and abnormal sets. Axioms are proposed to characterize experience and consciousness as primitives and define "consciousness operators". The Russell operator R satisfies these axioms.
3. A process for labeling and decorating graphs is described, which induces virtual sets associated with graphs. This is applied to brain circuitry graphs via "histograms" to frame a theory of consciousness based
This document discusses how the grand theory of Martha Rogers and the middle-range theory of Hildegard Peplau can be used together to guide nursing practice, specifically in psychiatric and mental health settings. Rogers' theory provides an overarching conceptual framework while Peplau's theory offers more specific and testable interventions. The theories are described as being complementary, with Rogers focusing more on being and Peplau focusing more on doing. Their similarities and differences are explored, and it is argued that using both perspectives together can strengthen nursing practice.
Max Wertheimer was a pioneering Gestalt psychologist born in 1880 in Prague. He studied psychology and received his doctorate in 1905. From 1910-1914, he worked with Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka to develop the fundamental concepts of Gestalt theory through experiments testing their ideas. He later served as a professor of psychology in Frankfurt from 1929-1933 before immigrating to the United States in 1933. There, he joined the faculty at the New School for Social Research in New York City, where he remained for ten years until his death in 1943 working to complete his research on "productive thinking".
This document discusses different theories of mental representation. It begins by outlining Fodor's classical computational theory of mind, which views thinking as the manipulation of mental symbols according to syntactic rules. It then examines connectionism, which rejects symbols in favor of distributed patterns of neural activity. Both theories view cognitive processes as sub-served by a single representational system. The document argues that later theories of embodied cognition and anti-representationalism provide a more plausible account by distinguishing between cognitive processes that are "coupled" to the environment and those that are "de-coupled".
The document discusses several cognitive learning theories, including Gestalt theory and Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Some key points:
1) Gestalt theory proposes that learning occurs through insight and restructuring experiences into meaningful wholes rather than discrete parts. Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insightful learning.
2) Koffka's concept of memory trace links past and present experiences, with stronger traces influencing future problem-solving.
3) Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe how children's thinking abilities develop from sensorimotor to preoperational to concrete operational stages as they progress from birth to age 11.
Human research and complexity theory c9 march_0114March Lin
This document summarizes a chapter from a dissertation on complexity theory and its application to educational research. It discusses how complexity theory challenges traditional positivist assumptions and could enable a new science of qualities that complements existing quantitative research. It also outlines how complexity theory views learning communities as complex adaptive systems and examines the conditions under which phase transitions occur in such systems.
A realist and internalist response to one of mackie's arguments from queernes...jenny carolina peña niño
This article presents a realist and internalist response to one of Mackie's arguments from queerness regarding moral properties. It argues:
1) Mackie was correct that inherently motivating moral properties would be strange, but incorrect that we attribute such properties.
2) Moral beliefs have satisfaction conditions in addition to truth conditions. Believing a moral claim requires being motivated to some extent to satisfy it.
3) This explains the internalist intuition that moral beliefs necessitate motivation, without requiring inherently motivating properties. Strong internalism is true conceptually, due to the nature of moral beliefs and norms.
.There are different paths to reality, they are determined by the knower, being instrumental methodological study object, epistemological axis, among others. Reality presents several faces, what is observable and what is perceived sensory empirical data obtained correspond to the visible, the main thing is to discover the hidden side, which is behind the perceptible or data. Epistemology is the whole process of obtaining scientific knowledge, ranging from the pre knowledge to get to know the hidden side, one thing is what is seen and what is not, and one that is not seen, is really it is.
This document summarizes the major philosophical perspectives in education. It discusses idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, progressivism, existentialism, essentialism, perennialism, social reconstructionism, and critical theory. It provides an overview of each perspective, including a discussion of Plato's idealism and the influence of the Sophists. The purpose is to help readers classify, analyze, and apply these perspectives to examine their own philosophies of leadership and teaching.
This document discusses the relationship between science and philosophy. It provides definitions of science as the study of natural phenomena through observation and experimentation with the goal of discovering general truths and laws. Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge, reality, and ethics through reflection rather than empirical discovery. The philosophy of science examines the methods and justification of scientific claims.
The relationship between science and philosophy is examined in three ways: they can deal with different subject matters, philosophy can be an extension of science by evaluating scientific concepts and theories, or philosophy can describe realities independent of science. While science studies empirical facts, philosophy clarifies scientific language and theories. Both fields influence each other as science is not purely objective and philosophy reflects on scientific findings.
This document discusses the challenges of writing a philosophy of education essay. It notes that exploring both philosophy and education demands a nuanced understanding of principles, histories, and debates. Specifically, it requires comprehending diverse philosophical schools of thought and the connections between epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics related to learning. Additionally, balancing abstract concepts with practical systems, policies, and realities poses difficulties. Finally, synthesizing information from multiple disciplines into a cohesive narrative demonstrates deep comprehension of the interplay between philosophies and methodologies, requiring the essay to navigate the complex landscape where theories meet practice.
Analysing Theoretical Frameworks Of Moral Education Through Lakatos S Philoso...Anita Miller
This document summarizes a paper that analyzes theoretical frameworks of moral education through Lakatos's philosophy of science. It discusses three mainstream frameworks of moral education - virtue ethics, moral reasoning, and moral emotion-based education. The paper aims to systematically analyze the structure and interactions between moral education, philosophy, and psychology using Lakatos's concept of research programs. It also examines challenges to existing frameworks from emerging trends in natural sciences like neuroscience and evolutionary biology.
The document summarizes ten research perspectives: postpositivism, pragmatism, constructivism, critical theory, interpretivism, race/gender/ethnicity theories, queer theory, critical race theory, and art-based research. These perspectives differ in their views of truth, from postpositivism's view that absolute truths cannot be known, to pragmatism focusing on practical consequences, to constructivism believing truth is subjective. Critical theory and interpretivism both emphasize power relations and critique of ideologies. Race/gender/ethnicity, queer theory and critical race theory acknowledge marginalization but differ in their specific focuses. Art-based research uses art to communicate research findings.
PROFESSOR ROBERTO N. PADUATHEORY CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELO.docxbriancrawford30935
PROFESSOR ROBERTO N. PADUA
THEORY CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
COURSE OUTLINE
I. Theory,Philosophical Bases and Logic
II. Deductive Methods of Theory Development
III. Inductive Methods of Theory Development
IV. Theory Development Versus Theory Verification
Course Requirements: Workshop Outputs
LECTURE I: Theory and Philosophical Bases
1. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationships among phenomena.
2. THEORY: is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining, predicting, and controlling the phenomena.
DEFINITIONS
A Theory is a statement that explains why things happen as they do. There are three forms of a theory:
1. The "set-of-laws" form defines theory as a set of well-supported empirical generalizations, or "laws." Here, theory is thought of as "things we feel very certain about." This is the inductive form.
2. The "axiomatic" form defines theory as a set of interrelated propositions and definitions derived from axioms (i.e., things we feel certain about). This is the deductive form of a theory.
3. The "causal" form defines theory as a set of descriptions of causal processes. Here, theory "tells us how things work."
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
a. EXPLANATION: provides an answer to the question "why is the fact what it is?" that is intellectually satisfying. Formal explanation: subsuming a proposition under a broader proposition which needs no explanation. It consists of a universal generalization that is assumed to be true, a particular set of circumstances, and a conclusion which asserts that an event had to occur because it was deducible from the logic of the propositions of the theory. Such explanations are deterministic/causal/nomic. Law: (x) <If Px then Qx>; Antecedent Condition: Px; Conclusion: Qx.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY:
b. PREDICTION: proposing the occurrence of a future event given some awareness of a past or present relationship which may or may not be understood (e.g., astronomy). One can predict without explanation, but the reverse is not true. Thus explanation, rather than prediction, is the end of science.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
c. CONTROL: ability to intervene in a particular case or to alter the case of a particular relationship. In the pure case it implies complete understanding of elements and their relationships as well as a closed system. Less purely, it implies knowledge of the principles along which the phenomena vary.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
ABSTRACTNESS
Abstract concepts are independent of a specific time and place. Because scientific statements must predict future events, they cannot be specific to past events. Scientists prefer theories that are as general as possible to time and place.
Abstract concepts are independent of specific circumst.
This document provides an overview of different philosophical perspectives in education, including Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, and others. It discusses the key aspects of each perspective such as their view of reality, how we know things, and implications for education. The purpose is to help readers classify, analyze, and better understand these perspectives in order to reflect on their own philosophies and make more deliberate decisions as educators.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana
ABORTION AND ARGUMENT BY ANALOGY Lisa Sowie Cahill Bosto.docxannetnash8266
ABORTION AND ARGUMENT BY ANALOGY
Lisa Sowie Cahill
Boston College
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this essay is to examine the consistency and
coherence of some arguments about abortion. Theological,
philosophical, and public policy discussions of abortion are linked by
the necessity of understanding the legitimate claims of the fetus on the
woman who bears it, as well as on the larger human community. The
tools of moral philosophy widely are employed, whether directly or
indirectly, to evaluate abortion as one solution to problematic preg-
nancies. In particular, theologians examining the problem of abor-
tion from the standpoint of normative ethics find it necessary to take
into account some of the seminal work in recent moral philosophy.
However, the logic of the moral arguments adduced is not always
given fully critical attention in either "pro-choice" or "pro-life" posi-
tions, whether they be essentially religious, philosophical, or politi-
cal in character.
One logical implement used broadly is the analogical argument.
Burdensome pregnancy can be compared to other situations in which
the duty of one individual to protect the rights of another either is
sustained or is modified. Differences in evaluations of the morality of
abortion can be clarified and perhaps reduced by probing the ways in
which the morally significant features of fetal dependency, and of
maternal and societal obligation, are partly revealed yet partly hid-
den by the analogical mode of moral argument.
In recent discussions of abortion, especially those by philosophers
advocating its justifiability, the method of analogy has been used to
highlight the morally relevant features of killing a fetus. The claim often is
made that to require a woman to complete a pregnancy against her will,
particularly one begun without her consent, is to require her to bear a
burden heavier than others would bè required to assume in analogous
circumstances. Moral argument by analogy is, of course, not a new
phenomenon, even in regard to abortion; one traditional Roman Catholic
analogy likens the fetus to an "unjust aggressor."1 Among the more
^ h i s comparison, however, has never been endorsed by the magisteri um. For an
exhaustive discussion of the history of this analogy and other elements of the abortion
debate among Catholic theologians, see John Connery, S.J., Abortion: The Development of
the Roman Catholic Perspective (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1977).
Lisa Sowie Cahill received the Ph.D. (1976) from the University of Chicago Divinity School,
with a dissertation on "Euthanasia: A Protestant and a Catholic Perspective.*' An Assis-
tant Professor of Theology at Boston College (Chestnut HiJl, MA 02167) since 1976, her
teaching and research interests are foundations and method in theological ethics, medical
ethics, and sexual ethics. Articles in these areas have appeared in Religious Studies
Review, The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, Chi.
MidTerm Exam 1Subject Differential EquationNote This e.docxARIV4
This document contains lecture materials on theory development from a course. It defines what a theory is, discusses the key components and characteristics of theories, and different forms theories can take. It also covers philosophical bases of theories and provides exercises for students to develop their own theories on a given topic.
The document discusses the relationship between science and metaphysics. It examines several approaches to this relationship, including viewing them on a continuum, finding similarities in their methods of modeling, and emphasizing their differences. The key point is that while science and metaphysics may use similar language and concepts of modality, possibility, and necessity, the document argues that the modalities used in scientific modeling are fundamentally different than those used in metaphysical modeling. Specifically, fictional entities and idealizations in metaphysics are constrained only by conceivability, while in science they are constrained by theoretical and empirical factors. Emphasizing these differences, rather than similarities, can advance both fields.
This document summarizes key differences between analytic and continental philosophy traditions. It then provides an overview and ordering of articles in the collection that discuss ideas from hermeneutics, post-modernism, and critical realism. The document examines debates between thinkers like Rorty, Foucault, Bhaskar, and Harre regarding the nature of truth, power/knowledge, and the relationship between individuals and social structures.
Mathematical foundations of consciousnessPronoy Sikdar
1. The document proposes mathematical foundations for consciousness based on set theory and non-well-founded sets. It employs Zermelo-Fränkel axioms and introduces the anti-foundation axiom to characterize sets and enable studying them from the outside.
2. Operators like the Russell operator R are introduced to distinguish between normal and abnormal sets. Axioms are proposed to characterize experience and consciousness as primitives and define "consciousness operators". The Russell operator R satisfies these axioms.
3. A process for labeling and decorating graphs is described, which induces virtual sets associated with graphs. This is applied to brain circuitry graphs via "histograms" to frame a theory of consciousness based
This document discusses how the grand theory of Martha Rogers and the middle-range theory of Hildegard Peplau can be used together to guide nursing practice, specifically in psychiatric and mental health settings. Rogers' theory provides an overarching conceptual framework while Peplau's theory offers more specific and testable interventions. The theories are described as being complementary, with Rogers focusing more on being and Peplau focusing more on doing. Their similarities and differences are explored, and it is argued that using both perspectives together can strengthen nursing practice.
Max Wertheimer was a pioneering Gestalt psychologist born in 1880 in Prague. He studied psychology and received his doctorate in 1905. From 1910-1914, he worked with Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka to develop the fundamental concepts of Gestalt theory through experiments testing their ideas. He later served as a professor of psychology in Frankfurt from 1929-1933 before immigrating to the United States in 1933. There, he joined the faculty at the New School for Social Research in New York City, where he remained for ten years until his death in 1943 working to complete his research on "productive thinking".
This document discusses different theories of mental representation. It begins by outlining Fodor's classical computational theory of mind, which views thinking as the manipulation of mental symbols according to syntactic rules. It then examines connectionism, which rejects symbols in favor of distributed patterns of neural activity. Both theories view cognitive processes as sub-served by a single representational system. The document argues that later theories of embodied cognition and anti-representationalism provide a more plausible account by distinguishing between cognitive processes that are "coupled" to the environment and those that are "de-coupled".
The document discusses several cognitive learning theories, including Gestalt theory and Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Some key points:
1) Gestalt theory proposes that learning occurs through insight and restructuring experiences into meaningful wholes rather than discrete parts. Kohler's experiments with apes demonstrated insightful learning.
2) Koffka's concept of memory trace links past and present experiences, with stronger traces influencing future problem-solving.
3) Piaget's stages of cognitive development describe how children's thinking abilities develop from sensorimotor to preoperational to concrete operational stages as they progress from birth to age 11.
Human research and complexity theory c9 march_0114March Lin
This document summarizes a chapter from a dissertation on complexity theory and its application to educational research. It discusses how complexity theory challenges traditional positivist assumptions and could enable a new science of qualities that complements existing quantitative research. It also outlines how complexity theory views learning communities as complex adaptive systems and examines the conditions under which phase transitions occur in such systems.
A realist and internalist response to one of mackie's arguments from queernes...jenny carolina peña niño
This article presents a realist and internalist response to one of Mackie's arguments from queerness regarding moral properties. It argues:
1) Mackie was correct that inherently motivating moral properties would be strange, but incorrect that we attribute such properties.
2) Moral beliefs have satisfaction conditions in addition to truth conditions. Believing a moral claim requires being motivated to some extent to satisfy it.
3) This explains the internalist intuition that moral beliefs necessitate motivation, without requiring inherently motivating properties. Strong internalism is true conceptually, due to the nature of moral beliefs and norms.
.There are different paths to reality, they are determined by the knower, being instrumental methodological study object, epistemological axis, among others. Reality presents several faces, what is observable and what is perceived sensory empirical data obtained correspond to the visible, the main thing is to discover the hidden side, which is behind the perceptible or data. Epistemology is the whole process of obtaining scientific knowledge, ranging from the pre knowledge to get to know the hidden side, one thing is what is seen and what is not, and one that is not seen, is really it is.
This document summarizes the major philosophical perspectives in education. It discusses idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, progressivism, existentialism, essentialism, perennialism, social reconstructionism, and critical theory. It provides an overview of each perspective, including a discussion of Plato's idealism and the influence of the Sophists. The purpose is to help readers classify, analyze, and apply these perspectives to examine their own philosophies of leadership and teaching.
This document discusses the relationship between science and philosophy. It provides definitions of science as the study of natural phenomena through observation and experimentation with the goal of discovering general truths and laws. Philosophy is defined as the study of knowledge, reality, and ethics through reflection rather than empirical discovery. The philosophy of science examines the methods and justification of scientific claims.
The relationship between science and philosophy is examined in three ways: they can deal with different subject matters, philosophy can be an extension of science by evaluating scientific concepts and theories, or philosophy can describe realities independent of science. While science studies empirical facts, philosophy clarifies scientific language and theories. Both fields influence each other as science is not purely objective and philosophy reflects on scientific findings.
This document discusses the challenges of writing a philosophy of education essay. It notes that exploring both philosophy and education demands a nuanced understanding of principles, histories, and debates. Specifically, it requires comprehending diverse philosophical schools of thought and the connections between epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics related to learning. Additionally, balancing abstract concepts with practical systems, policies, and realities poses difficulties. Finally, synthesizing information from multiple disciplines into a cohesive narrative demonstrates deep comprehension of the interplay between philosophies and methodologies, requiring the essay to navigate the complex landscape where theories meet practice.
Analysing Theoretical Frameworks Of Moral Education Through Lakatos S Philoso...Anita Miller
This document summarizes a paper that analyzes theoretical frameworks of moral education through Lakatos's philosophy of science. It discusses three mainstream frameworks of moral education - virtue ethics, moral reasoning, and moral emotion-based education. The paper aims to systematically analyze the structure and interactions between moral education, philosophy, and psychology using Lakatos's concept of research programs. It also examines challenges to existing frameworks from emerging trends in natural sciences like neuroscience and evolutionary biology.
The document summarizes ten research perspectives: postpositivism, pragmatism, constructivism, critical theory, interpretivism, race/gender/ethnicity theories, queer theory, critical race theory, and art-based research. These perspectives differ in their views of truth, from postpositivism's view that absolute truths cannot be known, to pragmatism focusing on practical consequences, to constructivism believing truth is subjective. Critical theory and interpretivism both emphasize power relations and critique of ideologies. Race/gender/ethnicity, queer theory and critical race theory acknowledge marginalization but differ in their specific focuses. Art-based research uses art to communicate research findings.
PROFESSOR ROBERTO N. PADUATHEORY CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELO.docxbriancrawford30935
PROFESSOR ROBERTO N. PADUA
THEORY CONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
COURSE OUTLINE
I. Theory,Philosophical Bases and Logic
II. Deductive Methods of Theory Development
III. Inductive Methods of Theory Development
IV. Theory Development Versus Theory Verification
Course Requirements: Workshop Outputs
LECTURE I: Theory and Philosophical Bases
1. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: is systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationships among phenomena.
2. THEORY: is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining, predicting, and controlling the phenomena.
DEFINITIONS
A Theory is a statement that explains why things happen as they do. There are three forms of a theory:
1. The "set-of-laws" form defines theory as a set of well-supported empirical generalizations, or "laws." Here, theory is thought of as "things we feel very certain about." This is the inductive form.
2. The "axiomatic" form defines theory as a set of interrelated propositions and definitions derived from axioms (i.e., things we feel certain about). This is the deductive form of a theory.
3. The "causal" form defines theory as a set of descriptions of causal processes. Here, theory "tells us how things work."
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
a. EXPLANATION: provides an answer to the question "why is the fact what it is?" that is intellectually satisfying. Formal explanation: subsuming a proposition under a broader proposition which needs no explanation. It consists of a universal generalization that is assumed to be true, a particular set of circumstances, and a conclusion which asserts that an event had to occur because it was deducible from the logic of the propositions of the theory. Such explanations are deterministic/causal/nomic. Law: (x) <If Px then Qx>; Antecedent Condition: Px; Conclusion: Qx.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY:
b. PREDICTION: proposing the occurrence of a future event given some awareness of a past or present relationship which may or may not be understood (e.g., astronomy). One can predict without explanation, but the reverse is not true. Thus explanation, rather than prediction, is the end of science.
FUNCTIONS OF THEORY
c. CONTROL: ability to intervene in a particular case or to alter the case of a particular relationship. In the pure case it implies complete understanding of elements and their relationships as well as a closed system. Less purely, it implies knowledge of the principles along which the phenomena vary.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A THEORY
ABSTRACTNESS
Abstract concepts are independent of a specific time and place. Because scientific statements must predict future events, they cannot be specific to past events. Scientists prefer theories that are as general as possible to time and place.
Abstract concepts are independent of specific circumst.
This document provides an overview of different philosophical perspectives in education, including Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, and others. It discusses the key aspects of each perspective such as their view of reality, how we know things, and implications for education. The purpose is to help readers classify, analyze, and better understand these perspectives in order to reflect on their own philosophies and make more deliberate decisions as educators.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana
ABORTION AND ARGUMENT BY ANALOGY Lisa Sowie Cahill Bosto.docxannetnash8266
ABORTION AND ARGUMENT BY ANALOGY
Lisa Sowie Cahill
Boston College
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this essay is to examine the consistency and
coherence of some arguments about abortion. Theological,
philosophical, and public policy discussions of abortion are linked by
the necessity of understanding the legitimate claims of the fetus on the
woman who bears it, as well as on the larger human community. The
tools of moral philosophy widely are employed, whether directly or
indirectly, to evaluate abortion as one solution to problematic preg-
nancies. In particular, theologians examining the problem of abor-
tion from the standpoint of normative ethics find it necessary to take
into account some of the seminal work in recent moral philosophy.
However, the logic of the moral arguments adduced is not always
given fully critical attention in either "pro-choice" or "pro-life" posi-
tions, whether they be essentially religious, philosophical, or politi-
cal in character.
One logical implement used broadly is the analogical argument.
Burdensome pregnancy can be compared to other situations in which
the duty of one individual to protect the rights of another either is
sustained or is modified. Differences in evaluations of the morality of
abortion can be clarified and perhaps reduced by probing the ways in
which the morally significant features of fetal dependency, and of
maternal and societal obligation, are partly revealed yet partly hid-
den by the analogical mode of moral argument.
In recent discussions of abortion, especially those by philosophers
advocating its justifiability, the method of analogy has been used to
highlight the morally relevant features of killing a fetus. The claim often is
made that to require a woman to complete a pregnancy against her will,
particularly one begun without her consent, is to require her to bear a
burden heavier than others would bè required to assume in analogous
circumstances. Moral argument by analogy is, of course, not a new
phenomenon, even in regard to abortion; one traditional Roman Catholic
analogy likens the fetus to an "unjust aggressor."1 Among the more
^ h i s comparison, however, has never been endorsed by the magisteri um. For an
exhaustive discussion of the history of this analogy and other elements of the abortion
debate among Catholic theologians, see John Connery, S.J., Abortion: The Development of
the Roman Catholic Perspective (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1977).
Lisa Sowie Cahill received the Ph.D. (1976) from the University of Chicago Divinity School,
with a dissertation on "Euthanasia: A Protestant and a Catholic Perspective.*' An Assis-
tant Professor of Theology at Boston College (Chestnut HiJl, MA 02167) since 1976, her
teaching and research interests are foundations and method in theological ethics, medical
ethics, and sexual ethics. Articles in these areas have appeared in Religious Studies
Review, The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, Chi.
MidTerm Exam 1Subject Differential EquationNote This e.docxARIV4
This document contains lecture materials on theory development from a course. It defines what a theory is, discusses the key components and characteristics of theories, and different forms theories can take. It also covers philosophical bases of theories and provides exercises for students to develop their own theories on a given topic.
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What Is Complexity Science? A View from Different Directions.pdfKizito Lubano
This document discusses different perspectives on complexity science and what constitutes complexity science. It identifies three main schools of thought: reductionistic complexity science which aims to uncover universal principles through mathematics; soft complexity science which views complexity concepts as useful metaphors rather than directly applicable theories; and complexity thinking which focuses on the limits of knowledge given complexity. There is no agreed upon definition of complexity or what constitutes a science of complexity due to the diverse views. The document aims to stimulate debate around complexity science and its scientific status.
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A Critique Of The Philosophical Underpinnings Of Mainstream Social Science Re...Charlie Congdon
This document provides a critique of the philosophical underpinnings of mainstream social science research. It suggests that social science research is typically underpinned by a naïve realist ontological position, a positivist epistemological position, and a value-free axiological position. However, these positions promote a Eurocentric perspective. As an alternative, the document proposes a "muliversal" ontological position, a positivist-hermeneutic epistemological position that acknowledges the role of interpretation, and a value-laden axiological position for social science research conducted by non-Western scholars. This would help produce more context-relevant knowledge.
This document discusses definitions of theory from various sources and defines educational theory. It explores approaches to educational theory, including the relationship between theory and practice/philosophy. Descriptive and prescriptive theories are examined. School administration and instructional theory are provided as examples of developing sub-theories within educational theory. The role of theorists and practitioners is addressed, as well as conflicts that can arise between them. Overall the document outlines the development of educational theory through examining definitions, approaches, and examples of sub-theories.
The document provides an introduction to philosophy, outlining its main goals and branches. It discusses how philosophy originated under Socrates and his development of the Socratic method. It describes the core areas of philosophy including ethics, metaphysics, epistemology, and logic. It also covers the demands and rewards of studying philosophy.
The role of theory in research division for postgraduate studiespriyankanema9
This document discusses the role of theory in research. It provides definitions of theory as a model or framework that shapes observation and understanding. Theory condenses and organizes knowledge about the world and explains relationships between variables. The document outlines characteristics of theory such as guiding research, becoming stronger with evidence, and generating new research. It distinguishes theories from hypotheses and discusses evaluating theories. The dynamic relationship between theory and research is also examined, with theory informing research and research testing and revising theory. Different types of theories like deductive and inductive theories are defined. The document concludes by discussing theories relevant to multilingual mathematics education research and theories of second language learning.
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1. The Properties of Relevance Between
Philosophy and Education
BY KENNETH ROBERT CONKLIN
Reprinted from Educational Theory — Vol. 18, No. 4, Fall 1968
2. The Properties of Relevance Between
Philosophy and Education
BY KENNETH ROBERT CONKLIN
I. INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS THE NATURE OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND
EDUCATION? W h a t are the rules for making legitimate connections between
t h e two? Does a given philosophical theory have consequences as prescrip-
tions for education? If so, w h a t are t h e correct ways of determining them?
Does a given educational theory or practice have philosophical presupposi-
tions? If so, what are the correct ways of determining them? Can the same
position in education be supported by conflicting philosophies? Can the same
philosophy be used to generate conflicting prescriptions for education? Can
philosophical theory adequately guide educational practice when action must
be taken to deal with a novel problem whose urgency or complexity leaves
insufficient time for a d e q u a t e reflection? Can philosophical theory guide the
unforeseen moment-to-moment activities of the educational practitioner
(teacher, administrator) even though no conscious thought is given to phi-
losophy? By what mechanisms, if any, does theoretical training affect practical
conduct?
All of these questions could be answered if the properties of relevance
between philosophy and education were known, A characterization of the
relevance between philosophy and education would provide a valuable tool
whereby research in philosophy could be m a d e useful in education, and
educational theories and practices could be more readily and more adequately
guided a n d criticized philosophically. Standards might be developed for
judging technical writing in philosophy of education, and teacher training
might be improved.
II. RELEVANCE
T h e questions listed in the opening p a r a g r a p h are elaborations of a single
question which constitutes the focus of this investigation: W h a t are the
properties of relevance between philosophy and education? T h e use of the
term "relevant" suggests that there is more than a haphazard or loose connec-
tion b e t w e e n the things which are related. Relevance is a strong, quasi-
intrinsic kind of intellectual relationship. T h e logical properties of the general
concept "relevance" have been studied elsewhere in considerable detail, along
with the epistemological problems associated with defining the concept. 1
KENNETH ROBERT CONKLIN is Assistant Professor of Philosophy of Education at
Oakland, University, Rochester, Michigan.
IKenneth Robert Conklin, " T h e Relevance Problem in Philosophy of Education" (Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1967), Chapter 2. All parts of the present paper
draw heavily upon several chapters in the dissertation.
356
3. PROPERTIES OF RELEVANCE 357
The history of philosophy is the report of a war between two polar,
comprehensive theories of relevance. Like opposing generals, these theories
of relevance have remained out of sight while directing the activities of their
troops in countless major battles and minor skirmishes. The generals speak
such different languages that accurate translation is impossible. No compromise
or truce is possible because each side paradoxically considers the other to be
both profoundly evil and officially non-existent.
Absolutism and relativism are familiar names for the opposing theories
of relevance. In order to avoid certain previous uses of language, and to call
attention to the metaphysical commitments of the advocates on both sides,
these will be called the "structure theory" and the "game theory" of relevance.
According to the structure theory, relevance is intrinsic, exists a priori, and is
discovered. We intuit the relevance structures of the universe and we are
objectively right or wrong. According to the game theory, relevance is created
by human action and stipulated by convention. We invent games and may
choose to play or not to play for any reason, including the "fruitfulness" of
the game or the pleasure we have in playing it.
The dispute between the structure and game theories of relevance is
reflected in every traditional problem area of philosophy: metaphysics, episte-
mology, ethics, aesthetics, and logic. The structure theory is best exemplified
in the work of Plato, Plotinus, and the Absolute Idealists. The game theory is
best exemplified in the work of the Sophists, the Epicureans, Hume, and
Wittgenstein (especially the "later" Wittgenstein). Conventionalists of all
varieties espouse the game theory, including language analysts (acceptable
uses of language conform to the generally accepted rules of the "language
game"), believers in crescive law (Sumner) as opposed to Natural Law, and
existentialists (relevance is created by arbitrary choice in an unstructured
universe). Every dispute on any philosophical topic is an operational manifes-
tation of the basic dispute between the polar theories of relevance. A synthesis
of the structure and game theories will be presented in section five, although
the synthesis gives far more satisfaction to the structure theorists than to the
game theorists and thus may not be a genuine synthesis.
The war between the polar theories of relevance is manifested in the
disputes about how philosophy and education are related. The orderly dis-
cussion of these disputes will be facilitated by organizing the discussion
according to the various types of relevance which might exist between phi-
losophy and education. Although there has never before been a general study
of relevance as such, a number of different types of relevance have been
enumerated by people who were studying something else. Aristotle's four
causes, Sorokin's four types of cultural integration, and the traditional problem
areas of philosophy combine to suggest a taxonomy of relevance. The four
major types of relevance are:
(1) Logical (explicitly formulatable relations among statements);
(2) Causal (empirical relations among things and events);
(3) Aesthetic (harmonious contribution to a collective gestalt or meaning);
(4) Teleological (intentions or purposes joined to actions or events).
4. 358 EDUCATIONAL THEORY
A derivative type is a weakened version of causal relevance:
( 5 ) Correlational ( t e n d i n g to occur contiguously-successively in space-
time; or related by way of an external factor).
There are also two extreme types of relevance:
( 6 ) Merely phenomenal ( t h e relevance of the junk pile or hallucination);
( 7 ) Identity ( a n entity as related to itself, whose aspects are related to
themselves by w a y of all the other kinds of relevance).
III. LOGICAL RELEVANCE B E T W E E N PHILOSOPHY
AND EDUCATION
As the term will be used here, "logical relations" are all and only those
relations which exist among statements and which can be exhibited on paper
in ways which are at least somewhat amenable to objective scrutiny. The
mere juxtaposition of sentences on a scrap of p a p e r does not suffice to establish
a logical relation between them. On the other hand, we commonly recognize
the presence of logical relations between statements even though no formal
chain of words or symbols is exhibited to connect them. T h e usage described
here eliminates from the domain of logic such common notions as "the logic
of scientific discovery" or "the logic of the traffic pattern in Chicago." The
logical relevance between philosophy and education is the joining of state-
ments in philosophy to statements in education.
T h e dispute between the game and structure theories of relevance is
reflected in a dispute over the question whether philosophy a n d education
are logically related. Advocates of the game theory contend that the act of
stipulating logical connections between philosophy and education creates such
connections and answers t h e question "yes," while a complete lack of such
stipulated connections would require a "no" answer. Advocates of the struc-
ture theory of relevance contend that there may be correct and erroneous
stipulations of logical connections, a n d that in any case the question whether
there are such connections, together with the question whether any particular
system of connections is correct, require metaphysical inquiry before good
answers can be provided.
Several authors have tried to characterize the properties of "correct"
logical connections between philosophy and education. T h e proposed char-
acterizations have varied in the rigor and abstractness of the connections.
Although no proposal has yet advocated a computerized philosophy of educa-
tion ( w h e r e philosophic axioms are fed into a computer and educational
prescriptions are provided in the o u t p u t ) , such a possibility represents the
limiting case of rigor and abstractness. Godel's proof of the impossibility of
demonstrating the consistency of an axiomatic system by internal means, and
the essential incompleteness of any axiomatic system, suggests that no axi-
omatization of philosophy is possible. However, strings of syllogisms can
provide feasible connections between philosophy and education, when the
original major premises are taken from a philosophic system and the minor
5. PROPERTIES OF RELEVANCE 359
premises are descriptions of the cultural or educational context. A somewhat
different approach is also feasible, drawing upon recent work in philosophy
of science: epistemic correlations (Northrop), correspondence rules (Margenau),
or rules of interpretation (Hempel) may be used to convert philosophical
statements into educational ones, and vice versa.
Philosophical systems can also be used as models, metaphors, operational
definitions, or slogans for educational programs. Although strict logical rigor
here is poor, usefulness and communicative power are great. Most of the
debates about education employ philosophical systems in these quasi-logical
ways, and there is practical recourse to more rigorous exposition only when
that is demanded by the criticism or the crucial importance of a stated posi-
tion. Axiomatic systems, strings of syllogisms, slogans, models, metaphors, and
operational definitions all depend upon arbitrary stipulation of philosophical
antecedents and arbitrary stipulation of connections to education; however,
the arbitrariness of the stipulations is more covert in axiomatic systems (except
"at the top") and more obvious all along the way in operational definitions.
Although the "educational implication" is usually conceived as moving
from philosophy to education, it also goes the other way. We often speak of
finding the philosophical presuppositions of an educational action or prescrip-
tion. The philosophical presuppositions of an educational action are the same
as the philosophical presuppositions of the prescriptions approving the action
as described; the presuppositions are statements which stand as premises in
implications yielding educational conclusions. Finding the philosophical pre-
suppositions of an educational action may be compared to finding the scientific
explanations of an empirical phenomenon, while deducing educational prescrip-
tions from a philosophic system may be compared to deducing empirical
predictions from a scientific theory. The question whether explanation and
prediction are structurally identical (except for the time factor) is parallel
to the question whether philosophical presuppositions and educational impli-
cations are found by means of identical logical structures.
Neither the law of excluded middle nor the law of non-contradiction
apply in philosophy of education. The law of excluded middle does not applv,
in the sense that it is possible that neither a certain prescription for education
nor its opposite is deducible from a given philosophic system, while it is also
possible that neither a given philosophic statement nor its contradiction is a
philosophical presupposition of an educational action. The law of non-contra-
diction does not apply, in the sense that both a prescription for education
and its opposite may be deducible from the same philosophic system, while
two conflicting philosophic systems may agree in supporting the same con-
clusion for education. In spite of these difficulties, philosophy of education is
a perfectly rational enterprise: the relations between philosophical systems
and educational prescriptions outlined in this paragraph are parallel to the
relations between maps and itineraries. In addition, certain non-logical con-
siderations (to be developed in section four) may eliminate philosophic
statements or educational prescriptions which logic alone would allow, and
the same considerations may require statements or prescriptions which logic
alone would fail to establish.
6. 360 EDUCATIONAL THEORY
IV. NON-LOGICAL RELEVANCE BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY
AND EDUCATION
The taxonomy presented in section two described seven types of relevance.
Merely phenomenal relevance and the relevance of identity are limiting cases
which are of no special significance here. Thus, we are left with four types
of non-logical relevance which may exist between philosophy and education:
causal, correlational, aesthetic, and teleological.
Since causal and correlational relevance exist (by definition) only between
physical things, there can be no causal or correlational relevance between phi-
losophy and education unless both are conceived as physical things. Education
is easily seen as a physical thing if we consider "educational phenomena"
involving classrooms, buildings, books, teaching-learning episodes and practices,
hands, brains, etc. Although it is difficult to think of philosophy as a physical
thing, there are two ways in which such a conception is possible: (1) phi-
losophy as a collection of marks on paper (philosophical writings) or vibra-
tions of air (philosophical utterances); (2) philosophy as a cultural institution,
consisting of certain people, their actions and interactions and folkways,
certain books, etc. Causal relevance between philosophy and education would
be difficult to prove, but it is easy to see that there is at least correlational
relevance between philosophy and education.
Educational deeds and philosophical opinions are correlated by way of
personality dispositions. Psychologists who study human personality recognize
that a personality can be broken down into certain factors or dispositions.
A cluster of statements to which someone assents can be highly correlated
with a cluster of actions in which he engages whenever environmental condi-
tions permit or induce those actions. It would seem reasonable, then, that
there should be a correlation between the advocacy of a set of philosophical
opinions and the tendency for an educational practitioner to behave in a
certain way in the classroom or administrative situation. Furthermore, if
particular philosophical tenets are correlated with particular personality dis-
positions, we would expect that each major personality type (as a gestalt of
harmonious dispositions) is correlated with a major philosophical system (as
a harmonious combination of tenets). Empirical studies have actually been
done which tend to confirm these predictions.
Since a personality and its dispositions are formed and reconstructed by
the totality of all perceived experiences, it follows that instruction in phi-
losophy of education can change the personality of the prospective educational
practitioner so that his educational actions years later are different from what
they otherwise would have been. In this way theory can inform practice
without conscious deliberation by the practitioner. Likewise, practical experi-
ence in educational situations can reconstruct the personality of the theoretician
and thereby produce a change in the philosophical tenets to which he sub-
scribes.
Just as philosophical opinions and educational deeds are correlated as
verbalizations and manifestations of an individual's personality, so also we
7. PROPERTIES OF RELEVANCE 361
may say that philosophy and education as cultural institutions are correlated
as verbalization and manifestation of a culture's ethos. Since the ethos of a
culture (national character; Volksgeist; paideia) is the gestalt of all its
institutions, a change in one institution (either philosophy or education, for
example) may produce a change in one or more other institutions. If phi-
losophy is viewed as Utopian (in Mannheim's sense), then it performs its
classical function by promoting a reconstruction of the social and educational
order in conformity to the tenets of some great Truth. If philosophy is viewed
as ideological, then it serves as a verbal battle-ground between the expressed
rationalizations of vested interests. Current social reconstructionist theories
view philosophy as ideological and express the belief that a prior harmoniza-
tion of social conflicts is the only way in which philosophical disputes can be
settled. If philosophy and education are correlated as cultural institutions,
it follows that both the ideological and Utopian interpretations of the function
of philosophy will agree that comparative philosophy and comparative edu-
cation have much to offer each other.
Pareto's sociology of knowledge explains the personality correlation be-
tween philosophical opinions and educational deeds, while Sorokin's sociology
of knowledge explains the cultural correlation between philosophy and educa-
tion as institutions. Pareto suggests that there are two basic personality types
in any culture (the "lions" and the "foxes"), and it is interesting to note
that one of these would be highly correlated with espousal of the structure
theory of relevance (the lions) while the other type is highly correlated with
the game theory (the foxes). Pareto himself espouses an ideological view of
the nature of philosophy, and such a view is correlated with the game theory
of relevance. Sorokin suggests that there are two basic types of cultural ethos
(the "ideational" and the "sensate"), and it is obvious from his characterization
of these types that one type corresponds to the structure theory of relevance
(the ideational) while the other corresponds to the game theory (the sensate).
Sorokin himself espouses a Utopian view of the nature of philosophy (he
claims that pure, spaceless, timeless ideas become embodied in cultural systems
which develop the ideas to the "logical limit"), and such a view is correlated
with the structure theory of relevance.
Aside from causal and correlational relevance between philosophy and
education, there is aesthetic relevance. The term "aesthetic" is here used in
its broadest possible sense, as a synonym for "immediately known" or "intuitive"
or "non-discursive" or "known by acquaintance." The aesthetic gestalt of an
educational situation either coheres or clashes with the spirit (or overall
meaning) of a philosophic system. The spirit or meaning of a philosophic
system is itself the aesthetically perceived gestalt of all the tenets, while the
tenets are the discursive expression of the spirit of the system. The concept
of aesthetic empathy applies here as we observe that students understand a
philosophic system better if they temporarily agree with it. By identifying
with the spirit of a philosophic system, the prospective practitioner can
recognize hosts of educational practices as harmonizing or clashing with it,
in precisely the same way as an actor fills in the gaps in a script by tem-
porarily "becoming" the person whom he portrays.
8. 362 EDUCATIONAL THEORY
Finally, there is teleological relevance between philosophy and education
in the sense that philosophical ends are realized by educational means. Dewey
recognized that a philosophy comes alive with practical meaning only if it is
embodied in educational practices. Likewise, it is possible to determine in a
general way the philosophical commitments which covertly or overtly find
their furtherance in given educational practices.
V. A SYNTHESIS: THE USES OF KNOWLEDGE
AND THE THEORY-PRACTICE RELATION
Should philosophy of education be oriented toward training prospective
practitioners by giving them rules of practice, or should philosophy of edu-
cation be a liberal discipline to be studied for its own sake? Many authors
have written on this problem, and their opinions span a continuum from one
extreme to the other. The lag between theory and practice in education is so
great that some authors believe the lag should be eliminated by making
theoretical statements labels for practical actions (perhaps by means of
operational definitions), while other authors believe the lag will always remain
great because the theoretical foundations of education are liberal arts. Should
philosophy of education, like philosophy or art, be used purely for enjoyment
and appreciation, or should it play an active role in directing the phenomena
which it studies?
Sometimes knowledge is used applicatively — for example: using theoretical
knowledge of mechanics to build a race-car engine. Sometimes knowledge is
used interpretively without practical application — for example: using theo-
retical knowledge of physics to understand and appreciate the achievements
of the astronauts. 2 Every applicative use of knowledge includes an interpretive
use of knowledge, since a situation must be perceived and understood before
it can be dealt with properly. The perception and understanding of a situation
are usually immediate and unnoticed whenever practical problems are dealt
with swiftly and well; but if the problem is complex or if error occurs, the
perception and understanding of the situation may be noticed and dealt with
as problems in themselves.
Since every applicative use of knowledge includes an interpretive use
of knowledge, it is clear that an improvement in the latter will tend to produce
an improvement in the former. Whenever fragmentation of problem-solving
into separate stages occurs, there is a tendency to view theory so far apart
from practice that it becomes difficult to translate theory into practice. Thus,
in philosophy of education it becomes necessary to study the properties of
relevance between philosophy and education in order to produce mechanisms
whereby the practical applications of theory can be more or less rigorously
spelled out (e.g., logical syllogisms, models, slogans, operational definitions).
Once theory is studied for its own sake and separated from practice, it is
2Four uses of knowledge, including the applicative and interpretive uses being discussed
here, were developed in Harry S. Broudy, B. Othanel Smith, and Joe R. Burnett, Democracy
and Excellence in American Secondary Education (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1964) ,
Chapters III and IV.
9. PROPERTIES OF RELEVANCE 363
difficult to ensure that improvement in the interpretive use of knowledge will
produce improvement in the applicative use of knowledge.
But when the fragmentation of problem-solving into separated stages does
not occur, there is no need to restore the theory-practice connection since
that connection is immediately in the making. In this case statements are
never formulated and there is no need to employ logical mechanisms to deduce
the implications of theory. Whenever action is taken immediately in response
to a situation, the personality dispositions of the actor determine his response.
If those dispositions have been conditioned and reconstructed through the
study of theory the actor will perceive and interpret the situation with new
insight, and (possibly) a different overt response will occur. Thus the inter-
pretive use of knowledge mediates between theoretical study of philosophy of
education and practical direction of educational phenomena. The process of
mediation makes use of the non-logical properties of relevance between
philosophy and education, discussed in section four.
The logical relevance between philosophy and education is therefore
both an outgrowth of and a vehicle for the non-logical relevance between the
two. Having insights, we formulate them in statements. Studying statements,
we may have insights. The philosopher of education understands practical
and theoretical situations, and expresses what he understands by using the
mechanisms of the logical relevance between philosophy and education. Upon
hearing or reading the utterances or writings of the theoretician, the prospec-
tive educational practitioner may be led to have the same understandings.
Having significant understandings is all one with undergoing a reconstruction
of personality dispositions, and such a character-building process naturally
overflows into actions informed with theory.
As used in section four, "aesthetic" is taken in its broadest sense as a
synonym for "immediately known" or "intuitive" or "non-discursive" or "known
by acquaintance." Aesthetic expressions are always discursive public embodi-
ments of non-discursive private intuitions. Communication is always a form
of aesthetic expression in which the person who receives the communication
is to be led through the discursive embodiment to the same intuition which
the sender is expressing. Communication fails if the receiver does not achieve
the same insight which the sender expressed, although there may still be
enjoyment or appreciation of the vehicle itself. Likewise, there are vehicles
which either do not embody a message or were never intended to do so.
The results of the last few paragraphs may now be summed up by saying
that the logical relevance between philosophy and education is the aesthetic
expression of the non-logical relevance between the two, and in training
prospective educational practitioners we philosophers of education use the
logical mechanisms as communication vehicles.
Indeed, all teaching is aesthetic expression and communication in the
sense developed here. Rules express practices. For those persons interested
in the interpretive use of knowledge, rules are descriptions, while for those
persons who are also interested in the applicative use of knowledge, rules
become prescriptions as well. Grammar tables express the linguistic practices
10. 364 EDUCATIONAL THEORY
of fluent speakers, and may be used to lead students toward the development
of fluency in a foreign language (or their own!). Recipes express good
cooking. Proofs express truths. Paradigms for teaching (sometimes taught in
educational methods courses) are the grammar tables of the educational
profession. In every case, the mistake called "pedantry" consists of confusing
the expression with the intuition: for example, a professor of "education" who
over-emphasizes the need to follow a rigid sequence of steps in teaching a
lesson may impair the ability of his students to develop genuine finesse when
they teach.
The game and structure theories of relevance may now be synthesized
in the language developed here. Games express structures, and we make a
vicious error if we deny the validity of either one or if we confuse them with
each other. Games as aesthetic expressions are always discursive, public
embodiments of non-discursive, private intuitions of structures. All communica-
tion takes place by convention through the playing of some game, while that
which is communicated is the intuition of a structure. Of course, there are
games which are invented and played merely "for fun" without embodying
any structure or without intending to embody one.
If a game is offered "just for fun" one way it may be criticized is to show
that it embodies a structure of which the game's author disapproves. If a game
is offered as an embodiment of some structure, one way it may be criticized
is to show that it fails to communicate that structure; likewise, such a game
may also be criticized by showing that it embodies a structure of which the
game's author disapproves (thus, educational practices may be criticized by
exposing their philosophical presuppositions). These are the only ways in
which games may be criticized. Games which can withstand these criticisms
are acceptable games because they either succeed in embodying or communi-
cating some structure, or else they are really innocent, "just for fun" games.
Behind all that has been said here is a general epistemology which is
very old and veiy familiar. Plato developed this epistemology, especially in
the Republic and the Meno. Plotinus elaborated the position. St. Augustine
(in De Magistro) applied the epistemology in discussing the nature of
teaching. Zen (Buddhist) masters have used it for thousands of years in the
process of instructing their pupils. More recently, Michael Polanyi has written
in a way which seems to espouse portions of this tradition.
Truth, Beauty, and Goodness are all One. Truth exists a priori, awaiting
discovery. Its beauty seduces the beholder, making him a pilgrim and a seeker
of Truth. Through grace and humility, Truth is obtained and produces a
spiritual conversion which alters the personality of the wise man, making him
good. The goodness of the wise man is obvious to all who see with unclouded
eyes, and his deeds lead others to salvation.
Perhaps the study of philosophy of education can help a teacher become
a philosopher-king in his classroom.