Saussure distinguishes between synchronic (static) linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics. Synchronic linguistics refers to studying language at a single point in time, focusing on the relationships between elements within the system. Diachronic linguistics refers to studying language change over periods of time by comparing states separated by time. Saussure viewed language as having an inner duality manifested through the interaction of the synchronic and diachronic.
These slides are the relationship between language, culture and thought as Ronald Wardhaugh has discussed in "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". The examples have been provided from the Pakistani context and culture.
This document discusses the relationship between language, culture, and thought. It makes three key points:
1. Culture can be defined as the knowledge that is learned from other people, either through direct instruction or observation. Since language is learned from others, it is closely connected to culture.
2. Concepts and meanings that underlie language are based on a person's general knowledge and concepts. Understanding language relies on shared knowledge between speakers and listeners.
3. Some concepts and categories may be organized differently in different languages due to cultural differences. While core meanings of words are often shared across languages and cultures, there can be variation, especially in more peripheral concepts. Prototypes provide a framework for analyzing these differences
This document discusses language and power in verbal and nonverbal communication. It identifies four categories of power: practical, knowledge/ideas, position, and personal. It also discusses how power is encoded in conversations through status markers like agenda-setting, turn-taking, forms of address, phatic talk or small talk, and utterance types. Phatic talk, while not relevant to the core topic, plays an important role in establishing relationships and can be used strategically in conversations to influence the power dynamic.
This document provides an overview of sociolinguistics, defining it as the study of language in relation to society. It discusses key concepts like speech communities, prestige varieties, and language contact. The main representatives discussed are William Labov and Basil Bernstein. Methodologies introduced by Labov are also summarized, including the use of minimal pairs, word lists, and interviews to study language variation. The document emphasizes the importance of sociolinguistics for understanding language variations and its relevance for teaching foreign languages.
Functional linguistics claims that language use is functional, with the main function being to make meanings. These meanings are influenced by social and cultural context. Language use involves a semiotic process of choosing meanings. Jakobson identifies six communication functions associated with the communication process: referential, aesthetic, emotive, conative, phatic, and metalingual. Halliday sees language as a social/cultural phenomenon. He identifies seven functions language serves for children: instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative, and representational. Systemic functional linguistics analyzes language in terms of context, semantics, lexico-grammar, and phonology-graphology. It sees three types of meanings encoded simultaneously
This document discusses language variation and the different types of language varieties. It defines varieties as forms of language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar between regions, social classes, or functions. The key varieties discussed are standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, and lingua francas. Standard language is used widely for official purposes, while dialects vary regionally or among social groups. Registers differ based on social or occupational context. Pidgins emerge for communication between groups with no shared language, and creoles develop when pidgins are passed to children as a native language.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis proposes that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition. It includes two principles: 1) Linguistic determinism, that language determines thought, and 2) Linguistic relativity, that different languages encourage different ways of understanding the world. Debate exists around whether language truly determines thought or just influences it. While some studies support the hypothesis, others have found universal patterns of thought across languages. The hypothesis remains an area of interest in linguistics but is seen as too extreme in its strongest claims.
These slides are the relationship between language, culture and thought as Ronald Wardhaugh has discussed in "An Introduction to Sociolinguistics". The examples have been provided from the Pakistani context and culture.
This document discusses the relationship between language, culture, and thought. It makes three key points:
1. Culture can be defined as the knowledge that is learned from other people, either through direct instruction or observation. Since language is learned from others, it is closely connected to culture.
2. Concepts and meanings that underlie language are based on a person's general knowledge and concepts. Understanding language relies on shared knowledge between speakers and listeners.
3. Some concepts and categories may be organized differently in different languages due to cultural differences. While core meanings of words are often shared across languages and cultures, there can be variation, especially in more peripheral concepts. Prototypes provide a framework for analyzing these differences
This document discusses language and power in verbal and nonverbal communication. It identifies four categories of power: practical, knowledge/ideas, position, and personal. It also discusses how power is encoded in conversations through status markers like agenda-setting, turn-taking, forms of address, phatic talk or small talk, and utterance types. Phatic talk, while not relevant to the core topic, plays an important role in establishing relationships and can be used strategically in conversations to influence the power dynamic.
This document provides an overview of sociolinguistics, defining it as the study of language in relation to society. It discusses key concepts like speech communities, prestige varieties, and language contact. The main representatives discussed are William Labov and Basil Bernstein. Methodologies introduced by Labov are also summarized, including the use of minimal pairs, word lists, and interviews to study language variation. The document emphasizes the importance of sociolinguistics for understanding language variations and its relevance for teaching foreign languages.
Functional linguistics claims that language use is functional, with the main function being to make meanings. These meanings are influenced by social and cultural context. Language use involves a semiotic process of choosing meanings. Jakobson identifies six communication functions associated with the communication process: referential, aesthetic, emotive, conative, phatic, and metalingual. Halliday sees language as a social/cultural phenomenon. He identifies seven functions language serves for children: instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative, and representational. Systemic functional linguistics analyzes language in terms of context, semantics, lexico-grammar, and phonology-graphology. It sees three types of meanings encoded simultaneously
This document discusses language variation and the different types of language varieties. It defines varieties as forms of language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, or grammar between regions, social classes, or functions. The key varieties discussed are standard language, dialects, registers, pidgins, creoles, classical languages, and lingua francas. Standard language is used widely for official purposes, while dialects vary regionally or among social groups. Registers differ based on social or occupational context. Pidgins emerge for communication between groups with no shared language, and creoles develop when pidgins are passed to children as a native language.
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis proposes that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview or cognition. It includes two principles: 1) Linguistic determinism, that language determines thought, and 2) Linguistic relativity, that different languages encourage different ways of understanding the world. Debate exists around whether language truly determines thought or just influences it. While some studies support the hypothesis, others have found universal patterns of thought across languages. The hypothesis remains an area of interest in linguistics but is seen as too extreme in its strongest claims.
Language death occurs when a language is no longer spoken by anyone. Languages do not naturally die out but are instead "killed" when their speakers abandon the language due to pressures to assimilate and adopt dominant languages that have greater social and economic opportunities. There are several types of language death including sudden, radical, gradual, and bottom-to-top death. Major causes of language death include globalization, urbanization, modern education, and the pressure of dominant languages that are given more prestige and power. Efforts can be made to revive languages through programs that promote acquisition by adults, create socially integrated speaker populations, develop literacy in the language, and encourage use of the language in various social domains over time.
Human beings do not live alone in the world and language plays a key role in how people understand reality. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the language we speak completely determines how we think and perceive the world, with no true translation possible between languages. More moderate versions hold that language influences thought but does not determine it entirely, and different languages may influence how their speakers perceive some concepts like time, numbers, or colors. Many studies have investigated this hypothesis but have found both supporting and non-supporting evidence.
What is Sociolinguistics? Explain Its Scope and Origin. BS. English (4th Seme...AleeenaFarooq
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact and influence each other. It examines how factors like ethnicity, religion, gender, age, and education impact language variations between groups. Sociolinguistics originated in the late 1960s from fields like dialectology, historical linguistics, and language contact, incorporating influences from sociology and psychology. Key figures like Labov, Hymes, and Cameron contributed to establishing sociolinguistics as an independent subject concerned with both the social and structural aspects of language use. Sociolinguistics can be divided into micro- and macro-levels, with micro focusing on individual language variations and macro analyzing language patterns at the societal level.
The document defines inter-language as the language system produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a new language. Inter-language develops based on rules from the learner's first language and the target language, and may not reflect features of either. The inter-language system changes over time as rules are altered, deleted, or added. Learners progress through stages from early approximations of the target language to later intermediate and final stages. Fossilization occurs when errors become impossible to correct despite ability and motivation.
Language varieties refer to different forms of a language influenced by social factors such as situation, occupation, age, geography, education, gender, social status, and ethnicity. There are several types of language varieties including dialects, registers, pidgins, and creoles. A dialect is a variety of a language used in a specific region or social class. Registers are varieties used in different situations based on formality. A pidgin is a simplified mixed language with reduced vocabulary and grammar used for communication between speakers of different languages, while a creole develops when a pidgin becomes the primary language of a group and acquires more complex grammar.
Definition and Scopo of PsycholinguisticsRezaHalimah
Psycholinguistics is the study of the cognitive and psychological processes underlying language acquisition, production, and comprehension. It investigates how the mind processes language and deals with the relationship between linguistic behavior and psychological mechanisms. Psycholinguistics has several sub-disciplines including theoretical psycholinguistics, developmental psycholinguistics, neuropsycholinguistics, and experimental psycholinguistics. It seeks to understand how language is acquired and produced by users as well as how the brain works in processing language.
The document discusses four major theories of second language acquisition:
1) The behaviorist perspective which focuses on habit formation through practice and reinforcement.
2) The innatist perspective which posits that humans have an innate Universal Grammar that facilitates language learning.
3) The cognitive/developmental perspective which explains language learning through general theories of learning like information processing and interaction.
4) The sociocultural perspective which views language development as arising through social interaction, such as interacting within one's Zone of Proximal Development.
This document provides an overview of language planning. It defines language planning as efforts to influence and modify a language's structure and function. It discusses key aspects of language planning including its goals, processes, types (status and corpus planning), ideologies, and issues. The summary focuses on language planning's aim to alter a language's role and how it is implemented through selection, codification, elaboration, and acceptance of a standardized variety.
Bilingualism, code switching, and code mixingMuslimah Alg
This document discusses various linguistic phenomena that occur in multilingual communities, including bilingualism, code-switching, code-mixing, and borrowings. It provides definitions and examples of each. Bilingualism involves speaking two languages, while code-switching is switching between languages in conversation. Code-mixing involves rapidly switching codes within a single sentence. Borrowings occur when a word is adopted from one language due to no equivalent in the other.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics studies language variation and change in relation to social factors. Some key points covered include:
- Sociolinguistics examines how social factors like region, age, and gender correlate with linguistic differences.
- Languages have standardized and non-standard varieties, and sociolinguists look at issues of prestige and stigmatization.
- Researchers describe language variation through concepts like idiolects, sociolects, and linguistic variables.
- Phonological, grammatical, and lexical variation are all studied using descriptive tools from the different levels of language.
The Prague School was an influential linguistic circle established in 1926 in Prague that made several important contributions to structuralist linguistics. It emphasized language as a system of functionally related units and studied it synchronically. The Prague School developed the concept of distinctive features in phonology and the notion of markedness. It also distinguished between the theme and rheme in sentences, with the theme being given information and the rheme being new information. The general approach of the Prague School can be described as a combination of functionalism and structuralism.
The document discusses language contact, which occurs when languages interact through written communication or direct social interaction between speakers. It provides examples of language contact through Latin and English, and Turkish and German. Language contact can result in borrowing of words, phrases, sounds, and grammatical structures from one language to another. The extent of borrowing depends on factors like the intensity of contact, prestige of languages, and relationship between speaker groups. Pidgins and creoles may emerge in situations requiring a common language for communication, like trade or plantation settings.
This document provides an introduction to sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society, exploring how social factors influence language use and how language variations exist between social groups. Some key topics covered include the differences between micro and macrolinguistics, sociolinguistics versus the sociology of language, social factors that determine language choice like participants and setting, and social dimensions of language like solidarity scales. The conclusion emphasizes that sociolinguistics research how language is used in a community and how social relationships and contexts influence linguistic variation and choices in vocabulary, sounds, words and grammar.
This document discusses the history and relationships between sociolinguistics and other related disciplines. It outlines that sociolinguistics emerged from the work of scholars like William Labov, Basil Bernstein, Dell Hymes, John Gumperz, Charles Ferguson, and Joshua Fishman in the 1960s-1970s. It also describes how sociolinguistics is linked to linguistics, sociology, pragmatics, and anthropology by examining the social influences on language use.
This document discusses 7 approaches to discourse analysis:
1. Conversation analysis examines the structure and organization of natural conversation.
2. Ethnography analyzes language use within social and cultural contexts through observation and interviews.
3. Corpus-based analysis uses large text databases to study language patterns and variations in genres.
4. Multimodal analysis views communication as involving multiple modes beyond just language.
5. Genre analysis describes conventional language patterns associated with academic and professional settings.
6. Critical discourse analysis critically examines how language relates to power and social inequality.
7. Mediated discourse analysis focuses on how social actions are carried out through discourse within cultural and historical contexts.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
The document discusses differences in language use between men and women in several areas: minimal response, question asking, turn-taking, changing topics, self-disclosure, verbal aggression, and politeness. Women tend to provide more minimal responses like "mhmm" in conversations. They also ask more questions and are more likely to take turns in discussions. Men typically change topics less and focus more on their own points. Self-disclosure and expressions of emotions also differ between genders.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in linguistics. It discusses linguistics as the scientific study of language and divides the field into synchronic versus diachronic analysis, theoretical versus applied linguistics, and microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics. It also covers structuralism, generativism, functionalism, and historical linguistics. Finally, it defines several concepts mentioned such as RP (Received Pronunciation), Grimm's Law, and ideograms to provide context for linguistic analysis.
Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who developed structural linguistics, viewing language as a system of signs. He argued that language should be studied synchronically, focusing on its structure at a single point in time, rather than diachronically looking at its evolution over time. Saussure analyzed language as consisting of signs, each with a signifier (sound-image) and signified (concept). The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary, and signs can be organized through their syntagmatic (combinatory) and paradigmatic (substitutable) relationships.
Language death occurs when a language is no longer spoken by anyone. Languages do not naturally die out but are instead "killed" when their speakers abandon the language due to pressures to assimilate and adopt dominant languages that have greater social and economic opportunities. There are several types of language death including sudden, radical, gradual, and bottom-to-top death. Major causes of language death include globalization, urbanization, modern education, and the pressure of dominant languages that are given more prestige and power. Efforts can be made to revive languages through programs that promote acquisition by adults, create socially integrated speaker populations, develop literacy in the language, and encourage use of the language in various social domains over time.
Human beings do not live alone in the world and language plays a key role in how people understand reality. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, the language we speak completely determines how we think and perceive the world, with no true translation possible between languages. More moderate versions hold that language influences thought but does not determine it entirely, and different languages may influence how their speakers perceive some concepts like time, numbers, or colors. Many studies have investigated this hypothesis but have found both supporting and non-supporting evidence.
What is Sociolinguistics? Explain Its Scope and Origin. BS. English (4th Seme...AleeenaFarooq
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society interact and influence each other. It examines how factors like ethnicity, religion, gender, age, and education impact language variations between groups. Sociolinguistics originated in the late 1960s from fields like dialectology, historical linguistics, and language contact, incorporating influences from sociology and psychology. Key figures like Labov, Hymes, and Cameron contributed to establishing sociolinguistics as an independent subject concerned with both the social and structural aspects of language use. Sociolinguistics can be divided into micro- and macro-levels, with micro focusing on individual language variations and macro analyzing language patterns at the societal level.
The document defines inter-language as the language system produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a new language. Inter-language develops based on rules from the learner's first language and the target language, and may not reflect features of either. The inter-language system changes over time as rules are altered, deleted, or added. Learners progress through stages from early approximations of the target language to later intermediate and final stages. Fossilization occurs when errors become impossible to correct despite ability and motivation.
Language varieties refer to different forms of a language influenced by social factors such as situation, occupation, age, geography, education, gender, social status, and ethnicity. There are several types of language varieties including dialects, registers, pidgins, and creoles. A dialect is a variety of a language used in a specific region or social class. Registers are varieties used in different situations based on formality. A pidgin is a simplified mixed language with reduced vocabulary and grammar used for communication between speakers of different languages, while a creole develops when a pidgin becomes the primary language of a group and acquires more complex grammar.
Definition and Scopo of PsycholinguisticsRezaHalimah
Psycholinguistics is the study of the cognitive and psychological processes underlying language acquisition, production, and comprehension. It investigates how the mind processes language and deals with the relationship between linguistic behavior and psychological mechanisms. Psycholinguistics has several sub-disciplines including theoretical psycholinguistics, developmental psycholinguistics, neuropsycholinguistics, and experimental psycholinguistics. It seeks to understand how language is acquired and produced by users as well as how the brain works in processing language.
The document discusses four major theories of second language acquisition:
1) The behaviorist perspective which focuses on habit formation through practice and reinforcement.
2) The innatist perspective which posits that humans have an innate Universal Grammar that facilitates language learning.
3) The cognitive/developmental perspective which explains language learning through general theories of learning like information processing and interaction.
4) The sociocultural perspective which views language development as arising through social interaction, such as interacting within one's Zone of Proximal Development.
This document provides an overview of language planning. It defines language planning as efforts to influence and modify a language's structure and function. It discusses key aspects of language planning including its goals, processes, types (status and corpus planning), ideologies, and issues. The summary focuses on language planning's aim to alter a language's role and how it is implemented through selection, codification, elaboration, and acceptance of a standardized variety.
Bilingualism, code switching, and code mixingMuslimah Alg
This document discusses various linguistic phenomena that occur in multilingual communities, including bilingualism, code-switching, code-mixing, and borrowings. It provides definitions and examples of each. Bilingualism involves speaking two languages, while code-switching is switching between languages in conversation. Code-mixing involves rapidly switching codes within a single sentence. Borrowings occur when a word is adopted from one language due to no equivalent in the other.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. It examines how social factors such as context, status, and function influence language variation and use.
2) People code switch and use different linguistic varieties depending on social context, including the participants, setting, topic, and function of the interaction. Formal contexts like religion or education use high varieties while informal settings use low varieties.
3) Languages shift when their speakers abandon them for a dominant language due to economic, social, or demographic factors. This can lead to language loss or even death when no one speaks it anymore.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics studies language variation and change in relation to social factors. Some key points covered include:
- Sociolinguistics examines how social factors like region, age, and gender correlate with linguistic differences.
- Languages have standardized and non-standard varieties, and sociolinguists look at issues of prestige and stigmatization.
- Researchers describe language variation through concepts like idiolects, sociolects, and linguistic variables.
- Phonological, grammatical, and lexical variation are all studied using descriptive tools from the different levels of language.
The Prague School was an influential linguistic circle established in 1926 in Prague that made several important contributions to structuralist linguistics. It emphasized language as a system of functionally related units and studied it synchronically. The Prague School developed the concept of distinctive features in phonology and the notion of markedness. It also distinguished between the theme and rheme in sentences, with the theme being given information and the rheme being new information. The general approach of the Prague School can be described as a combination of functionalism and structuralism.
The document discusses language contact, which occurs when languages interact through written communication or direct social interaction between speakers. It provides examples of language contact through Latin and English, and Turkish and German. Language contact can result in borrowing of words, phrases, sounds, and grammatical structures from one language to another. The extent of borrowing depends on factors like the intensity of contact, prestige of languages, and relationship between speaker groups. Pidgins and creoles may emerge in situations requiring a common language for communication, like trade or plantation settings.
This document provides an introduction to sociolinguistics. It discusses how sociolinguistics examines the relationship between language and society, exploring how social factors influence language use and how language variations exist between social groups. Some key topics covered include the differences between micro and macrolinguistics, sociolinguistics versus the sociology of language, social factors that determine language choice like participants and setting, and social dimensions of language like solidarity scales. The conclusion emphasizes that sociolinguistics research how language is used in a community and how social relationships and contexts influence linguistic variation and choices in vocabulary, sounds, words and grammar.
This document discusses the history and relationships between sociolinguistics and other related disciplines. It outlines that sociolinguistics emerged from the work of scholars like William Labov, Basil Bernstein, Dell Hymes, John Gumperz, Charles Ferguson, and Joshua Fishman in the 1960s-1970s. It also describes how sociolinguistics is linked to linguistics, sociology, pragmatics, and anthropology by examining the social influences on language use.
This document discusses 7 approaches to discourse analysis:
1. Conversation analysis examines the structure and organization of natural conversation.
2. Ethnography analyzes language use within social and cultural contexts through observation and interviews.
3. Corpus-based analysis uses large text databases to study language patterns and variations in genres.
4. Multimodal analysis views communication as involving multiple modes beyond just language.
5. Genre analysis describes conventional language patterns associated with academic and professional settings.
6. Critical discourse analysis critically examines how language relates to power and social inequality.
7. Mediated discourse analysis focuses on how social actions are carried out through discourse within cultural and historical contexts.
Diglossia refers to a stable language situation where two varieties of the same language are used by a language community. The high variety (H) has prestige and is used for formal, written communication while the low variety (L) lacks prestige and is used for informal, spoken communication. Some key aspects of diglossia include the high variety having prestige, a literary heritage, acquisition through formal education, standardization, a simpler grammar in the low variety, differing lexicons between the varieties, and the high variety having a divergent sound system from the low variety.
The document discusses differences in language use between men and women in several areas: minimal response, question asking, turn-taking, changing topics, self-disclosure, verbal aggression, and politeness. Women tend to provide more minimal responses like "mhmm" in conversations. They also ask more questions and are more likely to take turns in discussions. Men typically change topics less and focus more on their own points. Self-disclosure and expressions of emotions also differ between genders.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in linguistics. It discusses linguistics as the scientific study of language and divides the field into synchronic versus diachronic analysis, theoretical versus applied linguistics, and microlinguistics versus macrolinguistics. It also covers structuralism, generativism, functionalism, and historical linguistics. Finally, it defines several concepts mentioned such as RP (Received Pronunciation), Grimm's Law, and ideograms to provide context for linguistic analysis.
Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist who developed structural linguistics, viewing language as a system of signs. He argued that language should be studied synchronically, focusing on its structure at a single point in time, rather than diachronically looking at its evolution over time. Saussure analyzed language as consisting of signs, each with a signifier (sound-image) and signified (concept). The relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary, and signs can be organized through their syntagmatic (combinatory) and paradigmatic (substitutable) relationships.
Ferdinand de Saussure was a pioneer in modern linguistics who viewed language as a system of arbitrary signs. He made an important distinction between langue (the abstract system of a language) and parole (individual usage). Saussure also differentiated between the synchronic study of language at a single point in time versus the diachronic study of language evolution over time. His work emphasized analyzing the langue through its sign relationships and structure at a fixed time period, establishing linguistics as a formal, scientific discipline.
There are important terms in linguistics, which should be cleared so I have made these slides to make these terms clear.
If you are interested in linguistics, then you must go through these slides. These are basic terms of linguistics, which help us to understand linguistics.
We all know that nowadays linguistics is becoming emerging field, it has a lot of scope so we should have to study it thoroughly.
The document discusses the history and development of the field of historical linguistics. It explains that historical linguistics studies how languages change over time and are related to one another. Traditional historical linguistics focused on documenting past language changes, while modern historical linguistics examines the social and cultural factors that influence language change. The history of the English language reflects the cultural and political influences of groups like the Romans, Vikings, and Normans that have shaped its vocabulary and grammar over many centuries.
Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time through successive stages. It examines changes in languages from earlier forms to modern forms. The primary tool of historical linguistics is the comparative method, which is used to identify relationships among languages and reconstruct prehistoric proto-languages. Historical linguistics serves as the foundation for comparative linguistics. Some key causes of language change include sound changes through articulatory simplification, analogy and reanalysis in morphology, language contact and borrowing, and sociological factors influencing adoption of innovations. Subfields of historical linguistics include comparative linguistics, etymology, dialectology, phonology, morphology, and syntax.
The document discusses several key topics in linguistics:
1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language, examining its nature, structure, units, and modifications. It emerged in the 19th century to emphasize a newer approach focusing on spoken language compared to traditional philology.
2. Philology refers to the study of written records, establishing their authenticity and meaning. It involves reconstructing imperfect texts by comparing variants and interpreting information about history, culture, language and literature.
3. Linguistics can be divided into descriptive/synchronic versus historical/diachronic approaches, theoretical versus applied areas, and micro- versus macrolinguistics. Various specialized fields within macrolinguistics are
The document discusses the interactionist approach to second language acquisition (SLA). It explains that the interactionist approach focuses on how social interaction and modified input through negotiation of meaning promotes language acquisition. The interaction hypothesis posits that interactional modification makes input comprehensible, comprehensible input promotes acquisition, and therefore interactional modification promotes acquisition. The document also provides a critical review of some key aspects of the interactionist perspective, such as the role of modified input and the importance of social context in SLA.
This document discusses lexicology as a linguistic discipline that studies vocabulary and word features. It defines lexicology as the study of vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word groups within a given language. The document outlines the main tasks of lexicology as systematically describing the vocabulary of a language in terms of origin, development, and current usage. It also discusses subfields like semasiology, word structure, word formation, etymology, and lexicography. Additionally, it contrasts general/theoretical lexicology which studies universal vocabulary features, with special/descriptive lexicology which describes peculiarities of a single language.
- Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time, focusing on the connections between languages, their historical development, and how they evolve through cultural contact.
- Descriptive linguistics investigates the structure of language at a specific point in time without considering changes over time.
- There is an interdependence between the diachronic (historical) and synchronic (descriptive) approaches, as the current state of a language is influenced by its history and synchronic variations can lead to diachronic changes.
The document discusses two main branches of linguistics:
1) Historical linguistics studies how languages change over time. It focuses on connections between languages and their historical development.
2) Descriptive linguistics investigates the structure of language at a single point in time without considering historical changes.
Historical linguistics and descriptive linguistics are interdependent, as the current state of a language is influenced by its history and synchronic variations can lead to diachronic changes.
The document discusses historical linguistics and how languages change over time. It covers two main branches - diachronic linguistics which studies how languages change through time, and synchronic linguistics which looks at languages at a single point in time. Languages undergo various types of changes including sound changes, grammatical changes, semantic changes, and borrowing of words from other languages. Both linguistic and non-linguistic factors can influence how and why languages evolve.
1) Sociolinguistics is the study of the influence of social factors on language and how language varies between social groups. It examines how language is used to categorize individuals in social classes.
2) Language changes over time due to factors like economy, analogy, language contact, acquisition, and sociolinguistic explanations. Changes occur at the lexical, grammatical, and sound levels.
3) Speech communities are groups that share language norms. Sociolinguistics studies high and low prestige varieties and tight versus loose social networks. It also examines internal language within the mind and external language in social contexts.
Applied linguistics began in the 1950s with the founding of the University of Edinburgh School of Applied Linguistics in 1956 and the Center of Applied Linguistics in Washington D.C. in 1957. The British Association of Applied Linguistics was formally established in 1967 to promote the study of language use, acquisition, and teaching. Applied linguistics is concerned with the role of language in people's lives and problems associated with language use, drawing from linguistics as well as other fields like education, sociology, and anthropology. It differs from linguistics in that linguistics focuses only on describing language itself, while applied linguistics seeks to address real-world language issues.
Structuralism is an approach to analyzing language, culture, and society that focuses on their underlying structures and systems. It originated in the 19th century and grew popular in the 20th century. Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the father of modern structuralism. He analyzed language as a system of signs composed of a signifier and signified. Saussure also distinguished between langue, the set of abstract rules that make up a language, and parole, how those rules are used in actual speech. Structuralism examines language synchronically, looking at its rules at a single point in time, and diachronically, considering its evolution over periods of time. It also distinguishes between syntagmatic relations,
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of social factors on language, including how language varies between social groups based on attributes like ethnicity, education level, and gender.
2. Language usage varies between social classes and regions, which sociolinguistics studies through examining "sociolects".
3. The social aspects of language were first studied scientifically in the 1930s but sociolinguistics emerged as a formal field in the 1960s led by linguists like William Labov.
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of social factors on language, including how language varies between social groups based on attributes like ethnicity, education level, and gender.
2. Language usage varies between social classes and regions, which sociolinguistics studies through examining "sociolects".
3. The social aspects of language were first studied in the 1930s but sociolinguistics emerged as a formal field in the 1960s led by linguists like William Labov.
1. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of social factors on language, including how language varies between social groups based on attributes like ethnicity, education level, and gender.
2. Language usage varies between social classes and regions, which sociolinguistics studies through examining "sociolects".
3. The social aspects of language were first studied scientifically in the 1930s but sociolinguistics emerged as a formal field in the 1960s led by linguists like William Labov.
The document discusses the linguistic approach to teaching, which uses a child's native language as an associative tool to help learn new words and spelling patterns. It then provides a high-level overview of the field of linguistics, including the scientific study of language form, meaning, and context. Some key areas covered include phonetics, semantics, pragmatics, grammar, and sociolinguistics.
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How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
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1. Central Concepts of Saussure: Synchrony vs.
Diachrony
Synchrony was proposed firstly by Saussure. He stated that language as a system of
signs can be studied as a complete system at any given point in time. Like chess, the
important part of language is how pieces move and the positions of all pieces relative to
one another. The shape of each piece is only important in that its potential can be
recognized. A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same
time. Modern American English and British English have a synchronic relationship.
Diachrony is the change in the meaning of words over time. Diachrony is also named as
historical linguistics. For example in the way that 'magic' meant 'good' in youth culture
for a period during the 1980s (and, to a lesser extent, beyond). It is thus the study of
language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the dictionary
meaning of words.
A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century
English and 21st century English have a diachronic relationship.
Saussure criticized current linguistics as seeking to understand language changes but
not why it changed or what underlying factors were really changing.
He thus moved the study of language from diachronic to synchronic relationships.
2. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
In linguistics, the terms ‘synchrony’ and ‘diachrony’ refer to two different approaches in
linguistic research, with respect to the periods of time considered in the research in
question.
The synchronic approach means studying any aspect of language solely in one particular
period of time (typically the present), without taking into account other periods of time
in that language’s history. For example, studying the usage patterns of double negatives
in English (e.g. I ain’t got no money) in the early 21st century, without looking into the
usage patterns of double negatives in English prior to the 21st century. Most fields in
linguistics typically employ synchronic approaches as to not lose focus in their research.
The diachronic approach means studying any aspect of language by comparing it
between two (or more) periods of time, effectively focusing on the change and evolution
of whatever it is you’re looking at. As an example, studying the usage patterns of double
negatives in English in the 18th century and comparing it to the patterns in the 19th,
20th, and early 21st centuries to see how double negatives in English may or may not
have changed. By definition, historical linguistics typically employs diachronic
approaches.
See also: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5vhq3aRNjE
3. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
Saussure distinguishes between synchronic (static) linguistics and diachronic (evolutionary) linguistics. Synchronic
linguistics is the study of language at a particular point in time. Diachronic linguistics is the study of the history or evolution
of language.
According to Saussure, diachronic change originates in the social activity of speech. Changes occur in individual patterns of
speaking before becoming more widely accepted as a part of language. Speaking is an activity which involves oral and
auditory communication between individuals. Language is the set of rules by which individuals are able to understand each
other.
Saussure says that nothing enters written language without having been tested in spoken language. Language is changed by
the rearranging and reinterpreting of its units. A unit is a segment of the spoken chain that corresponds to a particular
concept. Saussure explains that the units of language can have a synchronic or diachronic arrangement.
Saussure’s investigation of structural linguistics gives us a clear and concise presentation of the view that language can be
described in terms of structural units. He explains that this structural aspect means that language also represents a system of
values. Linguistic value can be viewed as a quality of the signified, the signifier, or the complete sign.
The linguistic value of a word (a signifier) comes from its property of standing for a concept (the signified). The value of the
signified comes from its relation to other concepts. The value of the complete sign comes from the way in which it unites the
signifier and the signified.
Thus, Saussure shows that the meaning or signification of signs is established by their relation to each other. The relation of
signs to each other forms the structure of language. Synchronic reality is found in the structure of language at a given point
in time. Diachronic reality is found in changes of language over a period of time.
Saussure views language as having an inner duality, which is manifested by the interaction of the synchronic and diachronic,
the syntagmatic and associative, the signifier and signified.
4. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
One can approach all different aspects of language, such as grammar, semantics,
syntax, phonology etc., from two different points of view:
- Diachronic linguistics (Diachrone Linguistik) studies language in its
development across time (this is what the term diachronic means) (Moessner
2001), whilst,
- synchronic linguistics (Synchrone Linguistik) tries to understand the functioning
of language at a single point of time, without reference to earlier or later stages.
As it is necessary to know how a system works at any given time before one can
hope to understand changes, the analysis of language at a single point in time, i.e.
synchronic linguistics, now usually precedes the study in terms of diachronic
linguistics."
(Paul Georg Meyer et al., Synchronic English Linguistics: An Introduction, 3rd ed.
Gunter Nar Verlag, 2005)
5. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
"A synchronic study of language is a comparison of languages
or dialects--various spoken differences of the same language--
used within some defined spatial region and during the same
period of time. Determining the regions of the United States in
which people currently say 'pop' rather than 'soda' and 'idea'
rather than 'idear' are examples of the types of inquiries
pertinent to a synchronic study."
(Colleen Elaine Donnelly, Linguistics for Writers. State
Univiversity of New York Press, 1994)
6. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
Saussure and Historical Linguistics
"Although nowadays one thinks of Saussure first and foremost as the
scholar who defined the notion of 'synchronic linguistics'--the study of
languages existing at a given point in time, as opposed to the historical
linguistics ('diachronic' linguistics, as Saussure called it to clarify the
contrast) which had seemed to his contemporaries the only possible
approach to the subject--in his own lifetime this was far from his main
claim to fame. . . . [A]ll his publications, and almost all his teaching,
throughout his career dealt with historical rather than with synchronic
linguistics, and indeed with detailed analysis of various Indo-European
languages rather than with the general, theoretical discourse for which
he is now famous."
(Geoffrey Sampson, Schools of Linguistics. Stanford University Press,
1980)
7. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
Language Change
"For most of the twentieth century, synchronic linguistics was considered to
be prior to diachronic linguistics. Historical linguists were expected to gather
together descriptions of a language at various points in time, relying to a
large extent on the previous work of synchronic linguists. Then they studied
the changes which had taken place by comparing the various synchronic
states. They behaved somewhat like a photographer trying to work out a
continuous sequence of events from a series of separate snapshots--on the
face of it, a sensible enough procedure. The problem was simply this:
linguists making the synchronic descriptions were, without realizing it, simply
leaving out those aspects of the description that were essential for an
understanding of language change."
(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge
University Press, 2001)
8. Synchrony vs. Diachrony
If we sum it all up, according to the method, range or scope of its study, or the focus of interest of the linguist, Linguistics can be classified into
different kinds, the chief of which are noted below: Diachronic Linguistics and Synchronic Linguistics. Diachronic linguistics is the kind in
which we study the historical development of language through different periods of time.
For example, we study how Spanish, Portugese, French and Italian have grown out of Latin. The changes that have occurred in language with
the passage of time, are also studied under this kind of linguistics; therefore, it is called historical linguistics. Synchronic linguistics is not
concerned with the historical development of language. It confines itself to the study of how a language is spoken by a specified speech
community at a particular point of time. It is also called ‘descriptive’ linguistics. Diachronic linguistics studies language change, and
synchronic linguistics studies language states without their history. According to C.F. Hockett:
“The study of how a language works at a given time, regardless of its past history or future destiny, is called descriptive or synchronic
linguistics. The study of how speech habits change as time goes by is called historical or diachronic linguistics”
The distinction synchrony and diachrony refers to the difference in treating language from different points of view. Though the historical
character of a language cannot be ignored, its present form being the result of definite historical processes, changes and transformations, it is
necessary for a complete understanding of it to concentrate on the units of its structure at the present moment. Some scholars do not see the two
approaches apart. They assert that it is a mistake to think of descriptive and historical linguistics as two separate compartments. However, on
the whole the two areas are kept apart and one is studied to the exclusion of the other. Synchronic statements make no reference to the previous
stages in the language. Linguistic studies in the nineteenth century were historical in character; they originated as part of the general historical
investigations into the origins and development of cultures and communities, especially West Asia, Egypt, etc. Such philological researches
viewed language at different stages of its progress and attempted to understand relations among different languages. Language families were
discovered and genetic affinities identified. For Zhirmunsky, Diachronic linguistics was a great discovery of the 19th century:
“Which developed so powerfully and fruitfully from the 1820s to the 1880s. This discovery enabled linguists to explain modern languages as
a result of law-governed historical development”
On a closer look one realizes that without a good synchronic (descriptive) work, valid historical (diachronic) postulations are not possible; in
other words, a good historical linguist needs to be thorough descriptive scholar too.