Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist born on November 26, 1857, known as a foundational figure in modern linguistics. His key contributions include the concepts of the linguistic sign, the distinction between langue (language) and parole (speech), and the synchronic and diachronic methods of language study, which shaped the future of linguistic theory and various fields like semiotics. Saussure's theories emphasize the arbitrary nature of signs and their role as a structured system, profoundly influencing contemporary understanding of language.

1. Ferdinand de Saussure
1. Main biographical facts and scientific papers
Ferdinand de Saussure, born on November 26, 1857, in Geneva, Switzerland, is widely regarded as
one of the founding figures of modern linguistics. Coming from a family with a rich academic
heritage, Saussure showed early signs of intellectual promise. He studied at the University of
Geneva and later at the University of Leipzig, where he completed his dissertation on the genitive
absolute in Sanskrit. Saussure's early work laid the foundation for his later contributions to the field
of linguistics.
Saussure's most influential work, Cours de linguistique générale (Course in General Linguistics),
was published posthumously in 1916. This seminal text was based on notes taken by his students
during the courses he taught at the University of Geneva between 1906 and 1911. In this work,
Saussure introduced key concepts that would shape the future of linguistic theory, including the
ideas of the linguistic sign, the dichotomy of langue and parole, and the concept of structuralism in
linguistics.
Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign, which consists of the "signifier" (the form of a word) and
the "signified" (the concept it represents), revolutionized the study of language. He argued that the
relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary and based on social convention. This
insight led to the understanding that language is a structured system of signs, which can be studied
independently of their use in actual speech (parole).
Another significant contribution from Saussure is the distinction between synchronic and diachronic
linguistics. Synchronic linguistics examines a language at a specific point in time, whereas
diachronic linguistics studies the historical development and evolution of a language. Saussure
emphasized the importance of the synchronic approach, which focuses on the structure and function
of language as a self-contained system at any given moment.
Saussure's work laid the groundwork for many subsequent developments in linguistics and related
fields. His ideas influenced various schools of thought, including structuralism, semiotics, and post-
structuralism, and his legacy continues to be felt in the study of language and communication.
Ferdinand de Saussure passed away on February 22, 1913, but his contributions to the field of
linguistics remain foundational and enduring.
2. Three stages of language development according to Saussure
Ferdinand de Saussure did not explicitly define stages of language development in the way that
some developmental psychologists or linguists might describe the progression of language
acquisition in individuals. However, his work on the nature of linguistic signs and the structure of
language does imply a framework for understanding the evolution of language over time. Saussure's
ideas can be contextualized into three broad stages or aspects of language development:
1. Pre-Linguistic Development (Langue as a Social System)
In Saussure's framework, the initial stage can be seen as the development of langue, the structured
system of language as it exists within a community. This stage involves the establishment of the
conventions and rules that govern how signs (words) are formed and understood. It reflects the
collective agreement on meanings and the syntactic rules that make communication possible. This
social aspect of language is a prerequisite for individual language use and evolves as communities
form and develop shared linguistic conventions.
2. Individual Usage and Adaptation (Parole)
The second stage involves the use of language by individuals, referred to as parole. This
encompasses the actual act of speaking and writing, where individuals use the system of signs
(langue) in specific contexts. During this stage, language is dynamic and adaptable. While langue

2. provides the structure, parole reflects personal, situational, and contextual variations in language
use. This stage is where the nuances, idiosyncrasies, and creativity of individual language users
come into play, contributing to the living nature of language.
3. Diachronic Development (Historical Evolution of Language)
The third stage focuses on the historical and evolutionary aspect of language, which Saussure
termed diachronic linguistics. This stage examines how languages change over time, including
shifts in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and syntax. Diachronic development is driven by
numerous factors such as cultural exchange, technological advancement, and social changes. It
looks at language in a historical context, tracing the lineage and transformation of linguistic signs
from one era to another.
Integrative Perspective
While these stages provide a broad framework for understanding language development according
to Saussure's theories, it's crucial to recognize that they are interrelated. The structural system of
language (langue) enables individual expression (parole), and both are subject to historical
evolution (diachronic change). Saussure's insights highlight the complex, layered nature of
language, emphasizing its role as both a social construct and a dynamic, evolving tool of human
communication.
3. Language and speech
Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between language and speech is a foundational concept in his
linguistic theory. He uses the terms langue and parole to differentiate between these two aspects.
Language (Langue)
Langue refers to the abstract, systematic, and social aspect of language. It encompasses the set of
conventions and rules shared by a linguistic community that make communication possible. This
includes grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and the system of signs that give words their meanings.
Langue is a collective structure that exists independently of individual speakers; it is the underlying
framework that individuals draw upon when they use language. Saussure emphasized that langue is
essential for understanding how language functions as a coherent system.
Speech (Parole)
Parole, on the other hand, refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations by individual
speakers. This includes speaking, writing, and any other form of expressing thoughts through
language. Parole is the practical application of langue, and it encompasses the personal, situational,
and contextual variations in language use. While langue is stable and consistent across a
community, parole is dynamic and variable, reflecting the individual choices and circumstances of
speakers.
Relationship Between Langue and Parole
Saussure's distinction highlights the interdependence of these two aspects. Langue provides the
structure and rules necessary for communication, while parole is the manifestation of that structure
in real-world usage. Without langue, individuals would not have a common framework for
understanding each other, and without parole, the abstract system of langue would have no practical
application. This distinction allows linguists to study the underlying system of language
independently of its usage, providing a clearer understanding of both.
4. Main dichotomies introduced by F. de Saussure
Ferdinand de Saussure introduced several key dichotomies in his linguistic theory, which have had
a profound influence on the study of language. These dichotomies include:
1. Langue vs. Parole

3. This distinction refers to the difference between the abstract, systematic aspect of language (langue)
and its concrete, individual manifestations (parole). Langue represents the structured system of
language shared by a community, while parole encompasses the actual use of language by
individuals in specific contexts.
2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic
Saussure distinguished between the synchronic study of language, which focuses on its structure at
a particular point in time, and the diachronic study, which examines its historical development over
time. Synchronic linguistics analyzes language as a static system, while diachronic linguistics
investigates its evolution and changes across different periods.
3. Signifier vs. Signified
In Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign, he proposed that each linguistic sign consists of two
components: the signifier (the form of the word or sound pattern) and the signified (the concept or
meaning it represents). This dichotomy emphasizes the arbitrary relationship between the two
elements, with meaning being assigned by social convention rather than inherent in the sign itself.
4. Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic
Saussure also discussed the syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes of language structure. The
syntagmatic axis refers to the linear arrangement of elements in a sentence or discourse, while the
paradigmatic axis involves the selection of one element over others in a given linguistic context.
These axes represent different dimensions of language structure and organization.
5. Diachronic Linguistics vs. Synchronic Linguistics
Saussure emphasized the importance of both diachronic and synchronic approaches to studying
language. Diachronic linguistics examines language change and evolution over time, while
synchronic linguistics focuses on analyzing language as a system at a particular moment in time,
without considering historical developments.
These dichotomies introduced by Saussure provide frameworks for understanding various aspects
of language structure, usage, and development. They continue to be influential in linguistics and
related fields, shaping how researchers analyze and interpret language phenomena.
5. The Nature of the linguistic sign
Ferdinand de Saussure's concept of the linguistic sign is central to his theory of language.
He proposed that a linguistic sign is a combination of two components: the signifier and the
signified.
Signifier: This refers to the physical form of the linguistic sign, such as a spoken word, a
written symbol, or a gesture. It is the sound pattern or image that we perceive through our
senses.
Signified: The signified is the mental concept or meaning associated with the signifier. It
represents the idea or the mental image that the signifier evokes in the mind of the speaker
or listener.
Saussure emphasized that the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary
and conventional, meaning that there is no inherent connection between the sound or image
of a word and the concept it represents. Instead, the association between the two is
established by social convention within a linguistic community.
Furthermore, Saussure argued that the relationship between signifiers and signifieds is not
one-to-one but rather a system of differences. Each sign derives its meaning from its
difference from other signs within the linguistic system. For example, the word "dog"

4. carries its meaning not because of any inherent connection between the sounds "d-o-g" and
the concept of a canine but because it is distinct from other words like "cat," "horse," or
"tree."
Saussure's theory of the linguistic sign revolutionized the study of language by shifting the
focus from individual words to the structure and organization of language as a system of
signs. It provided a framework for understanding how meaning is created and
communicated through language, highlighting the role of social convention and the
arbitrariness of linguistic signs.
1.) Ferdinand de Saussure was a Swiss linguist whose work laid the foundation for many developments in
the field of linguistics and semiotics. Here are the main biographical facts about him:
1. Birth and Early Life:
 Born: November 26, 1857, in Geneva, Switzerland.
 Family Background: Saussure was born into a family with a strong scientific and academic
tradition. His father, Henri Louis Frédéric de Saussure, was a renowned entomologist and
mineralogist.
2. Education:
 Early Education: Saussure showed an early aptitude for languages and began his formal
education in Geneva.
 University Studies: He studied at the University of Geneva, then moved to the University of
Leipzig in Germany in 1876, where he was influenced by leading linguists of the time.
3. Academic Career:
 Early Work: Saussure published his first major work, "Mémoire sur le système primitif des
voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes" (Memoir on the Original System of Vowels in
the Indo-European Languages), in 1878 at the age of 21.
 Teaching: After completing his doctorate in 1880, he taught Sanskrit and Indo-European
languages at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris from 1881 to 1891.
 Return to Geneva: In 1891, he returned to Geneva, where he took up a position at the
University of Geneva, teaching courses in general linguistics and Indo-European languages.
4. Key Contributions:
 Course in General Linguistics: Saussure's most influential work, "Cours de linguistique
générale" (Course in General Linguistics), was published posthumously in 1916. The book
was compiled from his students' notes and laid the groundwork for structuralism by
introducing concepts such as the linguistic sign, the distinction between langue (language)
and parole (speech), and the idea of synchronic versus diachronic analysis.

5.  Sign Theory: He proposed that the linguistic sign is composed of the "signifier" (sound
pattern) and the "signified" (concept), emphasizing the arbitrary nature of the sign.
5. Legacy:
 Saussure is often considered one of the fathers of modern linguistics and semiotics. His
ideas have influenced various fields, including anthropology, literary theory, and
psychoanalysis.
6. Death:
 Died: February 22, 1913, in Vufflens-le-Château, Switzerland.
Ferdinand de Saussure's work has had a lasting impact on the study of language and has continued to
influence various academic disciplines well into the 20th and 21st centuries.
2.) Ferdinand de Saussure's theory of language development can be understood through three key aspects:
1. Synchronic Analysis:
 Focus: Study of language at a specific point in time.
 Key Idea: Language as a system of signs, each consisting of a "signifier" (sound pattern) and
a "signified" (concept).
2. Diachronic Analysis:
 Focus: Study of language over historical time.
 Key Idea: Understanding how languages change and evolve, including phonetic, semantic,
and morphological shifts.
3. Langue and Parole:
 Focus: Differentiation between the abstract system of a language (langue) and actual
language use (parole).
 Key Idea: "Langue" is the underlying structure shared by a community, while "parole" is
individual usage, which can lead to changes in the language system over time.
3.) Ferdinand de Saussure's distinction between language and speech is a foundational concept in his
linguistic theory. He uses the terms langue and parole to differentiate between these two aspects.
Language (Langue)
Langue refers to the abstract, systematic, and social aspect of language. It encompasses the set of
conventions and rules shared by a linguistic community that make communication possible. This includes
grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and the system of signs that give words their meanings. Langue is a collective
structure that exists independently of individual speakers; it is the underlying framework that individuals

6. draw upon when they use language. Saussure emphasized that langue is essential for understanding how
language functions as a coherent system.
Speech (Parole)
Parole, on the other hand, refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations by individual speakers.
This includes speaking, writing, and any other form of expressing thoughts through language. Parole is the
practical application of langue, and it encompasses the personal, situational, and contextual variations in
language use. While langue is stable and consistent across a community, parole is dynamic and variable,
reflecting the individual choices and circumstances of speakers.
Relationship Between Langue and Parole
Saussure's distinction highlights the interdependence of these two aspects. Langue provides the structure
and rules necessary for communication, while parole is the manifestation of that structure in real-world
usage. Without langue, individuals would not have a common framework for understanding each other,
and without parole, the abstract system of langue would have no practical application. This distinction
allows linguists to study the underlying system of language independently of its usage, providing a clearer
understanding of both.
Importance in Linguistics:
Analytical Framework: Saussure’s distinction provides a foundational framework for understanding how
language functions both as a social institution (langue) and as individual acts of communication (parole).
4.) Ferdinand de Saussure introduced several key dichotomies (дайкотеміс) in his linguistic theory:
1. Langue vs. Parole:
 Langue: The abstract, systematic set of rules and conventions of a language shared by a
community.
 Parole: The actual use of language in individual instances of speaking and writing.
2. Signifier vs. Signified:
 Signifier: The form of a word or expression (sound pattern or written form).
 Signified: The concept or meaning that the signifier represents.
3. Synchronic vs. Diachronic:
 Synchronic: The study of language at a specific point in time.
 Diachronic: The study of language development and evolution over time.
4. Syntagmatic vs. Paradigmatic Relations:
 Syntagmatic Relations: The linear relationships between elements in a sequence (e.g.,
word order in a sentence).
 Paradigmatic Relations: The relationships between elements that can substitute for each
other in a particular context (e.g., choosing between different nouns for the same sentence
slot).

7. 5.) Ferdinand de Saussure's concept of the linguistic sign is central to his theory of language. Here are the
main aspects:
1. Arbitrariness:
 Definition: The relationship between the signifier (the form of a word) and the signified
(the concept it represents) is arbitrary. There is no inherent or natural connection between
them; the link is based on social convention.
 Example: The word "tree" (signifier) and the concept of a tree (signified) are arbitrarily
linked. In different languages, different words (signifiers) represent the same concept.
2. Signifier and Signified:
 Signifier: The form of the linguistic sign, such as a sound pattern or written symbol. It is the
physical aspect of the sign.
 Signified: The concept or meaning that the signifier represents. It is the mental aspect of
the sign.
 Sign: The whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified. The
linguistic sign is thus a combination of these two elements.
3. Linear Nature of the Signifier:
 Definition: The signifier, particularly in spoken language, unfolds over time in a linear
sequence. This linear nature is crucial for distinguishing between different signifiers in
speech.
 Example: In spoken language, words are pronounced in a specific order, one after another.
4. Immutability and Mutability:
 Immutability: The linguistic sign is resistant to individual change because it is based on
social conventions that are accepted by the linguistic community.
 Mutability: Over time, linguistic signs can and do change as the conventions of the
community evolve.
Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss linguist, reshaped the understanding of language by introducing pivotal
concepts like the distinction between langue and parole and the theory of the linguistic sign. His work laid
the foundation for structural linguistics and had a profound impact across various disciplines. Saussure's
legacy endures as his theories continue to shape linguistic inquiry and analysis to this day.