Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced in endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream to control metabolic and biological activities in target cells. They can be classified based on their chemical nature as amino acid derivatives, proteins/peptides, or steroids, and based on their mechanism of action as group I hormones that bind intracellular receptors or group II hormones that bind cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers. Key hormones include reproductive hormones like estrogen and testosterone; thyroid hormones; adrenal hormones like cortisol and aldosterone; calcium regulating hormones calcitriol, PTH, and calcitonin; and others. Abnormalities in hormone levels can lead to diseases and disorders.
This document discusses hormones and their mechanisms of action. It describes the different types of hormones, including proteins/polypeptides, steroids, and derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. It explains how hormones are synthesized, stored, transported in blood, and cleared from the blood. The mechanisms of action of both lipid-soluble and hydrophilic hormones are covered, including their interactions with receptors and use of second messenger systems. Methods for measuring hormone concentrations in blood, such as radioimmunoassay and ELISA, are also summarized.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
Purine and pyrimidine nucleotides play important roles in the body, including forming DNA and RNA and acting as carriers of energy and active intermediates. There are two pathways for nucleotide synthesis: de novo synthesis starting from metabolic precursors, and salvage pathways that recycle bases from nucleic acid breakdown. IMP is an important intermediate that is converted to AMP and GMP. Defects in purine metabolism can cause disorders like gout, kidney stones, and Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Orotaciduria is a pyrimidine synthesis disorder caused by a deficiency in orotate-phosphoribosyltransferase.
Hormones are signaling molecules produced by glands that are transported via bloodstream to target distant organs to regulate physiology. They are classified as proteinaceous (peptide) hormones or non-proteinaceous (steroid) hormones. Some important peptide hormones include insulin which regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism, glucagon which raises blood sugar levels, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates glucocorticoid secretion, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which regulates water retention, oxytocin which causes uterine contraction and lactation, and prolactin which promotes milk production. Each hormone has specific functions, and deficiencies or excesses can result in various diseases treated through medication or manipulating hormone levels.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
This document provides an overview of lipid classification and functions. It discusses the main classes of lipids including fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins, and steroids. Within each class, specific lipid types are defined along with their structures and functions. The document also briefly outlines some lipid metabolism disorders and the clinical significance of lipids.
The document discusses cholesterol metabolism. Cholesterol is synthesized in the body and obtained through diet. It is an important component of cell membranes and is also a precursor for other steroid hormones. Cholesterol synthesis is a multi-step process regulated by feedback mechanisms. Defects in cholesterol metabolism can lead to genetic disorders like Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome or familial hypercholesterolemia.
This document discusses hormones and their mechanisms of action. It describes the different types of hormones, including proteins/polypeptides, steroids, and derivatives of the amino acid tyrosine. It explains how hormones are synthesized, stored, transported in blood, and cleared from the blood. The mechanisms of action of both lipid-soluble and hydrophilic hormones are covered, including their interactions with receptors and use of second messenger systems. Methods for measuring hormone concentrations in blood, such as radioimmunoassay and ELISA, are also summarized.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
Purine and pyrimidine nucleotides play important roles in the body, including forming DNA and RNA and acting as carriers of energy and active intermediates. There are two pathways for nucleotide synthesis: de novo synthesis starting from metabolic precursors, and salvage pathways that recycle bases from nucleic acid breakdown. IMP is an important intermediate that is converted to AMP and GMP. Defects in purine metabolism can cause disorders like gout, kidney stones, and Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Orotaciduria is a pyrimidine synthesis disorder caused by a deficiency in orotate-phosphoribosyltransferase.
Hormones are signaling molecules produced by glands that are transported via bloodstream to target distant organs to regulate physiology. They are classified as proteinaceous (peptide) hormones or non-proteinaceous (steroid) hormones. Some important peptide hormones include insulin which regulates carbohydrate and fat metabolism, glucagon which raises blood sugar levels, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which regulates glucocorticoid secretion, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which regulates water retention, oxytocin which causes uterine contraction and lactation, and prolactin which promotes milk production. Each hormone has specific functions, and deficiencies or excesses can result in various diseases treated through medication or manipulating hormone levels.
Biochemistry Of Hormones
Contains All Important topics with best key points....
Made By Sanjay kumar (Student Of PharmD Faculty of Pharmacy Hamdard University)
This document provides an overview of lipid classification and functions. It discusses the main classes of lipids including fatty acids, triacylglycerols, phospholipids, glycolipids, lipoproteins, and steroids. Within each class, specific lipid types are defined along with their structures and functions. The document also briefly outlines some lipid metabolism disorders and the clinical significance of lipids.
The document discusses cholesterol metabolism. Cholesterol is synthesized in the body and obtained through diet. It is an important component of cell membranes and is also a precursor for other steroid hormones. Cholesterol synthesis is a multi-step process regulated by feedback mechanisms. Defects in cholesterol metabolism can lead to genetic disorders like Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome or familial hypercholesterolemia.
organic biologically active compounds of different chemical nature that are produced by the endocrine glands, enter directly into blood and accomplish humoral regulation of the metabolism of compounds and functions on the organism level.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions. There are many types of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and processes.
The document discusses the two systems of internal communication and regulation in animals: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system uses electrical signals along neurons, while the endocrine system uses hormones secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. Hormones are chemical signals that target specific cell types. Signaling involves reception, signal transduction, and a cellular response. Hormones are classified as steroid hormones, which are lipid-soluble and diffuse through cell membranes, or non-steroid hormones, which bind to cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors, while Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and stimulate secondary messengers.
The endocrine system regulates and integrates various physiological functions through hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and travel to target cells. There are two main classes of hormones - steroid hormones which are lipid soluble and can pass through cell membranes, and peptide hormones which are water soluble and bind to surface receptors of target cells. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone secretion and receptor levels.
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP) or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative glucose metabolism pathway to glycolysis. It is more complex than glycolysis and takes place in the cytosol. The PPP is important for generating NADPH for biosynthesis of fatty acids, steriods, and maintaining glutathione levels, as well as producing pentoses used in nucleic acid synthesis. The pathway contains oxidative and non-oxidative phases, with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase being the regulatory enzymes controlled by NADPH and pentose levels.
This document discusses heteropolysaccharides, also known as heteroglycans or glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). GAGs are polymers made from more than one type of monosaccharide or monosaccharide derivative. Examples include those found in plants like agar and pectin, and those found in humans like hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin. The document describes the composition, location, and functions of several major GAGs, including their roles in structures like the extracellular matrix, cartilage, and blood groups. Proteoglycans are also discussed, which are core proteins that have one or more GAG chains covalently attached.
The document summarizes the functions of the pancreas and pancreatic hormones. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine and regulates blood sugar levels by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon promotes glucose release from stores. A lack of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus, characterized by high blood sugar and metabolic dysregulation. The document provides details on the metabolic effects of insulin and glucagon on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is divided into the anterior and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands and is regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are produced in the hypothalamus and travel down nerve fibers to the posterior pituitary. Growth hormone, secreted by the anterior pituitary, promotes growth and protein synthesis throughout the body and has effects on carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Its secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus.
This document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, properties, sources, and importance. Cholesterol has the molecular formula C27H45OH and possesses a cyclopentano perhydro phenanthrene nucleus. It is synthesized endogenously in the body and obtained exogenously through diet. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and is a precursor for bile acids, steroid hormones like estrogen and testosterone, and vitamin D3. It occurs both in free and esterified forms in the body and liver plays a key role in regulating cholesterol levels.
B.sc. biochemistry sem 1 introduction to biochemistry unit 3.1 hormonesRai University
The document discusses the key functions and properties of hormones in the endocrine system. It describes how hormones regulate various bodily processes through negative feedback mechanisms. Hormones are transported through the bloodstream and interact with target tissues through membrane-bound or intracellular receptors to influence metabolic activities and tissue maturation. The endocrine system helps control important body functions such as growth, development, immune response, and reproductive functions.
This document defines and describes various types of lipids. It begins by explaining that lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids, fats, oils, waxes and other substances. It then discusses the basic components of lipids like fatty acids, glycerol and their esters known as triglycerides. The document further classifies lipids into simple lipids, compound lipids and derived lipids. Various types of phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols and terpenoids are also explained. Physical and chemical properties of lipids are outlined along with their important functions in living organisms.
Lipids are organic compounds formed from fatty acids and alcohol. They include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds. Lipids provide energy, essential fatty acids, and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. They are important components of cell membranes and play roles in insulation, cushioning of organs, and energy storage. Analysis of lipid properties such as iodine number and saponification number can provide information about degree of unsaturation and fatty acid content. Rancidity reduces lipid quality through hydrolysis or oxidation.
Biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteinsAsad Bilal
This document discusses the biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteins. It describes the various cellular functions of proteins such as their structural, enzymatic, hormonal, transport, and messenger roles. The structural importance of fibrous proteins like collagen is also covered. The document then discusses the use of proteins as pharmaceuticals and describes some applications including antibodies, vaccines, hormones and enzymes. It provides examples of iron and zinc chelate proteins and tumor markers.
Hormones can be classified into four groups based on their mechanism of action. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors and include androgens, calcitriol, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and progestins. Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and use either cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP as second messengers, such as ACTH, ADH, and atrial natriuretic factor. Group 3 hormones also bind to cell surface receptors but use calcium or phosphatidyl inositols as second messengers like GnRH and TRH. Group 4 hormones signal through a kinase or phosphatase cascade as a second messenger, including insulin, GH, and prolactin.
The document discusses the pituitary gland and its hormones. It describes the pituitary gland's location and connection to the hypothalamus. It then explains the six hormones of the anterior pituitary - growth hormone, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, FSH, and LH - and their roles in controlling metabolic functions. The two hormones of the posterior pituitary are ADH and oxytocin, which play roles in water balance and childbirth/lactation respectively. The hypothalamus controls pituitary secretion through releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Gonadal hormones such as testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone are produced by the testes, ovaries, and adrenal cortex. They are derived from cholesterol and produced through various enzymatic pathways involving the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Testosterone production involves either the Δ4 or Δ5 pathway. Estradiol is produced from testosterone and androstenedione through aromatization. These hormones act through intracellular receptors to regulate sexual differentiation, reproduction and other biological processes. Their levels are controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
Unit 7 : Carbohydrates metabolism & disordersDrElhamSharif
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism and disorders by Dr. Elham Sharif. It covers objectives, carbohydrate classification and functions, glucose metabolism pathways, hormonal control of glucose levels, normal blood glucose and urine glucose levels, hormones that affect blood glucose, abnormalities in carbohydrate metabolism including lactose intolerance and hypoglycemia, causes and symptoms of diabetes mellitus, and classification of diabetes into type 1 and type 2. The key topics covered include glucose regulation by insulin and glucagon, glucose metabolism pathways in the body, and abnormalities related to carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes.
This document defines and classifies different types of lipoproteins. It discusses lipoproteins' roles in transporting lipids like triglycerides and cholesterol through the bloodstream. The main lipoproteins described are chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL. Chylomicrons and VLDL transport lipids from the intestine and liver to tissues. Their triglycerides are broken down by lipoprotein lipase, forming chylomicron/VLDL remnants taken up by the liver. LDL transports cholesterol to tissues, while HDL transports excess cholesterol from tissues back to the liver in reverse transport.
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
The document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, functions, synthesis, regulation, and levels in the body. Some key points:
- Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues and is present as free cholesterol or combined with fatty acids.
- It performs essential functions like being a membrane component, precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones, and is required for nerve transmission.
- Cholesterol is derived from diet, de novo synthesis in the body, and hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters.
- The rate-limiting enzyme for its synthesis is HMG-CoA reductase, which is regulated by feedback inhibition and hormones like insulin and glucagon.
The document discusses various hormones and how they regulate biological processes in the body. It describes how hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to target cells. Key hormones discussed include those produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, reproductive organs, and those involved in calcium and phosphate homeostasis such as calcitriol, calcitonin, and parathyroid hormone. The effects and regulatory mechanisms of these hormones are summarized.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and target specific organs. The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones, while the nervous system uses nerves. There are two main types of hormones - lipid-soluble hormones like steroids which diffuse through cell membranes, and water-soluble hormones like peptides which bind to surface receptors. Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, pancreas, adrenals, ovaries/testes, which regulate growth, metabolism, sexual development, and other processes. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and trigger physiological responses through various mechanisms of action.
organic biologically active compounds of different chemical nature that are produced by the endocrine glands, enter directly into blood and accomplish humoral regulation of the metabolism of compounds and functions on the organism level.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions. There are many types of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and processes.
The document discusses the two systems of internal communication and regulation in animals: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system uses electrical signals along neurons, while the endocrine system uses hormones secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands. Hormones are chemical signals that target specific cell types. Signaling involves reception, signal transduction, and a cellular response. Hormones are classified as steroid hormones, which are lipid-soluble and diffuse through cell membranes, or non-steroid hormones, which bind to cell surface receptors and trigger secondary messengers. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors, while Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and stimulate secondary messengers.
The endocrine system regulates and integrates various physiological functions through hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and travel to target cells. There are two main classes of hormones - steroid hormones which are lipid soluble and can pass through cell membranes, and peptide hormones which are water soluble and bind to surface receptors of target cells. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis through feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone secretion and receptor levels.
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP) or phosphogluconate pathway, is an alternative glucose metabolism pathway to glycolysis. It is more complex than glycolysis and takes place in the cytosol. The PPP is important for generating NADPH for biosynthesis of fatty acids, steriods, and maintaining glutathione levels, as well as producing pentoses used in nucleic acid synthesis. The pathway contains oxidative and non-oxidative phases, with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase being the regulatory enzymes controlled by NADPH and pentose levels.
This document discusses heteropolysaccharides, also known as heteroglycans or glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). GAGs are polymers made from more than one type of monosaccharide or monosaccharide derivative. Examples include those found in plants like agar and pectin, and those found in humans like hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate, and heparin. The document describes the composition, location, and functions of several major GAGs, including their roles in structures like the extracellular matrix, cartilage, and blood groups. Proteoglycans are also discussed, which are core proteins that have one or more GAG chains covalently attached.
The document summarizes the functions of the pancreas and pancreatic hormones. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the small intestine and regulates blood sugar levels by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes glucose uptake and storage, while glucagon promotes glucose release from stores. A lack of insulin leads to diabetes mellitus, characterized by high blood sugar and metabolic dysregulation. The document provides details on the metabolic effects of insulin and glucagon on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is divided into the anterior and posterior pituitary. The anterior pituitary secretes hormones that control other endocrine glands and is regulated by hormones from the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary stores and releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which are produced in the hypothalamus and travel down nerve fibers to the posterior pituitary. Growth hormone, secreted by the anterior pituitary, promotes growth and protein synthesis throughout the body and has effects on carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Its secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus.
This document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, properties, sources, and importance. Cholesterol has the molecular formula C27H45OH and possesses a cyclopentano perhydro phenanthrene nucleus. It is synthesized endogenously in the body and obtained exogenously through diet. Cholesterol is an important component of cell membranes and is a precursor for bile acids, steroid hormones like estrogen and testosterone, and vitamin D3. It occurs both in free and esterified forms in the body and liver plays a key role in regulating cholesterol levels.
B.sc. biochemistry sem 1 introduction to biochemistry unit 3.1 hormonesRai University
The document discusses the key functions and properties of hormones in the endocrine system. It describes how hormones regulate various bodily processes through negative feedback mechanisms. Hormones are transported through the bloodstream and interact with target tissues through membrane-bound or intracellular receptors to influence metabolic activities and tissue maturation. The endocrine system helps control important body functions such as growth, development, immune response, and reproductive functions.
This document defines and describes various types of lipids. It begins by explaining that lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids, fats, oils, waxes and other substances. It then discusses the basic components of lipids like fatty acids, glycerol and their esters known as triglycerides. The document further classifies lipids into simple lipids, compound lipids and derived lipids. Various types of phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols and terpenoids are also explained. Physical and chemical properties of lipids are outlined along with their important functions in living organisms.
Lipids are organic compounds formed from fatty acids and alcohol. They include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds. Lipids provide energy, essential fatty acids, and aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. They are important components of cell membranes and play roles in insulation, cushioning of organs, and energy storage. Analysis of lipid properties such as iodine number and saponification number can provide information about degree of unsaturation and fatty acid content. Rancidity reduces lipid quality through hydrolysis or oxidation.
Biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteinsAsad Bilal
This document discusses the biological and pharmaceutical importance of proteins. It describes the various cellular functions of proteins such as their structural, enzymatic, hormonal, transport, and messenger roles. The structural importance of fibrous proteins like collagen is also covered. The document then discusses the use of proteins as pharmaceuticals and describes some applications including antibodies, vaccines, hormones and enzymes. It provides examples of iron and zinc chelate proteins and tumor markers.
Hormones can be classified into four groups based on their mechanism of action. Group 1 hormones bind to intracellular receptors and include androgens, calcitriol, estrogens, glucocorticoids, and progestins. Group 2 hormones bind to cell surface receptors and use either cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP as second messengers, such as ACTH, ADH, and atrial natriuretic factor. Group 3 hormones also bind to cell surface receptors but use calcium or phosphatidyl inositols as second messengers like GnRH and TRH. Group 4 hormones signal through a kinase or phosphatase cascade as a second messenger, including insulin, GH, and prolactin.
The document discusses the pituitary gland and its hormones. It describes the pituitary gland's location and connection to the hypothalamus. It then explains the six hormones of the anterior pituitary - growth hormone, ACTH, TSH, prolactin, FSH, and LH - and their roles in controlling metabolic functions. The two hormones of the posterior pituitary are ADH and oxytocin, which play roles in water balance and childbirth/lactation respectively. The hypothalamus controls pituitary secretion through releasing and inhibiting hormones.
Gonadal hormones such as testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone are produced by the testes, ovaries, and adrenal cortex. They are derived from cholesterol and produced through various enzymatic pathways involving the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Testosterone production involves either the Δ4 or Δ5 pathway. Estradiol is produced from testosterone and androstenedione through aromatization. These hormones act through intracellular receptors to regulate sexual differentiation, reproduction and other biological processes. Their levels are controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.
Unit 7 : Carbohydrates metabolism & disordersDrElhamSharif
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism and disorders by Dr. Elham Sharif. It covers objectives, carbohydrate classification and functions, glucose metabolism pathways, hormonal control of glucose levels, normal blood glucose and urine glucose levels, hormones that affect blood glucose, abnormalities in carbohydrate metabolism including lactose intolerance and hypoglycemia, causes and symptoms of diabetes mellitus, and classification of diabetes into type 1 and type 2. The key topics covered include glucose regulation by insulin and glucagon, glucose metabolism pathways in the body, and abnormalities related to carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes.
This document defines and classifies different types of lipoproteins. It discusses lipoproteins' roles in transporting lipids like triglycerides and cholesterol through the bloodstream. The main lipoproteins described are chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, LDL, and HDL. Chylomicrons and VLDL transport lipids from the intestine and liver to tissues. Their triglycerides are broken down by lipoprotein lipase, forming chylomicron/VLDL remnants taken up by the liver. LDL transports cholesterol to tissues, while HDL transports excess cholesterol from tissues back to the liver in reverse transport.
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
The document discusses cholesterol, including its structure, functions, synthesis, regulation, and levels in the body. Some key points:
- Cholesterol is the major sterol in animal tissues and is present as free cholesterol or combined with fatty acids.
- It performs essential functions like being a membrane component, precursor for bile acids and steroid hormones, and is required for nerve transmission.
- Cholesterol is derived from diet, de novo synthesis in the body, and hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters.
- The rate-limiting enzyme for its synthesis is HMG-CoA reductase, which is regulated by feedback inhibition and hormones like insulin and glucagon.
The document discusses various hormones and how they regulate biological processes in the body. It describes how hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to target cells. Key hormones discussed include those produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, reproductive organs, and those involved in calcium and phosphate homeostasis such as calcitriol, calcitonin, and parathyroid hormone. The effects and regulatory mechanisms of these hormones are summarized.
Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted into the bloodstream by endocrine glands and target specific organs. The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones, while the nervous system uses nerves. There are two main types of hormones - lipid-soluble hormones like steroids which diffuse through cell membranes, and water-soluble hormones like peptides which bind to surface receptors. Major endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, pancreas, adrenals, ovaries/testes, which regulate growth, metabolism, sexual development, and other processes. Hormones bind to receptors on target cells and trigger physiological responses through various mechanisms of action.
This document provides information about hormones and the major endocrine glands. It defines hormones as chemical messengers secreted by one tissue and carried in the bloodstream to target tissues. The major hormone secreting glands are the pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Hormones can be classified based on their chemical structure as peptide/protein, amine, or steroid hormones. They can also be classified based on their mechanism of action as either binding intracellular receptors or cell surface receptors. The document then describes each major endocrine gland and the hormones they secrete.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and the endocrine system. It discusses that endocrinology is the study of hormones, their receptors, and signaling pathways. It describes the major endocrine glands and their hormone functions. It also summarizes the different types of hormone actions, classifications, synthesis, secretion, transport, and feedback control of hormone levels.
This document provides an overview of endocrinology and hormone regulation in the human body. It defines key terms related to endocrinology and describes the four main classes of hormones. Negative feedback loops maintain stable hormone levels in the bloodstream. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland work together to regulate other endocrine organs through the release of controlling hormones.
This document provides an overview of the endocrine system and hormones. It discusses the discovery of hormones in 1902 by Bayliss and Starling. It defines hormones and describes the principal functions of the endocrine system in maintaining homeostasis, growth, development, and reproduction. It compares the endocrine and nervous systems and describes different types of cell signaling. It provides details on the major endocrine glands and hormones, hormone classification, mechanisms of hormone action, and feedback control of hormone secretion.
The pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain, is sometimes called the "master gland" as it controls many other endocrine glands through the hormones it secretes. It has an anterior and posterior lobe, each with distinct functions. Pituitary tumors can cause headaches and vision issues. Other glands discussed include the thyroid, which regulates metabolism, the parathyroid which controls calcium levels, the pancreas which produces insulin to regulate blood sugar, and the pineal gland which produces melatonin to control circadian rhythms. Disorders of each gland, such as hyperthyroidism or hypoglycemia, produce distinct symptoms.
Hormones communicate between cells over short and long distances by binding to specific receptors. There are several types of hormones including peptides, steroids, catecholamines, and prostaglandins. Peptide hormones bind to cell surface receptors and activate intracellular secondary messengers. Steroid and thyroid hormones bind to cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors and directly influence gene expression. Hormone receptors transmit signals via secondary messengers, trafficking enzymes, and changes in DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis to produce cellular responses. Hormone antagonists can block hormone action and are used therapeutically.
22.chemical control & coordination in one shot.pptxanonymous
There are special chemicals which act as hormones and provide chemical
coordination, integration and regulation in the human body. These hormones
regulate metabolism, growth and development of our organs, the endocrine glands
or certain cells. The endocrine system is composed of hypothalamus, pituitary
and pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus and gonads (testis
and ovary). In addition to these, some other organs, e.g., gastrointestinal tract,
kidney, heart etc., also produce hormones. Progesterone plays a major role in the maintenance of pregnancy as
well as in mammary gland development and lactation. The atrial wall of the heart
produces atrial natriuretic factor which decreases the blood pressure. Kidney
produces erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis. The gastrointestinal tract
secretes gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin and gastric inhibitory peptide. These
hormones regulate the secretion of digestive juices and help in digestion.
The endocrine system uses glands and hormones to regulate processes in the body through chemical messages released into the bloodstream. Major glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads and reproductive organs. Endocrine disorders occur when glands under-produce or over-produce hormones, or grow abnormally, and can cause issues like hypothyroidism, polycystic ovary syndrome, or non-toxic goiter.
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure
and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
lecture class for 4th year MBBS students. this lecture is based on the book 'Robbins' Pathologic basis of disease'. This is delivered by Dr. Umme Kulsum Munmun, Assistant professor (pathology) to the 4th year MBBS students of Chandpur Meducal College, Bangladesh
The document discusses principles of hormonal control systems. It describes the endocrine system and how it regulates physiological functions through hormone secretion. The major endocrine glands and hormones they secrete are identified. Key aspects covered include the chemistry and mechanisms of hormone action, regulation of hormone receptors, and functions of the pituitary gland and hormones it secretes like growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, and others. Disorders of the pituitary gland related to hyperactivity and hypoactivity of hormone secretion are also summarized.
Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions. The major endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes and ovaries. Hormones function through a process of biosynthesis in endocrine tissues, storage and secretion, transport through blood to target cells, recognition by cell receptors, signal transduction, cellular response, and hormone breakdown. Hormones are classified as steroid hormones, peptide hormones, or amino acid-derived hormones based on their chemical structure and include molecules like insulin, growth hormone, and thyroxine.
This is a content made by the students of Pharmacy dept of Comilla University about the Endocrine system, In this you can easily find the glands in out body and their functions. and specific organs which secrete specific hormones for our body. figures are added to make it more convenient. thank you all.
The document discusses the pharmacology of the endocrine system. It begins by introducing hormones and how they regulate metabolic processes more slowly than the autonomic nervous system. It then discusses specific endocrine glands and hormones. A large portion focuses on the thyroid gland, its hormones, and drugs used to treat thyroid disorders like hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. These include thyroid hormone preparations, iodides, thionamides, radioactive iodine, and more. The document provides details on the mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, uses, and adverse effects of drugs related to the thyroid and endocrine system.
The document discusses the endocrine system, which regulates homeostasis through the secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream. It describes the major endocrine glands and hormones, including the hypothalamus and pituitary gland which regulate other glands. The hormones act on target cells through various mechanisms, such as binding to intracellular receptors to activate genes or binding to cell surface receptors and triggering secondary messengers like cAMP. The endocrine system works in tandem with the nervous system to coordinate bodily functions.
Hormones are chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs. They are classified based on their chemical nature as proteins, steroids, or amino acid derivatives. Hormones also bind to either intracellular or cell surface receptors and work through various second messenger systems to stimulate physiological processes. Key functions of hormones include growth, metabolism, reproduction, and mood control. Hormone levels are regulated through feedback mechanisms and various factors can influence their actions.
Integrating Ayurveda into Parkinson’s Management: A Holistic ApproachAyurveda ForAll
Explore the benefits of combining Ayurveda with conventional Parkinson's treatments. Learn how a holistic approach can manage symptoms, enhance well-being, and balance body energies. Discover the steps to safely integrate Ayurvedic practices into your Parkinson’s care plan, including expert guidance on diet, herbal remedies, and lifestyle modifications.
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These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
1. Hormones
Definition
•Hormones are conventionally defined as organic substances
produced in small amounts by specific tissues (endocrine
glands), secreted into the blood stream to control the
metabolic and biological activities in the target cells.
•They are regarded as the chemical messengers involved in
the transmission of information from one tissue to another
and from cell to cell
3. Classification
• Hormones may be classified in many ways based on
their characteristics and functions
Two types of classification are discussed here:
1. Based on chemical nature
2. Based on the mechanism of action
4. 1. Based on chemical nature:
•The hormones can be categorised into three groups
considering their chemical nature:
I. Amino acid derivatives
II. Protein & peptide hormones
III. Steroid hormones
5. Based on chemical nature:
I. Amino acid derivative hormones:
This category comprises of hormones that are derived
from single amino acid
For example:
norepinephrine, epinephrine, dopamine are derived from
the amino acid tyrosine
Thyroid hormone
6. Based on chemical nature:
II. Proteins and peptides hormones
These hormones are protein in nature
The individual hormone could be referred to as peptide,
polypeptide or protein in nature, depending on their
specific chain length
For example:
thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) is composed of only 3
amino acids (small peptide), while pituitary gonadotropins
possess as many as 180 amino acids (large peptides)
Insulin, glucagon
7. Based on chemical nature:
III. Steroid hormones:
These hormones are derivatives of cholesterol or fatty
acids
For example:
adrenal cortical hormone
Androgen
Estrogen
Calcitriol
prostaglandins
prostacyclin
8. 2. Based on the mechanism of action:
• Hormones are classified into two broad groups
• Group I and group II based on the location of the
receptors to which they bind and signals used to
mediate their action
9. Based on the mechanism of action:
I. Group I hormone:
These hormones bind to intracellular receptors to form
receptor hormone complex (RHC) through which their
biochemical functions are mediated
Group I hormones are lipophilic in nature and are mostly
derivatives of cholesterol
Examples: estrogen, androgens, glucocorticoids, calcitriol,
etc.
10. Based on the mechanism of action:
II. Group II hormones:
These hormones bind to cell surface (plasma membrane)
receptors and stimulate the release of certain molecules,
namely the second messengers which in turn perform the
biochemical functions. Thus, hormones themselves are the
first messengers.
11. Group II hormones are subdivided into three categories
based on the chemical nature of the second messengers.
i. The second messenger is cAMP. e.g. ACTH, FSH, LH, PTH,
Glucagon, Calcitonin
ii. The second messenger is phosphatidyl inositol / calcium.
E.g. TRH, GnRH, gastrin, CCK
iii. The second messenger is unknown. E.g. growth
hormone, insulin, oxytocin, prolactin.
12. Mode of action of hormones:
• The first step of hormones action is to bind to specific receptors
of the target cell
• Cells that lack receptors for the hormones do not respond to
hormones
• Hormone receptor complex activates the receptor itself & the
activated receptor initiates the hormonal effects
• Hormonal receptors are large proteins, which are highly specific
for a single hormone. Due to this specificity a particular hormone
will act on a particular tissue
• Hormone receptors are located in different parts of cell:
In or on the surface of the cell membrane- for protein, peptide hormones
In the cytoplasm- for steroid hormones
In the nucleus- for thyroid hormones
13. Mode of action of group I hormones:
- Several hormones, e.g.: sterol hormones (adrenal & gonadal), thyroid
hormones, retinoid hormones, calcitriol bind with protein receptors
inside the cell (in cytoplasm or nucleus). Because these hormones are
lipid soluble and cross the cell membrane
- Inside cell they combine with receptors and form hormone receptor
complex (HRC)
- The activated HRC undergoes conformational change & binds with a
specific regulatory sequence of DNA called hormone response element
(HRE)
- The HRE now activates the transcription of the gene and forms the m-
RNA
- These m-RNA now translate into protein.
- Newly formed protein controls the cellular functions
14.
15. Mode of action of group II hormones:
Group II hormones are water soluble in nature & hence can not
pass the cell membrane
They have the receptors present on the cell membrane
They attach to the membrane receptors
These membrane receptors become activated & in turn they
activate the secondary messengers inside the cell
The activated secondary messengers now activate or deactivate
the enzymes inside cell as per the message from the hormones
(Secondary messengers: cyclic adenosine monophosphate,
(cAMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), inositol
trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and calcium)
16. GROUP 2 HORMONE ACTION
For example: Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
17. Clinical significance of thyroid hormones
Thyroid: The thyroid gland, or simply the thyroid, is an endocrine gland in the neck,
consisting of two lobes connected by an isthmus. It is found at the front of the neck,
below the Adam’s apple. The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which
primarily influence the metabolic rate and protein synthesis. Thyroid gland also
secretes calcitonin, a hormone concerned with calcium homeostasis.
Hormones of thyroid gland: triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4) & calcitonin
Functions of thyroid hormones:
Thyroid hormones stimulate protein synthesis
Promote intestinal absorption of glucose
Have tendency to lower the serum cholesterol level
Increase the metabolic activity
In males, lack of thyroid hormone is likely to cause complete loss of libido (sexual
desire), whereas on the other hand much more excess of thyroid hormones cause
impotence
In female, excess of thyroid hormones causes menorrhoea (i.e. excessive & frequent
menstrual bleeding). Lack of thyroid hormones may cause irregular period or even
total amenorrhoea (abnormal absence of period)
18. Clinical significances / Abnormalities of thyroid function:
Among the endocrine glands, thyroid is the most susceptible
for hypo or hyperfunction
Following three abnormalities associated with thyroid
function are known-
1. Goitre
2. Hyperthyroidism
3. Hypothyroidism
19. Goitre:
abnormal increase in the size of the thyroid gland is known as goitre.
Enlargement of thyroid gland is mostly to compensate the decreased synthesis
of thyroid hormones and is associated with elevated TSH. Goitre may occur due
to goitrogenic substances or due to deficiency of iodine in body.
Symptoms of goitre:
• A visible swelling at the base of neck that may be particularly obvious during
shave or put on makeup
• A tight feeling in throat
• Coughing
• Hoarseness
• Difficulty swallowing
• Difficulty breathing
20. Hyperthyroidism:
Also known as thyrotoxicosis
Is associated with overproduction of thyroid hormone
Symptoms:
• Sudden weight loss
• Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia)
• Increased appetite
• Nervousness, anxiety and irritability
• Tremor, fatigue, weakness
• Sweating, changes in menstrual patterns, skin thinning
• Increased sensitivity to heat
• Changes in bowel patterns, especially more frequent bowel movements
• Difficulty sleeping
• Fine, brittle hair
21. Reasons for hyperthyroidism:
- Graves' disease. Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder in
which antibodies produced by immune system stimulate thyroid to
produce too much thyroid hormone, is the most common cause of
hyperthyroidism.
(Normally, immune system uses antibodies to help protect against
viruses, bacteria and other foreign substances that invade body. In
Graves' disease, antibodies mistakenly attack thyroid. Scientists
aren't sure exactly what causes Graves' disease, although several
factors — including a genetic predisposition are likely involved.)
- Hyperfunctioning thyroid nodules (toxic adenoma, toxic
multinodular goiter, Plummer's disease)
- Thyroiditis
22. Hypothyroidism:
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
is a condition in which thyroid gland
doesn't produce enough thyroid
hormones
Symptoms:
• Fatigue, Increased sensitivity to
cold
• Constipation, Weight gain
• Dry skin, Puffy face
• Hoarseness
• Muscle weakness, Muscle aches,
tenderness and stiffness
• Elevated blood cholesterol level
• Pain, stiffness or swelling in your
joints
• Heavier than normal or irregular
menstrual periods
• Thinning hair
• Slowed heart rate
• Depression
• Impaired memory
23. Cretinism: Hypothyroidism in children is associated with physical &
mental retardation
Myxoedema: hypothyroidism in adult & is characterised by
bagginess under the eyes, puffiness of face, slow physical & mental
activity
Reasons for hyperthyroidism:
- Autoimmune disease- Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
- Treatment for hyperthyroidism
- Thyroid surgery
- Radiation therapy
- Medications
24. Hormones of adrenal cortex:
Adrenal glands are two small organs located above the kidneys.
Each adrenal consist of two distinct tissues- an outer cortex &
inner medulla.
As many as 50 steroid hormones, with the name
adrenocorticosteroid hormones are produced by adrenal cortex.
However, there only a few of them possess biological activity.
1. Glucocorticoid
2. Mineralocorticoid
3. Androgens & estrogens
25. Glucocorticoid hormone:
The important glucocorticoids are: cortisol, cortisone & corticosterone
Functions:
1. Effects on carbohydrate metabolism: promotes synthesis of glucose,
increases the blood glucose concentration. The biological action of
glucocorticoid is generally opposite of that of insulin
2. Effect on lipid metabolism: it increases the circulating free fatty acids by –
i) breaking the triacylglycerol & ii) reducing the utilization of plasma free
fatty acid
3. Effect on protein & nucleic acid metabolism: they exhibit both anabolic &
catabolic effects on protein and nucleic acid
4. Increased glucocorticoid supresses immune system
5. This hormone increases production of gastric acid & some enzymes
26. Mineralocorticoid hormone:
The most important mineralocorticoid is the aldosterone
Function of mineralocorticoid is to regulate the water & electrolyte balance. It
promotes sodium reabsorption in kidneys
Androgens & estrogens:
They participate in the sexual development and act through the gonads
Abnormalities of adrenocorticosteroid hormones:
1. Addison’s disease- because of insufficient adrenal hormone & is
characterised by; hypoglycaemia, weight loss, loss of appetite (anorexia),
muscle weakness, impaired cardiac function, low BP, decreases Na.
2. Cushing’s syndrome- due to hyperfunction of adrenal cortex. Characterised
by; hyperglycaemia, fatigue, muscle wasting, oedema, osteoporosis,
hypertension.
27. Hormones of reproductive system:
• reproductive hormones are important for both sexes throughout
life, starting with early fetal development where hormones have
a key role in sexual differentiation. For teenagers, hormonal
changes give rise to puberty
• the gonads (testes in males & ovaries in females) produce these
hormones
• These are steroid in nature and are responsible for growth,
development, maintenance & regulation of reproductive system.
28. Following are the hormones of the reproductive system
Androgens:
- In males
- Steroid hormone
- Produced by testes in men and adrenal gland & ovaries of females
also produce in small amount
- Cholesterol is the precursor for synthesis of androgens
- Active form of androgen is testosterone
29. Functions of androgens (testosterone):
1. Growth, development & maintenance of male reproductive
organs
2. Sexual differentiation & secondary sexual characteristics
(maturation of testes & penis)
3. Spermatogenesis (the making of sperms)
4. Promote the development of facial & body hair, the growth of
larynx & strengthening of muscles
5. Androgen promote RNA & protein synthesis
6. Increase glycolysis, citric acid cycle
7. Promote mineral deposition & bone growth
30. Estrogen:
- In females
- Steroid hormone
- Estrogens are predominantly ovarian hormones,
synthesized by the ovaries
- Precursor is cholesterol
31. Functions of estrogens
1. Growth, development & maintenance of female reproductive organs
2. Development of female sexual characters (breast development,
maturation of vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes during puberty)
3. Maintenance of menstrual cycles
4. Increases lipogenesis ( & hence women have relatively more fat than
men)
5. Lowers plasma cholesterol (& hence low incidence of CHD in women
during reproductive age)
6. Helps in bone growth
32. Progesterone:
- Steroid hormone
- Synthesized by corpus luteum of ovary & placenta
- Cholesterol is the precursor
Functions:
1. Helps to prepare the endometrium (womb lining) for the
implementation of an fertilized egg & maintenance of
pregnancy
2. Prepares mammary glands for milk production
33. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinising hormone (LH) are the
gonadotrophic hormones. Both are released by the pituitary gland into the
bloodstream
• Follicle stimulating hormone is one of the hormones essential to pubertal
development and the function of women’s ovaries and men’s testes. In
women, this hormone stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the
ovary before the release of an egg from one follicle at ovulation
• In men, follicle stimulating hormone acts on the cells of the testes to
stimulate sperm production (spermatogenesis)
• LH stimulates synthesis of estrogens & progesterone
• LH also promotes androgens synthesis by testes
34. Hormones involved in calcium phosphate homeostasis
The hormones – calcitriol, parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
regulate the level of calcium phosphate in blood
Calcitriol:
- this is the physiological active form of vitamin D
- calcitriol induces the synthesis of a specific calcium binding protein in
the intestinal cells
- This protein increases the intestinal absorption of calcium and
phosphate
- Calcitriol also stimulates calcium uptake by osteoblasts of bone.
35. Parathyroid hormone: the prime function of PTH is to elevate
serum calcium level
• Action on bone: PTH causes decalcification or demineralization of
bone. Demineralization ultimately leads to an increase in the
blood calcium level
• Action on the kidney: PTH increases the Ca reabsorption by
kidney tubules. This is the most rapid action of PTH to elevate
blood calcium level.
• Action on intestine: increases the intestinal absorption of Ca by
promoting the synthesis of calcitriol
36. Calcitonin:
- synthesized by thyroid gland
- Calcitonin promotes calcification of bones
- Decreases bone resorption, increases excretion of Ca into
urine, thus has a decreasing influence on blood calcium
level & hence is regarded as antagonistic to PTH