This document provides guidance on how to efficiently read and evaluate a scientific research paper. It recommends beginning by reading the conclusions section of the abstract to determine if the full paper is worth reading. Next, the methods section should be reviewed to understand the experimental design. Then, the results section can be examined, first in the abstract and then in the full paper. Reading the introduction and discussion sections is optional. This approach allows the reader to quickly evaluate many papers and focus on those most relevant and well-designed. The overall goal is to obtain new knowledge from research papers in the most time-efficient manner.
Stats & facts observerfpa journal.org12 journal of financrock73
1) The document provides tips for evaluating research-based writing by outlining 8 key questions to ask when reading academic research. These questions include understanding the problem/question being addressed, the methodology, results, practical applications, and implications for changing practice.
2) It also discusses the importance of practitioners becoming better able to recognize and apply research-based writing in order to strengthen the field of financial planning as a true profession.
3) Practitioners are encouraged to deepen their connection with academics producing research and to apply theory from academic research to their practice.
This document describes the process of identifying and developing a research idea into a specific research question. It discusses finding ideas from published articles, literature reviews, replicating previous studies, and personal experiences. Ideas are distilled into a focused research question by defining key elements and terms operationally. Justification for conducting a study comes from identifying gaps in previous research or improving methodology. The scientific method involves a closed loop from investigating an idea to developing hypotheses, study design/plan, data collection/analysis, and interpretation, with new questions emerging.
This document provides an overview of the process of identifying a research topic and developing a research question. It describes several sources where research ideas can be found, such as published articles, literature reviews, and gaps or limitations identified in previous studies. When reading articles and literature reviews, researchers should look for ideas, gaps, or statements about implications for future research. The document also outlines how to build justifications for a study by reviewing relevant literature and how to distill a broad research idea into a specific research question. It distinguishes between descriptive, difference, and relationship research questions.
This document provides guidance on how to read scientific papers. It explains that there are two main types of scientific papers: review articles and primary research articles. Review articles summarize previous studies in a field, while primary research articles present original experimental data and conclusions. The key sections of primary research articles are outlined, including the abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Reading scientific papers is important for students conducting independent research, as it allows them to learn what is already known in a field, understand how experiments are performed, and get ideas for their own research projects.
This document provides an overview of the structure of a scientific paper, following the IMRAD format:
1. The Introduction section should state the research question and briefly review relevant literature to justify the study.
2. The Methods section describes the experimental design and procedures in enough detail for others to replicate the study.
3. The Results section presents the major findings and representative data clearly and concisely.
4. The Discussion section analyzes and interprets the results in the context of previous research and should not exceed one-third the length of the paper. Adhering to the IMRAD structure and guidelines for target journals will help ensure papers are well constructed.
Accadamic writing for accounting and finace studentsMatewos4
The document provides guidance on writing a research report or seminar paper. It discusses the key steps and elements of writing such papers, including:
1) Defining the research problem and questions to be addressed;
2) Researching background literature and sources to understand the topic; and
3) Structuring the paper with standard sections such as an introduction, methods, results, and conclusion.
The document emphasizes important writing principles like clarity, objectivity, and accuracy in presenting research findings. It also notes that outlining, drafting, and revising are essential to producing a well-written report.
This document provides guidance on conducting an effective literature review. It discusses the purpose of a literature review, which is to summarize and evaluate prior research on a topic. It also outlines different contexts for literature reviews, such as when it is the main focus of research, a preliminary stage, or part of a completed research project. The document offers tips for how to structure an effective literature review, including grouping related studies and focusing on the most relevant aspects rather than individually summarizing every source. It emphasizes the importance of critically analyzing existing research rather than just summarizing. Overall, the document aims to help researchers understand how to properly frame and conduct a high-quality literature review.
Stats & facts observerfpa journal.org12 journal of financrock73
1) The document provides tips for evaluating research-based writing by outlining 8 key questions to ask when reading academic research. These questions include understanding the problem/question being addressed, the methodology, results, practical applications, and implications for changing practice.
2) It also discusses the importance of practitioners becoming better able to recognize and apply research-based writing in order to strengthen the field of financial planning as a true profession.
3) Practitioners are encouraged to deepen their connection with academics producing research and to apply theory from academic research to their practice.
This document describes the process of identifying and developing a research idea into a specific research question. It discusses finding ideas from published articles, literature reviews, replicating previous studies, and personal experiences. Ideas are distilled into a focused research question by defining key elements and terms operationally. Justification for conducting a study comes from identifying gaps in previous research or improving methodology. The scientific method involves a closed loop from investigating an idea to developing hypotheses, study design/plan, data collection/analysis, and interpretation, with new questions emerging.
This document provides an overview of the process of identifying a research topic and developing a research question. It describes several sources where research ideas can be found, such as published articles, literature reviews, and gaps or limitations identified in previous studies. When reading articles and literature reviews, researchers should look for ideas, gaps, or statements about implications for future research. The document also outlines how to build justifications for a study by reviewing relevant literature and how to distill a broad research idea into a specific research question. It distinguishes between descriptive, difference, and relationship research questions.
This document provides guidance on how to read scientific papers. It explains that there are two main types of scientific papers: review articles and primary research articles. Review articles summarize previous studies in a field, while primary research articles present original experimental data and conclusions. The key sections of primary research articles are outlined, including the abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Reading scientific papers is important for students conducting independent research, as it allows them to learn what is already known in a field, understand how experiments are performed, and get ideas for their own research projects.
This document provides an overview of the structure of a scientific paper, following the IMRAD format:
1. The Introduction section should state the research question and briefly review relevant literature to justify the study.
2. The Methods section describes the experimental design and procedures in enough detail for others to replicate the study.
3. The Results section presents the major findings and representative data clearly and concisely.
4. The Discussion section analyzes and interprets the results in the context of previous research and should not exceed one-third the length of the paper. Adhering to the IMRAD structure and guidelines for target journals will help ensure papers are well constructed.
Accadamic writing for accounting and finace studentsMatewos4
The document provides guidance on writing a research report or seminar paper. It discusses the key steps and elements of writing such papers, including:
1) Defining the research problem and questions to be addressed;
2) Researching background literature and sources to understand the topic; and
3) Structuring the paper with standard sections such as an introduction, methods, results, and conclusion.
The document emphasizes important writing principles like clarity, objectivity, and accuracy in presenting research findings. It also notes that outlining, drafting, and revising are essential to producing a well-written report.
This document provides guidance on conducting an effective literature review. It discusses the purpose of a literature review, which is to summarize and evaluate prior research on a topic. It also outlines different contexts for literature reviews, such as when it is the main focus of research, a preliminary stage, or part of a completed research project. The document offers tips for how to structure an effective literature review, including grouping related studies and focusing on the most relevant aspects rather than individually summarizing every source. It emphasizes the importance of critically analyzing existing research rather than just summarizing. Overall, the document aims to help researchers understand how to properly frame and conduct a high-quality literature review.
This editorial provides advice to beginners on writing research papers for publication. It emphasizes that papers should be structured with an introduction that establishes the research question, a methods section that explains how the question was examined, a results section that presents relevant findings, and a discussion that interprets the results in relation to the question. The research question should be specific, novel, and relevant to the field. While the structure and content of each section is important, common mistakes like poor English language skills, selective or disorganized reporting of results, and failure to establish the question or acknowledge limitations also need to be avoided. Following the provided guidance on paper components, referencing, and addressing common errors can help novice writers produce clear, high-quality research
This document provides guidance on how to write an effective critical literature review. It discusses the key aspects of undertaking a literature review, including defining what a literature review is, the purposes of doing one, and when they are required. It outlines the process from conducting searches to analyzing and sorting the literature found. Some key tips include developing an analytical framework to compare sources, focusing the review around key themes or issues, and presenting the review in a structured narrative format with an introduction, body, and conclusion. The goal is to produce an original, analytical review that critically analyzes and synthesizes the existing literature rather than just describing or listing previous works.
Review of Related LiteratureAt this point you should make an ini.docxronak56
Review of Related Literature
At this point you should make an initial foray into the professional literature, the formal record of other people’s experiences, to try to better understand the problem on which you are focusing. The literature may suggest other ways of looking at your problem and help you to identify potential promising practices that you might use in your classroom to correct the problem. To borrow the words of Kemmis (1988), “Can existing research throw any light on your situation and help you see it more clearly?” (p. 55).
Reviewing the literature is a valuable contribution to the action research process that could actually save you time. Often, teacher researchers think that they know what their problem is but become stymied in the process because they weren’t really sure what they were asking. Taking time to immerse yourself in the literature allows you to reflect on your own problems through someone else’s lens. You can locate yourself within the research literature and find support for what you are doing or be challenged by what other researchers have done and how they have tackled a particular problem.
At the end of the process, you ought to be informed enough about the literature that you could talk to colleagues about the major themes that emerged. Similarly, you should be able to talk about “promising practices” that were discussed.
Sometimes, teacher researchers will claim that they cannot find any published research related to their area of focus. This invariably leads to questions of relevance and importance. After all, if nobody else has researched the problem, perhaps it is not worthy of investigation! However, as the following personal and serious illustration demonstrates, lack of published research on a topic does not mean that the topic is not important. About 15 years ago my son, who was five years old at the time, inexplicably began to pass blood in his urine—a pretty scary sight for any parent. After many invasive medical tests over a six-month period, we finally opted for a procedure that required general anesthesia in order to determine the cause of the blood. The surgeon emerged from the operating room and pronounced, “I have some good news, and I have some bad news!” The good news was that the surgeon was able to diagnose the cause of the internal bleeding—a rare, benign, and non-life-threatening condition called trigonitis. The bad news was that the surgeon was unable to tell us why our son had developed the condition or how to treat it! I was shocked at this revelation from the surgeon, a pediatric urology specialist. How could my son be bleeding internally and there not be a medical explanation? The surgeon responded that, because the condition was rare, benign, and non-life-threatening, it simply did not warrant research! My point here is not to be melodramatic but rather to make a case for the importance of your own research, regardless of whether it has been researched (and published) by other pr ...
This document discusses literature reviews and their importance in research. It begins by explaining that a literature review is an essential preliminary task that acquaints the researcher with existing knowledge in their field. The functions of a literature review are then outlined as bringing clarity and focus to the research problem, improving methodology, broadening the researcher's knowledge, and contextualizing findings. The document provides guidance on how to conduct a literature review, including searching literature sources, reviewing selected literature, developing a theoretical framework, and creating a conceptual framework. It emphasizes that a literature review is time-consuming but rewarding for strengthening a research study.
Do Yourself a Favor…
Learn HOW to Publish A Research
Paper
(50% off Coupon)
https://www.udemy.com/scientific-research-paper/?couponCode=UNCEDU
Take an opportunity to “Learn to Publish A Research
Paper”. Add value to research skills and knowledge today!
I’m excited to help you add value to your capabilities by
adding skills and knowledge our course provides in your as
you move up your ladder. Upon successful completion of
our course, more and more people realize just how capable
they really are. This course is meant for beginners that are
not familiar with Research Journals and/or students
looking for a quick refresher on how to publish a research
paper. No prior knowledge is needed.
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
1. outline a complete research paper
2. choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit
the finished paper for publication
3. prepare a checklist that will allow you to
independently judge whether your paper is ready to
submit.
If an audio or video stops, simply restart your browser.
This rarely occurs, but restarted often works.
The research question is the most crucial element of any academic paper and the first and most important stage in the publication process. A paper with results that are unoriginal, predictable, or trivial is less likely to be published.
The document provides an overview of the research process for writing a research paper. It discusses what research is and is not, how to choose a topic, where to begin the research process, evaluating sources, and examples of credible sources. Some key points covered include:
- A research paper requires investigating and evaluating sources to offer interpretations rather than just summarizing sources.
- Initial research topics may change as research is conducted.
- There is no single template for writing a research paper; it is a process of practice, experience, and organization.
- Students need to pay attention to the assignment, topic, audience, and skills like outlining and revising.
- Evaluating the quality, validity, and credibility
How to publish_paper_in_journal_a69e887c16ae8baa32e4a332eeb9721eKæsy Chaudhari
This document provides advice on how to publish scientific research in a high-impact journal. It discusses choosing an important research topic and question, conducting rigorous research with a sound study design, writing the manuscript clearly and following the journal's structure, and choosing an appropriate target journal. Key steps include performing novel, high-quality research with a well-designed study, writing the manuscript and other components like the title, abstract and cover letter effectively, and submitting to a journal that is a good match for the research. The document offers tips on common reasons for rejection and revising a manuscript based on peer review comments to improve the chances of eventual publication.
Most physicians have had little or no exposure to systematic teaching or training during the medical school and residency with respect to writing and publishing an original research article. The framework of every article should include the study objective(s), study design, results, and conclusion(s). The current "Clinical Opinion" article proposes a set of guidelines, based on the authors’ experience, which can be useful to junior physicians who plan to publish their work. These guidelines should assist not only in the writing process of the initial manuscript but also in responding to reviews and in modifying the original manuscript.
The document discusses the scientific method and provides steps to follow for a science fair project. It explains that the scientific method involves asking a question and developing a hypothesis to test through experimentation. It notes that not all areas of science can be directly experimented on. The steps provided are: 1) Ask a question 2) Do background research 3) Construct a hypothesis 4) Test the hypothesis through experimentation 5) Analyze data and draw a conclusion 6) Communicate results. It also discusses elements of an effective research proposal such as background, problem statement, objectives, significance, limitations, definitions, literature review, and methodology. Finally, it discusses computer search as an important data collection method for distant learners due to access to vast
This document provides guidance on identifying research gaps for a PhD dissertation literature review. It defines a research gap as an unexplored area that has potential for further study. It recommends identifying a motivating research question, reviewing literature keywords, and analyzing what issues have not been sufficiently addressed. Methods to find gaps include checking journal websites, using digital tools to analyze popular topics, and noting questions that arise while reading literature. Studying questions in-depth and discussing them with advisors can help prevent duplicating existing work and find gaps suitable for an original dissertation topic. Maintaining records of questions and gaps found is also suggested. The document stresses the importance of selecting a gap that genuinely interests the researcher and can be feasibly studied within time and resource
99The word research has many meanings ranging from visions.docxevonnehoggarth79783
99
The word research has many meanings ranging from visions of scien-
tists working in labs to students reading piles of articles and books.
The primary focus of this chapter is on students’ process of research
and incorporating that research into academic writing. An important
concept related to research is that it is a process, not a single action.
The process includes the following:
●● Developing a research plan
●● Finding research related to a topic
●● Evaluating the credibility of sources
●● Taking notes
●● Integrating the research into your writing
Knowing this process allows students to allocate their research
time accordingly. Let’s dig into the research process and explore
what’s available to you at the Kaplan University library.
T ypes of ReseaRch
Before beginning the research process, it is important to identify and
understand the two major types of research: primary and second-
ary. Primary research involves using firsthand sources for informa-
tion, where the material comes directly from an expert, researcher, or
writer. Primary research is the most credible type of research because
the information is original, and you, the researcher, will be the one
chapteR 11
ReseaRch
caRolYn steVenson
100 Rese aRching, oUTlining, and cR af Ting yoUR essay
to gather and analyze the information. Examples of primary research
include interviews, surveys, originally authored articles, witness
reports, and court records. If you write a research paper that includes
an interview with an expert in the field, the paper is considered pri-
mary research.
Conversely, secondary research involves using information that
relies on primary research. Referencing someone else’s work (which
is based on a primary source) is secondary research. Examples of sec-
ondary research include citing statistics gathered by a university or
organization, referring to an individual’s quote found in a periodical
article or popular media, and book reviews or critiques. Table 11.1
notes common sources for the two types of research.
Table 11.1 T ypes of ReseaRch
PRIMARY RESEARCH SECONDARY RESEARCH
�
Original writing References to others’ work
Witnesses Items found in popular media
Diaries Journal articles that reference others’ work
Interviews Newspaper articles that reference others’ work
Surveys Data results quoted in another source
Fieldwork Book reviews or critiques
Court records
You can use both types of research, primary and secondary, in
your writing; the variety of using both types of sources adds valid-
ity and depth to the paper. You determine the need for either type of
research in your research plan.
101Rese aRch
developing a ReseaRch plan
Developing a research plan is the first phase in the research process.
A well-organized research plan provides a “road map” for the journey
of researching and writing. Taking time at the beginning of the proj-
ect assists in providing an organized structure n.
The document provides templates for critiquing quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research studies. The quantitative template includes sections for evaluating the research problem, hypotheses, literature review, theoretical framework, population and sampling, measurement instruments, data collection and analysis, results, discussion, limitations, implications, and recommendations. The qualitative template contains similar sections tailored for qualitative research, and the mixed methods template combines both quantitative and qualitative elements. The templates are intended to help nurses critically evaluate research to inform their practice.
This document outlines the structure and contents of a research proposal on the topic of factors influencing learning patterns among students. It includes sections on the background, problem statement, research questions and objectives, significance and scope of the study, and the research methodology. The research methodology section describes the study area, research design and approach, data collection sources and instruments, sampling techniques, validity and analysis methods. Overall, the proposal lays out a plan to examine how socioeconomic factors may impact academic performance and identifies gaps in existing literature on this topic to be addressed by the proposed study.
This document discusses what research is and provides definitions from dictionaries. It states that research involves studying something thoroughly to find answers to questions. The document then discusses what is included in typical parts of a research paper such as the title page, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, references and appendixes. It explains that writing research papers is important as it teaches investigative and inquiry skills, builds career skills, and teaches critical thinking and logic. Overall, the document provides an overview of what research is and highlights the key components and benefits of writing a research paper.
This document discusses what research is and provides definitions from dictionaries. It states that research involves studying something thoroughly to find answers to questions. Research involves using systematic methods to better understand events, problems or phenomena. It can also be defined as a careful consideration of a particular issue using scientific methods. The document then discusses key parts of a typical research paper such as the title page, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, references and appendix. It explains what is included in each section. Finally, it discusses some of the most important advantages of writing a research paper, including that it teaches investigative skills, inquiry-based techniques, career skills, critical thinking, logic and the basic ingredients of argument.
Ethics & Review of the Literature in Research .RaedMusili1
This document discusses the review of literature for a research project. It begins by outlining basic ethical principles and considerations for research involving children. It then discusses the importance of conducting a literature review to learn what previous research has found and identify gaps. The document outlines the types of sources that can be reviewed, including primary and secondary sources. It provides steps for conducting a literature search, including defining the problem, searching references and databases, and obtaining relevant sources. Finally, it discusses writing the literature review report, which summarizes and synthesizes the findings from the reviewed sources.
How to write a Research Paper1. Discussion (How to write a Resea.docxpooleavelina
How to write a Research Paper
1. Discussion (How to write a Research Paper) begins during Residency 10/12 – 10/14
2. Research Paper + Assignment Paper #2 Due 10/21/2018
Research papers are intended to demonstrate a student’s academic knowledge of a subject. When studying at higher levels of school and throughout college, you will likely be asked to prepare research papers. A research paper can be used for exploring and identifying scientific, technical and social issues. If it's your first time writing a research paper, it may seem daunting, but with good organization and focus of mind, you can make the process easier on yourself. Writing a research paper involves four main stages: choosing a topic, researching your topic, making an outline, and doing the actual writing. The paper won't write itself, but by planning and preparing well, the writing practically falls into place. Also, try to avoid plagiarism.
· Abstract - An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose.
· Background of the Problem - Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research problem with reference to the existing literature. The background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied, appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice, its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to address.
· Problem Statement - A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s) to be addressed by a problem-solving team. It is used to center and focus the team at the beginning, keep the team on track during the effort, and is used to validate that the effort delivered an outcome that solves the problem statement
· Purpose Statement - A purpose statement is a declarative sentence which summarizes the specific topic and goals of a document. It is typically included in the introduction to give the reader an accurate, concrete understanding what the document will cover and what he/she can gain from reading it. To be effective, a statement of purpose should be:
· Nature of the Study - In modern science, all findings are usually required by the research community to be backed up by sound statistical evidence. The target audience... The nature of a study in social sciences research may refer to the statistical design of the study
· Research Question - A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting
· Interview Questions
· Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations –
· Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot con ...
This document provides guidelines for writing a thesis report, including the typical sections and content. It outlines that the introduction should state the problem, justify the study, list the aims and objectives, and propose the research hypothesis. The literature review involves collecting and summarizing previous relevant studies. The materials and methods, results, discussion, and conclusion sections describe the research process and findings. References must be cited properly using the American Psychological Association style. Key elements like tables and figures should be included appropriately. Researchers are advised to follow the postgraduate school's guidelines for thesis format and referencing.
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
This editorial provides advice to beginners on writing research papers for publication. It emphasizes that papers should be structured with an introduction that establishes the research question, a methods section that explains how the question was examined, a results section that presents relevant findings, and a discussion that interprets the results in relation to the question. The research question should be specific, novel, and relevant to the field. While the structure and content of each section is important, common mistakes like poor English language skills, selective or disorganized reporting of results, and failure to establish the question or acknowledge limitations also need to be avoided. Following the provided guidance on paper components, referencing, and addressing common errors can help novice writers produce clear, high-quality research
This document provides guidance on how to write an effective critical literature review. It discusses the key aspects of undertaking a literature review, including defining what a literature review is, the purposes of doing one, and when they are required. It outlines the process from conducting searches to analyzing and sorting the literature found. Some key tips include developing an analytical framework to compare sources, focusing the review around key themes or issues, and presenting the review in a structured narrative format with an introduction, body, and conclusion. The goal is to produce an original, analytical review that critically analyzes and synthesizes the existing literature rather than just describing or listing previous works.
Review of Related LiteratureAt this point you should make an ini.docxronak56
Review of Related Literature
At this point you should make an initial foray into the professional literature, the formal record of other people’s experiences, to try to better understand the problem on which you are focusing. The literature may suggest other ways of looking at your problem and help you to identify potential promising practices that you might use in your classroom to correct the problem. To borrow the words of Kemmis (1988), “Can existing research throw any light on your situation and help you see it more clearly?” (p. 55).
Reviewing the literature is a valuable contribution to the action research process that could actually save you time. Often, teacher researchers think that they know what their problem is but become stymied in the process because they weren’t really sure what they were asking. Taking time to immerse yourself in the literature allows you to reflect on your own problems through someone else’s lens. You can locate yourself within the research literature and find support for what you are doing or be challenged by what other researchers have done and how they have tackled a particular problem.
At the end of the process, you ought to be informed enough about the literature that you could talk to colleagues about the major themes that emerged. Similarly, you should be able to talk about “promising practices” that were discussed.
Sometimes, teacher researchers will claim that they cannot find any published research related to their area of focus. This invariably leads to questions of relevance and importance. After all, if nobody else has researched the problem, perhaps it is not worthy of investigation! However, as the following personal and serious illustration demonstrates, lack of published research on a topic does not mean that the topic is not important. About 15 years ago my son, who was five years old at the time, inexplicably began to pass blood in his urine—a pretty scary sight for any parent. After many invasive medical tests over a six-month period, we finally opted for a procedure that required general anesthesia in order to determine the cause of the blood. The surgeon emerged from the operating room and pronounced, “I have some good news, and I have some bad news!” The good news was that the surgeon was able to diagnose the cause of the internal bleeding—a rare, benign, and non-life-threatening condition called trigonitis. The bad news was that the surgeon was unable to tell us why our son had developed the condition or how to treat it! I was shocked at this revelation from the surgeon, a pediatric urology specialist. How could my son be bleeding internally and there not be a medical explanation? The surgeon responded that, because the condition was rare, benign, and non-life-threatening, it simply did not warrant research! My point here is not to be melodramatic but rather to make a case for the importance of your own research, regardless of whether it has been researched (and published) by other pr ...
This document discusses literature reviews and their importance in research. It begins by explaining that a literature review is an essential preliminary task that acquaints the researcher with existing knowledge in their field. The functions of a literature review are then outlined as bringing clarity and focus to the research problem, improving methodology, broadening the researcher's knowledge, and contextualizing findings. The document provides guidance on how to conduct a literature review, including searching literature sources, reviewing selected literature, developing a theoretical framework, and creating a conceptual framework. It emphasizes that a literature review is time-consuming but rewarding for strengthening a research study.
Do Yourself a Favor…
Learn HOW to Publish A Research
Paper
(50% off Coupon)
https://www.udemy.com/scientific-research-paper/?couponCode=UNCEDU
Take an opportunity to “Learn to Publish A Research
Paper”. Add value to research skills and knowledge today!
I’m excited to help you add value to your capabilities by
adding skills and knowledge our course provides in your as
you move up your ladder. Upon successful completion of
our course, more and more people realize just how capable
they really are. This course is meant for beginners that are
not familiar with Research Journals and/or students
looking for a quick refresher on how to publish a research
paper. No prior knowledge is needed.
At the end of this course, students will be able to:
1. outline a complete research paper
2. choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit
the finished paper for publication
3. prepare a checklist that will allow you to
independently judge whether your paper is ready to
submit.
If an audio or video stops, simply restart your browser.
This rarely occurs, but restarted often works.
The research question is the most crucial element of any academic paper and the first and most important stage in the publication process. A paper with results that are unoriginal, predictable, or trivial is less likely to be published.
The document provides an overview of the research process for writing a research paper. It discusses what research is and is not, how to choose a topic, where to begin the research process, evaluating sources, and examples of credible sources. Some key points covered include:
- A research paper requires investigating and evaluating sources to offer interpretations rather than just summarizing sources.
- Initial research topics may change as research is conducted.
- There is no single template for writing a research paper; it is a process of practice, experience, and organization.
- Students need to pay attention to the assignment, topic, audience, and skills like outlining and revising.
- Evaluating the quality, validity, and credibility
How to publish_paper_in_journal_a69e887c16ae8baa32e4a332eeb9721eKæsy Chaudhari
This document provides advice on how to publish scientific research in a high-impact journal. It discusses choosing an important research topic and question, conducting rigorous research with a sound study design, writing the manuscript clearly and following the journal's structure, and choosing an appropriate target journal. Key steps include performing novel, high-quality research with a well-designed study, writing the manuscript and other components like the title, abstract and cover letter effectively, and submitting to a journal that is a good match for the research. The document offers tips on common reasons for rejection and revising a manuscript based on peer review comments to improve the chances of eventual publication.
Most physicians have had little or no exposure to systematic teaching or training during the medical school and residency with respect to writing and publishing an original research article. The framework of every article should include the study objective(s), study design, results, and conclusion(s). The current "Clinical Opinion" article proposes a set of guidelines, based on the authors’ experience, which can be useful to junior physicians who plan to publish their work. These guidelines should assist not only in the writing process of the initial manuscript but also in responding to reviews and in modifying the original manuscript.
The document discusses the scientific method and provides steps to follow for a science fair project. It explains that the scientific method involves asking a question and developing a hypothesis to test through experimentation. It notes that not all areas of science can be directly experimented on. The steps provided are: 1) Ask a question 2) Do background research 3) Construct a hypothesis 4) Test the hypothesis through experimentation 5) Analyze data and draw a conclusion 6) Communicate results. It also discusses elements of an effective research proposal such as background, problem statement, objectives, significance, limitations, definitions, literature review, and methodology. Finally, it discusses computer search as an important data collection method for distant learners due to access to vast
This document provides guidance on identifying research gaps for a PhD dissertation literature review. It defines a research gap as an unexplored area that has potential for further study. It recommends identifying a motivating research question, reviewing literature keywords, and analyzing what issues have not been sufficiently addressed. Methods to find gaps include checking journal websites, using digital tools to analyze popular topics, and noting questions that arise while reading literature. Studying questions in-depth and discussing them with advisors can help prevent duplicating existing work and find gaps suitable for an original dissertation topic. Maintaining records of questions and gaps found is also suggested. The document stresses the importance of selecting a gap that genuinely interests the researcher and can be feasibly studied within time and resource
99The word research has many meanings ranging from visions.docxevonnehoggarth79783
99
The word research has many meanings ranging from visions of scien-
tists working in labs to students reading piles of articles and books.
The primary focus of this chapter is on students’ process of research
and incorporating that research into academic writing. An important
concept related to research is that it is a process, not a single action.
The process includes the following:
●● Developing a research plan
●● Finding research related to a topic
●● Evaluating the credibility of sources
●● Taking notes
●● Integrating the research into your writing
Knowing this process allows students to allocate their research
time accordingly. Let’s dig into the research process and explore
what’s available to you at the Kaplan University library.
T ypes of ReseaRch
Before beginning the research process, it is important to identify and
understand the two major types of research: primary and second-
ary. Primary research involves using firsthand sources for informa-
tion, where the material comes directly from an expert, researcher, or
writer. Primary research is the most credible type of research because
the information is original, and you, the researcher, will be the one
chapteR 11
ReseaRch
caRolYn steVenson
100 Rese aRching, oUTlining, and cR af Ting yoUR essay
to gather and analyze the information. Examples of primary research
include interviews, surveys, originally authored articles, witness
reports, and court records. If you write a research paper that includes
an interview with an expert in the field, the paper is considered pri-
mary research.
Conversely, secondary research involves using information that
relies on primary research. Referencing someone else’s work (which
is based on a primary source) is secondary research. Examples of sec-
ondary research include citing statistics gathered by a university or
organization, referring to an individual’s quote found in a periodical
article or popular media, and book reviews or critiques. Table 11.1
notes common sources for the two types of research.
Table 11.1 T ypes of ReseaRch
PRIMARY RESEARCH SECONDARY RESEARCH
�
Original writing References to others’ work
Witnesses Items found in popular media
Diaries Journal articles that reference others’ work
Interviews Newspaper articles that reference others’ work
Surveys Data results quoted in another source
Fieldwork Book reviews or critiques
Court records
You can use both types of research, primary and secondary, in
your writing; the variety of using both types of sources adds valid-
ity and depth to the paper. You determine the need for either type of
research in your research plan.
101Rese aRch
developing a ReseaRch plan
Developing a research plan is the first phase in the research process.
A well-organized research plan provides a “road map” for the journey
of researching and writing. Taking time at the beginning of the proj-
ect assists in providing an organized structure n.
The document provides templates for critiquing quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research studies. The quantitative template includes sections for evaluating the research problem, hypotheses, literature review, theoretical framework, population and sampling, measurement instruments, data collection and analysis, results, discussion, limitations, implications, and recommendations. The qualitative template contains similar sections tailored for qualitative research, and the mixed methods template combines both quantitative and qualitative elements. The templates are intended to help nurses critically evaluate research to inform their practice.
This document outlines the structure and contents of a research proposal on the topic of factors influencing learning patterns among students. It includes sections on the background, problem statement, research questions and objectives, significance and scope of the study, and the research methodology. The research methodology section describes the study area, research design and approach, data collection sources and instruments, sampling techniques, validity and analysis methods. Overall, the proposal lays out a plan to examine how socioeconomic factors may impact academic performance and identifies gaps in existing literature on this topic to be addressed by the proposed study.
This document discusses what research is and provides definitions from dictionaries. It states that research involves studying something thoroughly to find answers to questions. The document then discusses what is included in typical parts of a research paper such as the title page, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, references and appendixes. It explains that writing research papers is important as it teaches investigative and inquiry skills, builds career skills, and teaches critical thinking and logic. Overall, the document provides an overview of what research is and highlights the key components and benefits of writing a research paper.
This document discusses what research is and provides definitions from dictionaries. It states that research involves studying something thoroughly to find answers to questions. Research involves using systematic methods to better understand events, problems or phenomena. It can also be defined as a careful consideration of a particular issue using scientific methods. The document then discusses key parts of a typical research paper such as the title page, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, references and appendix. It explains what is included in each section. Finally, it discusses some of the most important advantages of writing a research paper, including that it teaches investigative skills, inquiry-based techniques, career skills, critical thinking, logic and the basic ingredients of argument.
Ethics & Review of the Literature in Research .RaedMusili1
This document discusses the review of literature for a research project. It begins by outlining basic ethical principles and considerations for research involving children. It then discusses the importance of conducting a literature review to learn what previous research has found and identify gaps. The document outlines the types of sources that can be reviewed, including primary and secondary sources. It provides steps for conducting a literature search, including defining the problem, searching references and databases, and obtaining relevant sources. Finally, it discusses writing the literature review report, which summarizes and synthesizes the findings from the reviewed sources.
How to write a Research Paper1. Discussion (How to write a Resea.docxpooleavelina
How to write a Research Paper
1. Discussion (How to write a Research Paper) begins during Residency 10/12 – 10/14
2. Research Paper + Assignment Paper #2 Due 10/21/2018
Research papers are intended to demonstrate a student’s academic knowledge of a subject. When studying at higher levels of school and throughout college, you will likely be asked to prepare research papers. A research paper can be used for exploring and identifying scientific, technical and social issues. If it's your first time writing a research paper, it may seem daunting, but with good organization and focus of mind, you can make the process easier on yourself. Writing a research paper involves four main stages: choosing a topic, researching your topic, making an outline, and doing the actual writing. The paper won't write itself, but by planning and preparing well, the writing practically falls into place. Also, try to avoid plagiarism.
· Abstract - An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose.
· Background of the Problem - Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research problem with reference to the existing literature. The background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied, appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice, its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated the problem, noting, in particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to address.
· Problem Statement - A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s) to be addressed by a problem-solving team. It is used to center and focus the team at the beginning, keep the team on track during the effort, and is used to validate that the effort delivered an outcome that solves the problem statement
· Purpose Statement - A purpose statement is a declarative sentence which summarizes the specific topic and goals of a document. It is typically included in the introduction to give the reader an accurate, concrete understanding what the document will cover and what he/she can gain from reading it. To be effective, a statement of purpose should be:
· Nature of the Study - In modern science, all findings are usually required by the research community to be backed up by sound statistical evidence. The target audience... The nature of a study in social sciences research may refer to the statistical design of the study
· Research Question - A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It focuses the study, determines the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting
· Interview Questions
· Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations –
· Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot con ...
This document provides guidelines for writing a thesis report, including the typical sections and content. It outlines that the introduction should state the problem, justify the study, list the aims and objectives, and propose the research hypothesis. The literature review involves collecting and summarizing previous relevant studies. The materials and methods, results, discussion, and conclusion sections describe the research process and findings. References must be cited properly using the American Psychological Association style. Key elements like tables and figures should be included appropriately. Researchers are advised to follow the postgraduate school's guidelines for thesis format and referencing.
JAMES WEBB STUDY THE MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SEEDSSérgio Sacani
The pathway(s) to seeding the massive black holes (MBHs) that exist at the heart of galaxies in the present and distant Universe remains an unsolved problem. Here we categorise, describe and quantitatively discuss the formation pathways of both light and heavy seeds. We emphasise that the most recent computational models suggest that rather than a bimodal-like mass spectrum between light and heavy seeds with light at one end and heavy at the other that instead a continuum exists. Light seeds being more ubiquitous and the heavier seeds becoming less and less abundant due the rarer environmental conditions required for their formation. We therefore examine the different mechanisms that give rise to different seed mass spectrums. We show how and why the mechanisms that produce the heaviest seeds are also among the rarest events in the Universe and are hence extremely unlikely to be the seeds for the vast majority of the MBH population. We quantify, within the limits of the current large uncertainties in the seeding processes, the expected number densities of the seed mass spectrum. We argue that light seeds must be at least 103 to 105 times more numerous than heavy seeds to explain the MBH population as a whole. Based on our current understanding of the seed population this makes heavy seeds (Mseed > 103 M⊙) a significantly more likely pathway given that heavy seeds have an abundance pattern than is close to and likely in excess of 10−4 compared to light seeds. Finally, we examine the current state-of-the-art in numerical calculations and recent observations and plot a path forward for near-future advances in both domains.
PPT on Alternate Wetting and Drying presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Mechanisms and Applications of Antiviral Neutralizing Antibodies - Creative B...Creative-Biolabs
Neutralizing antibodies, pivotal in immune defense, specifically bind and inhibit viral pathogens, thereby playing a crucial role in protecting against and mitigating infectious diseases. In this slide, we will introduce what antibodies and neutralizing antibodies are, the production and regulation of neutralizing antibodies, their mechanisms of action, classification and applications, as well as the challenges they face.
Anti-Universe And Emergent Gravity and the Dark UniverseSérgio Sacani
Recent theoretical progress indicates that spacetime and gravity emerge together from the entanglement structure of an underlying microscopic theory. These ideas are best understood in Anti-de Sitter space, where they rely on the area law for entanglement entropy. The extension to de Sitter space requires taking into account the entropy and temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Using insights from string theory, black hole physics and quantum information theory we argue that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal volume law contribution to the entropy that overtakes the area law precisely at the cosmological horizon. Due to the competition between area and volume law entanglement the microscopic de Sitter states do not thermalise at sub-Hubble scales: they exhibit memory effects in the form of an entropy displacement caused by matter. The emergent laws of gravity contain an additional ‘dark’ gravitational force describing the ‘elastic’ response due to the entropy displacement. We derive an estimate of the strength of this extra force in terms of the baryonic mass, Newton’s constant and the Hubble acceleration scale a0 = cH0, and provide evidence for the fact that this additional ‘dark gravity force’ explains the observed phenomena in galaxies and clusters currently attributed to dark matter.
Candidate young stellar objects in the S-cluster: Kinematic analysis of a sub...Sérgio Sacani
Context. The observation of several L-band emission sources in the S cluster has led to a rich discussion of their nature. However, a definitive answer to the classification of the dusty objects requires an explanation for the detection of compact Doppler-shifted Brγ emission. The ionized hydrogen in combination with the observation of mid-infrared L-band continuum emission suggests that most of these sources are embedded in a dusty envelope. These embedded sources are part of the S-cluster, and their relationship to the S-stars is still under debate. To date, the question of the origin of these two populations has been vague, although all explanations favor migration processes for the individual cluster members. Aims. This work revisits the S-cluster and its dusty members orbiting the supermassive black hole SgrA* on bound Keplerian orbits from a kinematic perspective. The aim is to explore the Keplerian parameters for patterns that might imply a nonrandom distribution of the sample. Additionally, various analytical aspects are considered to address the nature of the dusty sources. Methods. Based on the photometric analysis, we estimated the individual H−K and K−L colors for the source sample and compared the results to known cluster members. The classification revealed a noticeable contrast between the S-stars and the dusty sources. To fit the flux-density distribution, we utilized the radiative transfer code HYPERION and implemented a young stellar object Class I model. We obtained the position angle from the Keplerian fit results; additionally, we analyzed the distribution of the inclinations and the longitudes of the ascending node. Results. The colors of the dusty sources suggest a stellar nature consistent with the spectral energy distribution in the near and midinfrared domains. Furthermore, the evaporation timescales of dusty and gaseous clumps in the vicinity of SgrA* are much shorter ( 2yr) than the epochs covered by the observations (≈15yr). In addition to the strong evidence for the stellar classification of the D-sources, we also find a clear disk-like pattern following the arrangements of S-stars proposed in the literature. Furthermore, we find a global intrinsic inclination for all dusty sources of 60 ± 20◦, implying a common formation process. Conclusions. The pattern of the dusty sources manifested in the distribution of the position angles, inclinations, and longitudes of the ascending node strongly suggests two different scenarios: the main-sequence stars and the dusty stellar S-cluster sources share a common formation history or migrated with a similar formation channel in the vicinity of SgrA*. Alternatively, the gravitational influence of SgrA* in combination with a massive perturber, such as a putative intermediate mass black hole in the IRS 13 cluster, forces the dusty objects and S-stars to follow a particular orbital arrangement. Key words. stars: black holes– stars: formation– Galaxy: center– galaxies: star formation
PPT on Sustainable Land Management presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
2. are likely to be useful to patients in their care. Unfortu-
nately, reading a research paper is hard work and it takes
time to do well. Not all research work is of high quality,
and it is helpful to decide if the quality of the study merits
reading the paper. Judging the quality of a research paper
is important to the potential reader for several other rea-
sons. Since time for reading is limited and attention span
is short, the first task of an efficient reader is to select
quality reports. The second important reader task is to read
the selected papers efficiently. Most casual readers prefer
brief summaries of new thoughts and ideas rather than
tackling a detailed description of the scientific study that
led to the advance. However, to achieve understanding at
a deeper level demands accessing and reading the primary
data sources. This level of involvement also leads to more
pleasure as command of a field of knowledge develops in
the reader. Further reading and understanding builds on
past mastery, and continued study becomes second nature
rather that a duty or task to be accomplished. However,
there is never enough time, and proper selection and sys-
tematic reading are important skills to develop.
Selecting a Research Paper to Read
The first question a reader must answer is, “Why read
this research paper at all?” As part of lifelong learning,
most clinicians use several methods to keep up with cur-
rent published information. Subjects of particular and con-
tinuing interest are often approached with broad electronic
searches of medical information databases, such as the
National Institute of Medicine’s MEDLINE. A successful
search strategy can be automated and deliver updated re-
sults via e-mail, identifying potentially useful papers on a
routine basis. Another way to keep up is to review the
table of contents of current medical journals for titles that
may be of interest. Table 2 lists several reasons why peo-
ple may decide to read a particular paper. While all of
these reasons have some validity, only readers with pre-
vious understanding and interest in the subject are likely to
devote the energy necessary to complete the reading task.
In fact, if the paper appears to disprove a strongly held
belief, it will generate the most attention in the reader.
Another reason that may attract a reader is if the paper
appears to support the reader’s bias. This provides only
mild interest, as no personal challenge is apparent. If the
paper is “assigned,” it will be read but without a personal
commitment to the content. The exercise will increase
critical reading skills but will probably not change under-
standing of the subject. It can, of course, provide the back-
ground for paper selection in the future and should be
encouraged when time and effort is available (as in struc-
tured classroom learning or at a journal club).
Organization of Research Papers
Research papers are rigidly constructed. Science editors
require that submitted papers conform to universal guide-
lines and style. This is fortunate for the reader, as this
predictable organization allows a consistent approach to
reading and evaluating a research paper. All research pa-
pers will include a title and abstract, as well as the fol-
lowing separate sections: Introduction (or Background),
Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusions. Additional
information will include a list of references or endnotes,
institutional affiliation of the authors, if the material has
previously been presented in another form elsewhere, and
grant support (if any). This organization scheme is sum-
marized in Table 3. The names of the separate parts may
be different in different journals, but there is an expecta-
tion of similar content. Details of this standard organiza-
tion and other useful information about scientific publica-
tions can be found in the International Committee of
Medical Journal Editors’ “Uniform Requirements for
Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals: Writing
and Editing for Biomedical Publication.”12 Specific jour-
nals may have slightly different requirements for content
organization, and these details can be found in the “In-
Table 1. Necessary Competencies of Lifelong Learning
Critical and creative thinking
Problem analysis
Gathering and organizing information
Abstract reasoning
Interpretive and assessment skills
Insight and intuition in generating knowledge
Effective communication
Information literacy competency, which consists of the following
abilities
To recognize the need for information
To know how to access information
To understand how to evaluate information
To know how to synthesize information
To be able to communicate information
Table 2. Why Read a Particular Article?
It’s an area of science or practice with which you are already quite
familiar and have an active interest
The title suggests the paper supports your bias
The title suggests it may disprove your belief
It appears to be an area in which you know little, and want to know
more
It could it provide a solution for a clinical issue you are currently
facing
You know nothing about the subject but have a desire to improve your
knowledge
It was assigned to you to be read
HOW TO READ A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PAPER
RESPIRATORY CARE • OCTOBER 2009 VOL 54 NO 10 1367
3. structions for Authors,” often published in the January
issue or at the journal’s Web home page. In addition, other
important requirements, such as listing of authors’ insti-
tutional affiliations, reporting of conflict of interests, for-
matting requirements, and qualifications to be included as
an author are detailed. For the journal RESPIRATORY CARE
these instructions can be found at the Web site http://
www.rcjournal.com.13
What’s in a Title?
Often the most helpful part of a paper is the title. This
is what attracts the reader in the first place, and it is also
where search engines look for key words and for topics. A
poorly descriptive title may hide an important experiment
from the reader or may not even accurately identify the
subject matter. The best titles will tell the prospective
reader a great deal about the study and allow quick dis-
missal or inclusion for further attention. Some titles will
offer little useful information but only whet the reader’s
appetite.7 The efficient reader prefers the most descriptive
titles. For instance a paper entitled “Mechanical ventila-
tion guided by esophageal pressure in acute lung injury”14
tells the reader in general what this paper is about. Impor-
tantly, it does not tell the reader the study was in human
subjects. Also missing is the fact that the study is a ran-
domized, prospective, controlled study that demonstrated
better oxygenation and pulmonary compliance when pos-
itive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) was applied guided
by esophageal pressure rather that proximal airway pres-
sure. Also not included in this title is fact that no important
clinical outcome benefit (survival or length of stay) was
seen. While it is unlikely that all of these facts would
appear in a title, some additional information could have
saved the reader time in ferreting out these details. This
same title could be used for a paper studying laboratory
animals, not humans, it could have been a review article,
or an editorial. Whether to read this article or not requires
more attention and further investigation to decide. If the
title had been, “Outcome of mechanical ventilation guided
by esophageal pressure in patients with acute respiratory
distress syndrome (ARDS): a randomized controlled
study,” even the casual reader would immediately have a
better understanding of the content of this paper.
The Usefulness of the Abstract and
an Approach to Reading It
After the title, the abstract is the next most important
part of the paper to examine. Many journals now require a
structured abstract with separate subheadings, allowing the
reader quickly to identify the important parts of the study.
Most structured abstracts contain the following sections:
Background (or Hypothesis), Methods, Results, and Con-
clusions. While some will read the abstract from the be-
ginning, an efficient reader will begin with the abstract’s
Conclusions first. This section should provide the most
important facts found in the study, which can then help
decide whether to read the entire abstract and, ultimately,
the paper. Abstracts of most science papers are available
online for free and can be identified and viewed with most
search engines. Many bibliographic databases limit the
number of words reported in an abstract, so some of the
details of the paper will be omitted from the electronic
abstract. Extraordinarily long abstracts may be truncated at
a specific word limit (usually 250–300 words) and will be
missing important parts of the abstract. This is unfortunate
and limits the reader’s ability to screen papers via elec-
tronic abstract alone. The utility of a well constructed
abstract is illustrated in Figure 1, which was obtained
through the public portal of the National Library of Med-
icine and the National Institutes of Health (http://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed) for the article on esophageal-
pressure-directed PEEP mentioned above.14 If this abstract
Table 3. Research Papers Have Identifiable Components and Are
Rigidly Organized
Title
Authors
Affiliation and author contact Information
Grant support (conflict of interest)
Previous presentation of data (if appropriate)
Abstract
Introduction (background or hypothesis)
(Setting or subjects)
Methods
Results
Major conclusions
Introduction
Background information
Statement of study purpose or hypothesis
Methods
Details of study
Statistical tests chosen and decided level for significance
Results
Summary of all results
Figures
Tables
Discussion
Background
Limitations
Differences from previous similar studies
Supporting evidence from other studies
Meaning of results
Speculation of importance (or lack thereof)
Future work recommendations
References
Additional contributors not qualifying as primary authors
Audience discussion (if a report of a conference presentation)
HOW TO READ A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PAPER
1368 RESPIRATORY CARE • OCTOBER 2009 VOL 54 NO 10
4. had been truncated at 250 words the entire abstract Con-
clusions section would have been deleted (Fig. 2).
The important results from the experiment are high-
lighted in the abstract’s Conclusions section. In the exam-
ple presented above, the statement “a ventilator strategy
using esophageal pressures to estimate the transpulmonary
pressure significantly improves oxygenation and compli-
ance” should attract the acute-care respiratory therapist’s
attention and identify the need for more information. The
abstract is not read in order, and the next section of interest
will be the abstract’s Methods section (Table 4). From this
section of the abstract it is now clear that this is a study of
humans with ARDS and it was prospective and random-
ized—qualities that significantly enhance the strength of
the experimental data obtained. With a prior background
understanding of how difficult it is to accurately measure
esophageal pressure, the therapist reader is most likely to
want to read more about the study than is presented in the
abstract. After quickly reviewing the abstract’s Results
section (Fig. 3), the question “Why was the study termi-
nated prematurely?” can be answered only by a more de-
tailed analysis of the entire paper.
To recap, a structured abstract often helps the reader
decide if the entire paper should be considered at all. Read-
ing the abstract’s Conclusions section first may allow the
reader to reject the paper or it may lead to an increased
interest in the details of the experiment. The abstract’s
Methods section may answer the question why not to read
the paper, or it may strengthen the interest in learning
more details of the study. For a novice reader the abstract’s
Introduction or Background section may provide a useful
overview of the problem but will not help the critical
reader who will want to proceed to the actual article for
further details, and may be skipped. When reading the
body of the paper, it is often helpful to have a copy of the
abstract physically (or electronically) at hand to compare
to the more expanded sections to confirm that the relevant
information is consistent in both places. It is also useful to
note any questions that were raised and be sure answers
have been found when reading the full paper.
How to Read the Actual Paper
Once a decision is made to read the paper, the first
section that needs consideration is the Methods section.
Fig. 1. Abstract of an article downloaded from the public portal of
the National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of
Health.
Fig. 2. Truncation of the abstract may lead to loss of important
information. Italicized words, including the entire conclusion, would
be omitted with truncation at 250 words.
Table 4. Suggested Order of Reading of a Research Paper
Title
Abstract conclusion
Abstract methods
Abstract results
Methods
Results
Introduction (optional)
Discussion (optional)
Fig. 3. Abstract “Results” raise questions (italicized).
HOW TO READ A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH PAPER
RESPIRATORY CARE • OCTOBER 2009 VOL 54 NO 10 1369
5. Since an understanding of the results began when reading
the abstract, the Methods section will require a careful
examination to determine if the study could answer the
research question posed. If not already apparent, the reader
should determine the hypotheses being tested with the ex-
periment. By explicitly stating the implied hypotheses, the
reader can judge the potential for success of the experi-
ment and assess if correct statistical methods were used.15
Careful reading of the Methods section should allow this
determination to be made. This section should provide the
details needed to understand the experiment and describe
the procedures with enough detail that someone else could
exactly repeat the study. If this is not true and important
details are missing, the reader should note these and con-
tinue to search other parts of the paper to determine if
these details of the experimental design can be ascertained.
Some details may be found hidden in the Results section,
and occasionally in the Discussion. If important details are
not found and they may have affected the outcome of the
experiment, the reader should consider writing a letter to
the editor, identifying these deficiencies and describing
how they may have affected the reported results. This
critical response often elicits an author’s response acknowl-
edging the issues or providing further information clarify-
ing the experiment. The ability to publicly question an
author and receive a published response is the heart of the
scientific reporting that uses challenge and refinement to
create new ideas and move knowledge forward.
The Results section should be read next, with careful
attention to the figures and tables. Each element of data
described in the Methods section should be reported in the
Results section, either in the text or in figures or tables. No
interpretations of the data should be reported in the Results
section, but statistical analysis and probabilities of differ-
ence should be reported here. To understand the choice of
a statistical test requires understanding of the hypothesis
being tested.16 Although not a required part of the paper,
a simple declarative statement of the hypothesis is very
helpful in understanding the experiment and evaluating its
results, as was mentioned above. In the example paper
referred to above, the reader could deduce that one hy-
pothesis being tested was, “In ventilating patients with
ARDS or acute lung injury, that PEEP guided by esoph-
ageal pressure rather than by the ARDS Network guide-
lines will result in a higher oxygenation index (at 24, 48,
or 72 h).” An appropriate statistical test for this hypothesis
might be a Student’s t test, which is used to compare group
average differences of continuous, numeric variables. It is
beyond the scope of this paper to discuss statistical meth-
ods, but the reader should develop a familiarity with com-
mon tests and when they should (and should not) be ap-
plied. Some of these are listed in Table 5. An introduction
to statistical methods can be found in an article by Chat-
burn.17 Texts such as Statistical Reasoning in Medicine:
The Intuitive P-Value Primer, by Moyé,18 and Primer of
Biostatistics by Glantz,19 as well as other texts, offer sup-
port for the beginner and advanced reader in understand-
ing and applying statistical tests to medical information.
As mentioned above, a critical reader should decide if
the statistical test and level of significance are appropriate
for the experiment as described. In complex studies with
unusual statistical analyses, the editor of the journal usu-
ally employs a statistician to verify that the correct test is
chosen and the analysis accurate. Sometimes one of the
authors is a statistician, suggesting that a complex analysis
was chosen and performed in a suitable way. This may not
help the reader’s understanding of the test, but may reas-
sure the reader that appropriate statistical oversight was
applied. As a rule of thumb (from a statistically challenged
reader—me), if a study needs a highly complex analysis to
achieve mathematical significance, then the clinical utility
of the study results are probably not very important.
If after reading the Methods and Results sections it is
still not clear what the hypotheses being tested were, the
Introduction (or Background) section may provide clues.
This section should be read at this time, or earlier if fer-
reting out the hypotheses. By this time the value of further
investigation (or not) of the paper should be apparent to
the reader. Either there are glaring problems with the study
Table 5. Basic Statistics Used in Scientific Publications
Descriptive statistics
Tables
Graphs
Percentages
Sensitivity and specificity
Mean, median, range, and standard deviation
Inferential statistics (hypothesis testing)
Procedures for nominal data
Fisher’s exact test (2 groups, 2 outcomes)
Chi-square test (several groups and several outcomes, unmatched
data)
McNemar test (several groups and several outcomes, matched
data)
Procedures for ordinal data (testing for differences between 2
groups of data)
Mann-Whitney rank sum test (unmatched data)
Wilcoxon signed rank test (matched data)
Procedures for continuous data
Pearson correlation coefficient (for testing the strength of the
association between 2 variables)
Linear regression (for predicting the value of one variable based
on the value of one or more other measured variables)
t test (testing for differences between the mean values of 2
groups of data)
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (testing for differences among the
mean values of several groups of data)
(Based on information in Reference 10.)
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1370 RESPIRATORY CARE • OCTOBER 2009 VOL 54 NO 10
6. that must be answered or it is to be accepted as valid, at
least on some points. To continue the reading process, the
Discussion section is read next. Here the rules are less
rigid; comparative analysis of others’ work, and specula-
tion, are usually permitted.10 The author should self-report
shortcomings and limitations in the study and attempt to
explain why his results might be different from those re-
ported by others. No new data should be revealed in this
section, and no information from the other sections should
be repeated. Often this section ends with a brief restate-
ment of the major conclusions (some journals require a
separate Conclusions section). The conclusions here should
be only those actually tested in the study and confirmed to
be valid by statistical analysis, and are often identical to
those in the abstract.
When the reader has completed reading part or most of
the article, it should be “filed” in memory and kept avail-
able for use later. “Memory” can be the reader’s cortex or
an actual physical location. An organized filing system can
be very useful at this point, to allow information retrieval
in the future.
Summary
The process of acquiring new information and creating
knowledge is complex and heavily depends on reading
scientific reports. Developing a reading method aimed at
efficiently deciding to stop reading a paper as rapidly as
possible has been the purpose of this discussion. The rigid
and predictable structure of scientific writing helps with
this task.
REFERENCES
1. University of Calgary Information Literacy Group. Information lit-
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ilg/workdef.html. Accessed August 10, 2009.
2. Chatburn RL. How to find the best evidence. Respir Care 2009;
54(10):1360-1365.
3. Rau JL. Searching the literature and selecting the right references.
Respir Care 2004;49(10):1242-1245.
4. Hess DR. Information retrieval in respiratory care: tips to locate what
you need to know. Respir Care 2004;49(4):389-399; discussion 399-
400.
5. Pierson DJ. Research and publication in respiratory care. Respir Care
2004;49(10):1145-1148.
6. Hess DR. Retrospective studies and chart reviews. Respir Care 2004;
49(10):1171-1174.
7. Branson RD. Anatomy of a research paper. Respir Care 2004;49(10):
1222-1228.
8. Kallet RH. How to write the methods section of a research paper.
Respir Care 2004;49(10):1229-1232.
9. Durbin CG Jr. Effective use of tables and figures in abstracts, pre-
sentations, and papers. Respir Care 2004;49(10):1233-1237.
10. Hess DR. How to write an effective discussion. Respir Care 2004;
49(10):1238-1244.
11. Pierson DJ. The top 10 reasons why manuscripts are not accepted for
publication. Respir Care 2004;49(10):1246-1252.
12. International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Uniform re-
quirements for manuscripts submitted to biomedical journals: writ-
ing and editing for biomedical publication. Publication ethics: spon-
sorship, authorship, and accountability. Updated October 2008. http://
www.icmje.org. Accessed August 10, 2009.
13. General manuscript guidelines for Respiratory Care. http://www.
rcjournal.com/guidelines_for_authors/general_guidelines.cfm. Ac-
cessed August 10, 2009.
14. Talmor D, Sarge T, Malhotra A, O’Donnell CR, Ritz R, Lisbon A,
et al. Mechanical ventilation guided by esophageal pressure in acute
lung injury. N Engl J Med 2008;359(20):2095-2104.
15. Durbin CG Jr. How to come up with a good research question:
framing the hypothesis. Respir Care 2004;49(10):1195-1198.
16. Meadows KA. So you want to do research? 2: Developing the re-
search question. Br J Community Nurs 2003;8(9):397-403.
17. Chatburn RL. Overview of respiratory care research. Respir Care
2004;49(10):1149-1156.
18. Moyé LA, editor. Statistical reasoning in medicine: the intuitive
P-value primer, 2nd edition. New York: Springer-Verlag; 2006.
19. Glantz SA, editor. Primer of biostatistics, 6th edition. New York:
McGraw-Hill Medical; 2005.
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