The primary treatment goals for patients with hepatitis B (HBV) infection are to prevent progression of the disease, particularly to cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
Risk factors for progression of chronic HBV include the following :
Persistently elevated levels of HBV DNA and, in some patients, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), as well as the presence of core and precore mutations seen most commonly in HBV genotype C and D infections
Male sex
Older age
Family history of HCC
Alcohol use
Elevated alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
Coinfection with hepatitis D (delta) virus (HDV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
A synergistic approach of suppressing viral load and boosting the patient’s immune response with immunotherapeutic interventions is needed for the best prognosis. The prevention of HCC often includes the use of antiviral treatment using pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) or nucleos(t)ide analogues.
HBV infection can be self-limited or chronic. No specific therapy is available for persons with acute hepatitis B; treatment is supportive.
The primary treatment goals for patients with hepatitis B (HBV) infection are to prevent progression of the disease, particularly to cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
Risk factors for progression of chronic HBV include the following :
Persistently elevated levels of HBV DNA and, in some patients, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), as well as the presence of core and precore mutations seen most commonly in HBV genotype C and D infections
Male sex
Older age
Family history of HCC
Alcohol use
Elevated alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)
Coinfection with hepatitis D (delta) virus (HDV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
A synergistic approach of suppressing viral load and boosting the patient’s immune response with immunotherapeutic interventions is needed for the best prognosis. The prevention of HCC often includes the use of antiviral treatment using pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) or nucleos(t)ide analogues.
HBV infection can be self-limited or chronic. No specific therapy is available for persons with acute hepatitis B; treatment is supportive.
Hepatitis" means inflammation of the liver and also refers to a group of viral infections that affect the liver .
The most common types are Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C.
Viral hepatitis is the leading cause of liver cancer and the most common reason for liver transplantation.
An estimated 4.4 million Americans are living with chronic hepatitis; most do not know they are infected
The presentation is about the disease, hepatitis, its causing agent, symptoms, treatment and cure. the presentation focusses on the virus causing the disease, its morphology and life cycle. It has also discussed the different types of hepatitis disease and the virus causing them
Viral hepatitis is a systemic disease primarily involving the liver.
Hepatotropic viruses : liver is the target organ and the main site of virus replication
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
hepatitis B virus (HBV)
Hepatitis C virus (HCV)
Hepatitis D virus (HDV, delta virus)
Hepatitis E virus (HEV).
Enterically:
virus is spread from person-to-person by putting something in the mouth that has been contaminated with the stool of a person with hepatitis E. This type of transmission is called "fecal-oral." For this reason, the virus is more easily spread in areas where there are poor sanitary conditions
Pyramidal, bony cavity facial skeleton
Base anterior, apex posterior
Contains and protects eyeball, muscles, nerves, vessels & most of the lacrimal apparatus
Bones forming orbit lined with periorbita
Forms Fascial sheath of the eyeball
By the end of the lecture, students should be able to:
Describe briefly development of the thyroid & parathyroid glands.
Describe the shape, position, relations and structure of the thyroid gland.
Describe the shape, position, blood supply & lymphatic drainage of the parathyroid glands.
List the blood supply & lymphatic drainage of the thyroid gland.
Describe the most common congenital anomalies of the thyroid gland.
List the nerves endanger with thyroidectomy operation.
Is a multilayered structure with the layers that can be defined by the word itself.
Extends from;
The supraorbital margins anteriorly
To the highest nuchal line posteriorly
Down to the ears & zygomatic arches laterally.
The forehead is common to both the scalp & face.
Consists of the
-outer periosteal layer: attached to the inner periosteum of the skull and continuous on the outside through the foramen magnum
-inner meningeal layer: in contact arachnoid mater and continuous with the spinal dura through the foramen magnum
The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a hinge type synovial joint that connects the mandible to the rest of the skull. More specifically, it is an articulation between the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal bone , and the condylar
The region on the lateral surface of the face that comprises the parotid gland & the structures immediately related to it
Largest of the salivary glands
Located subcutaneously, below and in front of the external auditory meatus
Occupies the deep hollow behind the ramus of the mandible
Wedge-shaped when viewed externally, with the base above & the apex behind the angle of the mandible
Part of the body between the head and the thorax
Contains a number of vessels, nerves and structures connecting the head to the trunk and upper limbs
These include the esophagus, trachea, brachial plexus, carotid arteries, jugular veins, vagus and accessory nerves, lymphatics among others
A layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus
Found in nose, sinuses, pharynx, larynx and trachea
Mucus can trap contaminants
Cilia move mucus up towards mouth
Has a free tip and attached to forehead by the bridge.
External orifices (nares) bounded laterally by the ala & medially by nasal septum.
Framework above made up of: nasal bones, frontal process of maxilla, nasal part of frontal bone.
Framework below : by plates of hyaline cartilage; upper and lower nasal cartilages, and septal cartilage
The head and neck region of four week human embryo somewhat resemble these regions of a fish embryo of comparable stage
This explains the former use of designation branchial apparatus
Branchial is derived from the Greek word branchia or gill
Located on the side of the head
Extends from the superior temporal lines to the zygomatic arch.
Communicates with the infratemporal fossa deep to the zygomatic arch.
Contains a numbers of structures that include a muscle, nerves, blood vessels
The larynx is a respiratory organ located located within the anterior aspect of the neck.
Anterior to the inferior portion of the pharynx but superior to the trachea, lies below the hyoid bone in the midline at C3-6 vertebra level.
Its primary function is to provide a protective sphincter for air passages.
By the end of the presentation, we should be able to describe the:
Anatomical features of the kidneys and the tracts:
position, extent, relations, hilum, peritoneal coverings.
Internal structure of the kidneys:
Cortex, medulla and renal sinus.
The vascular segments of the kidneys.
The blood supply and lymphatics of the kidneys .
The esophagus is a muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx) with the stomach. The esophagus is about 8 inches long, and is lined by moist pink tissue called mucosa. The esophagus runs behind the windpipe (trachea) and heart, and in front of the spine. Just before entering the stomach, the esophagus passes through the diaphragm.
Mesovarium that attaches it to the back of the broad ligament
Round ligament that runs from the medial border of the ovaries to the uterus
Suspensory ligament that runs from lateral aspect of the ovaries to the pelvic wall.
At the end of the presentation ,we should be able to describe the:
Location, shape and relations of the right and left adrenal glands.
Blood supply, lymphatic drainage and nerve supply of right and left adrenal glands
Parts of adrenal glands and function of each part.
Development of adrenal gland and common anomalies.
The pericardium is the sac that encloses the heart. It consists of an outer fibrous part known as the fibrous pericardium, and a double layered serous sac known as the serous pericardium.
The pericardium prevents
sudden dilatation of the heart, especially the right chamber, and displacement of the heart and great vessels,
minimizes friction between the heart and surrounding structures, and
prevents the spread of infection or cancer from the lung or pleura.
Major Function:
Makes sperm cells (gametes) and transfer the sperm into the female reproductive system in order to fertilize the female gametes to produce a zygote.
Include:
the testes, the epididymis, the vas deferens, the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, and the Cowper’s glands.
The testes, (To Testify) the paired, oval-shaped organs that produce sperm and male sex hormones, are located in the scrotum.
They are highly innervated and sensitive to touch and pressure.
The testes produce testosterone, which is responsible for the development of male sexual characteristics and sex drive (libido).
The azygos vein connects the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava
The thoracic duct is the largest lymph vessel that ultimately drains lymph from all parts of the body into the blood circulation
We shall look at them one at a time
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
2. Hepatitis
The term hepatitis refers to any inflammatory process of the
liver.
The liver is a vital organ that processes nutrients, filters the blood, and
fights infections.
When the liver is inflamed or damaged, its function can be affected.
May be caused by viruses (commonest) such as hepatitis A, B, C, D,
and E viruses or autoimmunity, αlpha1-antitrypsin deficiency
The hepatotropic viruses are a heterogeneous group of infectious
agents that cause similar acute clinical illness.
3. Viral Hepatitis
The clinical spectrum of disease is extraordinarily broad:
- asymptomatic
- symptomatic
- liver failure
Viral Hepatitis CLASSIFICATION:
Enterically transmitted (HAV, HEV) ,parenterally(Bloodborne
)transmitted (HBV, HCV, HDV) and mosquito bite
transmitted(coused by yellow fever virus)
Other virus like HSV,CMV,EBV and Rubella cause acute
hepatitis as part of their systemic disease
4. Bloodborne transmitted: are not shed in feces, may be
associated with a prolunged viremia, persistent infectivity and
progression to chronic liver disease.
Enterically transmitted: these viruses survive exposure to bile,
are shed in feces, produce infections that are generally self-
limited although they may cause severe hepatitis and acute
liver failure; neither a viremic nor an intestinal carrier state
occurs and chronic liver disease never develops.
Acute Hepatitis: Short-term hepatitis.
– Body’s immune system clears the virus from the body
within 6 months
Chronic Hepatitis: Long-term hepatitis.
– Infection lasts longer than 6 months because the body’s
immune system cannot clear the virus from the body
5.
6. Acute Viral Hepatitis
1.HEPATITIS A :a non-enveloped RNA virus which is
classified as a picornavirus.Humans are only known hosts
HAV infection during pregnancy or at the time of delivery
does not appear to result in increased complications of
pregnancy or clinical disease in the newborn.
TRANSMISSION
Fecal-oral spread through
1. Close person-to-person contact with an infected person
2. Sexual contact with an infected person
3. Ingestion of contaminated food or drinks
Parenteral transmission occurs rarely
7. Clinical features/Complications
- Fever - Malaise
- Loss of appetite - Nausea
- Vomiting - Abdominal pain
- Dark urine - Pale stool
- Joint pain - Jaundice
- Regional lymph nodes and the spleen may be enlarged,
aplastic anemia, nephritis, arthritis, vasculitis
A person may have all, some or none of these . The
typical duration of illness is 7–14 days
8. DIAGNOSIS
Serologic, viral polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing for
raised ALT(alanine aminotransferase ) and AST(aspartate
aminotransferase) is required to confirm HAV.
LFTs ;Almost all patients with acute hepatitis A have detectable
IgM anti-HAV in serum
IgM anti-HAV can be detected from 5-10 days before the
symptoms up to 6 months after infection.
The antibody test for total anti-HAV measures both IgG ,anti-
HAV+ve and IgM anti-HAV –ve by radioimmunoassay
9. TREATMENT
Mainly supportive consists of :.Intravenous hydration as
needed . Antipruritic agents and fat-soluble vitamins for the
prolonged cholestatic form of disease. Serial monitoring for
signs of acute liver failure and early referral to a
transplantation center can be life saving.
11. Hepatitis B
Epidemiology: the mean incubation period
is approximately 60 to 90 days (range 30-
180 days)
Only 1% to 5% of infected adults
develop chronic infection with
prolonged viremia, but 90% of
neonatal infections and about 50%
of infection acquired during infancy
result in persistent viremia.
12. Mode of transmission
Mode of transmission:bloodborne, percutaneous and sexual routes, but the
overall importance of these modes in the epidemiology of HBV
infection is ill-defined. HBsAg-positive mother can give it during
perinatal exposure
HBV is present in blood, lymph, semen, cervico vaginal secretions, saliva
and other body fluids of infected individuals.
No evidence of fecal-oral spread.
Persistent infection may lead to:
Chronic Persistent Hepatitis - asymptomatic
Chronic Active Hepatitis - symptomatic exacerbations of hepatitis
Cirrhosis of Liver
Hepatocellular Carcinoma
13. Classification
HBV is a small, double-shelled
virus in the family
Hepadnaviridae
Double stranded DNA virus
contains numerous antigenic
components, including HBsAg,
hepatitis B core antigen
(HBcAg), and hepatitis B e
antigen (HBeAg).
Humans are the only known host for
HBV
Transmission
Contact with infectious blood,
semen, and other body fluids
primarily through:
1. Birth to an infected mother,
2. Sexual contact with an infected
person
3. Sharing of contaminated
needles, syringes, or other
injection drug equipment.
14. Clinical features
Incubation period 45-160 days (average 120 days)
The preicteric, or prodromal phase
It is nonspecific and is characterized by insidious onset of
malaise, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, right upper quadrant
abdominal pain, fever, headache, myalgia, skin rashes, and
dark urine, beginning 1 to 2 days before the onset of jaundice.
The icteric phase
it is characterized by jaundice, light or gray stools, hepatic
tenderness and hepatomegaly , Splenomegaly and
lymphadenopathy are common
15. Laboratory diagnosis
Hepatitis B serologic test
measurement of several hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific antigens and antibodies.
Routine screening for HBV infection requires assay of at least three serologic
markers (HBsAg, anti-HBc, anti-HBs). HBsAg - used as a general marker of
infection.
HBsAb - used to document recovery and/or immunity to HBv infection.
anti-HBc IgM - marker of acute infection.
anti-HBcIgG - past or chronic infection.
HBeAg - indicates active replication of virus and therefore infectiveness.
Anti-Hbe - virus no longer replicating. However, the patient can still be positive
for HBsAg which is made by integrated HBV.
HBV-DNA - indicates active replication of virus, more accurate than HBeAg
especially in cases of escape mutants. Used mainly for monitoring response to
therapy.whereas both anti-HBs and anti-HBc are detected in persons with
resolved infection. HBeAg is present in active acute or chronic infections and is a
marker of infectivity.
17. COMPLICATIONS
ALF with coagulopathy, encephalopathy, and cerebral edema
occurs more frequently with HBV than with the other
hepatotropic viruses.
HBV infection can also result in chronic hepatitis, which can
lead to cirrhosis, end-stage liver disease complications, and
primary hepatocellular carcinoma.
Membranous glomerulonephritis with deposition of
complement and HBeAg in glomerular capillaries is a rare
complication of HBV infection.
18. TREATMENT
Acute HBV care is aimed at maintaining comfort and
adequate nutritional balance, including replacement of
fluids that are lost from vomiting and diarrhoea.
Treatment of chronic hepatitis B in adults >18 yr of age
with compensated liver disease and HBV
replication:Interferon-α-2b (IFN-α2b) and lamivudine
(synthetic nucleoside analog)
Interferon-α-2b (IFN-α2b) is for child but under the care
of a pediatric gastroenterologist
19. PREVENTION
Hepatitis B vaccine and hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG)
are available for prevention of HBV infection.
Household, sexual, and needle-sharing contacts should be
identified and vaccinated if they are susceptible to HBV
infection.
Children with HBV should not be excluded from school, play,
child care, or work couse not spread by breast-feeding,
kissing, hugging, or sharing water or utensils unless they are
prone to biting. A support group might help children to cope
better with their disease.
20.
21. HEPATITIS C
– 6-7 weeks on
average (range 2-6
months);
– infectious one or
more weeks before
getting ill;
– chronic carriers
remain infectious;
Transmission
contact with blood of an
infected person primarily
through:
Sharing of contaminated
needles, syringes.
Sexual contact with an
infected person
Birth to an infected
mother
Incubation
period
22. – Nausea
– Loss of appetite
– Vomiting
– Fatigue
– Fever
– Dark urine
– Pale stool
– Jaundice
– Stomach pain
– Side pain
Symptoms
3 out of 4 persons have no symptoms and can
infect others without knowing it
23. Diagnosis
– HCV antibody: not useful in the acute phase as it takes at least 4 weeks after
infection before antibody appears.(Antibodies usually develop within 3 months)
– The most widely used serologic test is the third-generation enzyme
immunoassay (EIA) to detect anti-HCV
– The most commonly used virologic assay for HCV is a PCR assay, which
permits detection of small amounts of HCV RNA in serum and tissue samples
within days of infection.
– Screening for HCV should include all patients with the following risk factors:
history of illegal drug use,hemodialysis, idiopathic liver disease, and children
born to HCV-infected women ,….
– HIV+ persons may not develop detectable antibodies
– liver enzyme tests
– liver biopsy
24. TREATMENT&PREVENTION.
In adults, peginterferon (subcutaneous, weekly) combined
with oral daily ribavirin is the most effective therapy;
In children >3 years, IFN-α2b and ribavirin .
PREVENTION.
No vaccine is available to prevent HCV.
contact with body fluids of an Avoid infected person.
Screening of blood, organ, tissue donors
25. HEPATITIS D
HDV, the smallest known animal virus, is considered defective
because it cannot produce infection without a concurrent HBV
infection. The 36 nm diameter virus is incapable of making its
own coat protein; its outer coat is composed of excess HBsAg
from HBV. The inner core of the virus is single-stranded
circular RNA that expresses the HDV antigen.
HDV can cause an infection at the same time as the initial HBV
infection (co-infection), or HDV can infect a person who is
already infected with HBV (super-infection).
26. Coinfection
– Severe acute disease.
– Low risk of chronic infection.
Superinfection
– Usually develop chronic HDV infection.
– High risk of severe chronic liver disease.
– May present as an acute hepatitis.
Hepatitis D should be considered in any child who
experiences acute liver failure.
Hepatitis D - Clinical Features
27. DIAGNOSIS.
The diagnosis is made by detecting IgM antibody to
HDV; the antibodies to HDV develop ≈2–4 wk after co-
infection and ≈10 wk after a super-infection.
A test for anti-HDV antibody is commercially available.
PCR assays for viral RNA
28. TREATMENT&PREVENTION.
The treatment is based on supportive measures once an infection
is identified.
There are no specific HDV-targeted treatments to date.
The treatment is mostly based on controlling and treating HBV
infection, without which HDV cannot induce hepatitis.
PREVENTION.
There is no vaccine for hepatitis D.
Hepatitis B vaccines and HBIG are used for the same
indications as for hepatitis B alone.