International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
A Literature Review of Some Modern RSA Variantsijsrd.com
RSA cryptosystem is the most commonly used public key cryptosystem. It is the first public key cryptosystem. The strength of this cryptosystem is based on the larger key size. There are many algorithms and variants of RSA. But, it is steal a burning topic of research. Because the thrust to store data secret is never going to end. In this paper, we have proposed a literature review of some modern variants of the RSA algorithm. All the algorithms have been analyzed. Their merits and demerits are also discussed.
RSA and RC4 Cryptosystem Performance Evaluation Using Image and TextYekini Nureni
The process of transforming plaintext data into cipher text in order to conceal its meaning in case it fall to hand of unauthorized recipient is refers to as encryption. The systems that perform the encryption processes are known as cryptosystems, there are several cryptosystem algorithms: RSA, RC4, DES, 3DES, Blowfish, AES, IDEA, Skipjack, DSA, ElGamal, etc. The major features that identify and differentiate one cryptosystem algorithm from another are its ability to secure the protected data against attacks and its speed/efficiency. In this paper: application software was designed to implement RSA, and RCA encryption algorithms with advanced features of visual Basic 6 for the front end interface. Microsoft Access is used to design backend of the application, and the Macromedia Flash was also used to incorporate dynamic features that enhance the appearance of the application. The program was used to compare the performance of RSA and RC4. The encryption operation was carried out for both RSA and RC4 using five text files and five graphic files of different sizes 10, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kilobyte respectively. The major factor considered for measuring the performance of the algorithms (RSA and RC4) is the speed of execution using time of execution (TE) as parameter for the evaluation. The performance result was presented and analyzed. We discovered that the RC4 is better compare to RSA algorithm based on the experimental facts presented and the result analysis of the two evaluated algorithms.
a performance analysis of generalized key scheme block cipher (gksbc) algorit...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Information is a commodity. Information has economic value and production of it incurs cost. Securing the information is posing a considerable challenge. The cryptographic technology plays a leading role in securing the owners right on produced information. A continuous development of new encryption systems are necessitated with the advancement in security and efficiency needs. Cryptanalytic studies have demonstrated the superior capability of recently developed Generalized Key Scheme Block Cipher (GKSBC) algorithm in terms of stability, execution time and encryption quality compared to standard security algorithms. This paper proposes to evaluate the enduring capacity of GKSBC to various cryptanalytic attacks viz., Brute – Force Attack, Differential Cryptanalysis, Integral Cryptanalysis, Linear Cryptanalysis and Rectangle attack. None of the traditional attacks are designed to decrypt GKSBC encryption as the use of key scheme is different in it and therefore robust to the conventional cryptanalytic attacks.
A Literature Review of Some Modern RSA Variantsijsrd.com
RSA cryptosystem is the most commonly used public key cryptosystem. It is the first public key cryptosystem. The strength of this cryptosystem is based on the larger key size. There are many algorithms and variants of RSA. But, it is steal a burning topic of research. Because the thrust to store data secret is never going to end. In this paper, we have proposed a literature review of some modern variants of the RSA algorithm. All the algorithms have been analyzed. Their merits and demerits are also discussed.
RSA and RC4 Cryptosystem Performance Evaluation Using Image and TextYekini Nureni
The process of transforming plaintext data into cipher text in order to conceal its meaning in case it fall to hand of unauthorized recipient is refers to as encryption. The systems that perform the encryption processes are known as cryptosystems, there are several cryptosystem algorithms: RSA, RC4, DES, 3DES, Blowfish, AES, IDEA, Skipjack, DSA, ElGamal, etc. The major features that identify and differentiate one cryptosystem algorithm from another are its ability to secure the protected data against attacks and its speed/efficiency. In this paper: application software was designed to implement RSA, and RCA encryption algorithms with advanced features of visual Basic 6 for the front end interface. Microsoft Access is used to design backend of the application, and the Macromedia Flash was also used to incorporate dynamic features that enhance the appearance of the application. The program was used to compare the performance of RSA and RC4. The encryption operation was carried out for both RSA and RC4 using five text files and five graphic files of different sizes 10, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kilobyte respectively. The major factor considered for measuring the performance of the algorithms (RSA and RC4) is the speed of execution using time of execution (TE) as parameter for the evaluation. The performance result was presented and analyzed. We discovered that the RC4 is better compare to RSA algorithm based on the experimental facts presented and the result analysis of the two evaluated algorithms.
a performance analysis of generalized key scheme block cipher (gksbc) algorit...INFOGAIN PUBLICATION
Information is a commodity. Information has economic value and production of it incurs cost. Securing the information is posing a considerable challenge. The cryptographic technology plays a leading role in securing the owners right on produced information. A continuous development of new encryption systems are necessitated with the advancement in security and efficiency needs. Cryptanalytic studies have demonstrated the superior capability of recently developed Generalized Key Scheme Block Cipher (GKSBC) algorithm in terms of stability, execution time and encryption quality compared to standard security algorithms. This paper proposes to evaluate the enduring capacity of GKSBC to various cryptanalytic attacks viz., Brute – Force Attack, Differential Cryptanalysis, Integral Cryptanalysis, Linear Cryptanalysis and Rectangle attack. None of the traditional attacks are designed to decrypt GKSBC encryption as the use of key scheme is different in it and therefore robust to the conventional cryptanalytic attacks.
Three Party Authenticated Key Distribution using Quantum CryptographyIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Cryptography is a process used for sending information in secret way. Goal of this process is to provide protection for information but in different way. In this paper our motive to represent a new method for protection that is generated by combination of RSA and 2 bit rotation mechanism of cryptography. There are many algorithms exist for this process. For cryptography there are algorithms like RSA, IDEA, AES, and DES but here we are using only one algorithm from these that is RSA which is enough to implement combined process using 2 bit rotation. The encrypted image is used as input for network for further implementation.RSA encrypt image with 1 bit rotation. In 1 bit rotation only 1 bit is shifted and at decrypt side shifted bit are reversed. But to make it more secure we are going to perform 2 bit rotation due to which it is more secure as compared to existing algorithm. After applying the 2 bit rotation we perform the permutation of that image that will give us encrypted image. Shivam Kumar | Dr. Ganesh D "Image Cryptography using RSA Algorithm" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42408.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comcomputer-science/computer-security/42408/image-cryptography-using-rsa-algorithm/shivam-kumar
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Abstract: Security is playing an important and crucial role in the field of network communication system and internet. Here, lot of encryption algorithms were developed and so far .Though many algorithms are used now a days, there is a lack of security in message transformation. Security can be improved by making some modifications in traditional algorithms. Algorithms are DES, RSA, ECC algorithm etc. Among this it is preferred to do some modifications in RSA Algorithm. So, the changes applied in these algorithms, security will be better than the previous.
Keywords: Encryption, Decryption, DES, RSA, ECC, Plain Text, Cipher Text.
Title: Improving Network Security by Modifying RSA Algorithm
Author: KANNIKA PARAMESHWARI B, KRITHIKA M, KARTHI P
ISSN 2350-1022
International Journal of Recent Research in Mathematics Computer Science and Information Technology
Paper Publications
Overview on Symmetric Key Encryption AlgorithmsIJERA Editor
In today’s digital communication era sharing of information is increasing significantly. The information being transmitted is vulnerable to various passive and active attacks. Therefore, the information security is one of the most challenging aspects of communication. Cryptography is the one of the main categories of computer security that converts information from its normal form into an unreadable form by using Encryption and Decryption Techniques. The two main characteristics that identify and differentiate one encryption algorithm from another are its ability to secure the protected data against attacks and its speed and efficiency in doing so. There are basically two techniques of cryptography Symmetric and Asymmetric. This paper presents a detailed study of the symmetric encryption techniques.
In many of today’s computer application needs, faster operation is essential to the efficient implementation
of information security algorithm. RC4 has been used as the data encryption algorithm for many
applications and protocols including the Wi-Fi, Skype, and Bit Torrent to name a few. Several efficient
approaches to the implementation of RC4 have been proposed and we review some of those. More recently
some parallel approaches to faster implementation of RC4 have been presented and we include those in our
survey of efficient approaches to RC4. This paper presents an analysis of available hardware/software
parallel implementations of RC4 symmetric key-based algorithm and some security approaches which
make it more secure.
An Approach on Data Security with the Combination of Symmetric and Asymmetric...AnirbanBhowmik8
Data security is an important issue in modern era. In this paper, we use both symmetric and asymmetric key for encryption and decryption for data security. In our technique, two phases are used. In the 1st phase symmetric key encryption is used and in 2nd phase asymmetric key encryption like RSA is used.
Bluetooth technology is an emerging wireless networking standard, which is based on chip that provides short-range wireless frequency hopping communication. Now, Bluetooth technology is mainly applied to the communication between mobile terminal devices, such as palm computers, mobile phones, laptops and so on. However, the phenomenon of data-leaking frequently arises in using the Bluetooth technology for data transfer. To enhance the security of data transmission in Bluetooth communication, a hybrid encryption algorithm based on DES and RSA is proposed. The currently used encryption algorithm employed by the Bluetooth to protect the confidentiality of data during transport between two or more devices is a 128-bit symmetric stream cipher called E0. The proposed hybrid encryption algorithm, instead of the E0 encryption, DES algorithm is used for data transmission because of its higher efficiency in block encryption, and RSA algorithm is used for the encryption of the key of the DES because of its management advantages in key cipher. Under the dual protection with the DES algorithm and the RSA algorithm, the data transmission in the Bluetooth system will be more secure. This project is extended with triple des in place of des to enhance more security.
Different date block size using to evaluate the performance between different...IJCNCJournal
The different computer networks whether wired or wireless are becoming more popular with its high
security aspect. Different security algorithms and technique are using to avoid any aforementioned attacks.
One of these technique is a cryptography technique that makes the data as unreadable during the transfer
hence; there is no chance to reclaim the information. Presently, most of the users are using various media
types and internet to transfer the data but, it has the chance to retrieve the data by using these media types.
The perfect solution for this problem is to provide security on time-to-time basis; this stage is always
significant to the security related community discussions. This paper explains the comparison between the
run time of three different encryption algorithms which are DES, AES and Blowfish The compression
includes using different modes, data block size and different operation modes. As a result, Blowfish
algorithm followed by AES take less time for running compared to DES.
Security analysis of fbdk block cipher for digital imageseSAT Journals
Abstract Network security is one of the major concerns in the modern world. In this regard, a strong security technique is required to protect user data. Cryptography techniques plays an important role in secured transmission through encryption of data and thus ensuring integrity, authenticity, confidentiality of information. Several encryption algorithms have been proposed like AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), DES (Data Encryption Standard) and RSA. These provide very good encryption for text applications. However, these encryption schemes appear not to be ideal for image applications. Some algorithms like GKSBC and RC6 provide very good encryption for digital images. New techniques are emerging that are aimed at providing secured transmission of images over networks. The FBDK (Fixed Block with Dynamic Key Size) block cipher is a new cryptography technique designed using simple operations like XOR, substitutions, circular shifting. The FBDK algorithm is applicable for blocks of any size with key size being dynamic for each block. It does not involve any complex mathematical operations like modular exponentiation. It is a hybrid cryptography technique based on symmetric key and asymmetric key cryptosystems. This paper investigates the security of FBDK block cipher for digital images against brute-force attack, statistical analysis and Differential analysis attacks. In this paper, various security analysis tests has been discussed which are helpful in finding out whether the FBDK encryption algorithm can do secure encryption or not. Experimental results proves the security and efficiency of FBDK cipher for images against all aforementioned types of attacks which justifies its consideration for real time image applications. Keywords: Cryptography, Ciphers, Encryption, Security, and cryptanalysis.
IMAGE ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES USING FRACTAL FUNCTION: A REVIEWijcsit
An increasing demand of secure data transmission over internet leads to the challenge of implementing a consistent cryptosystem. In 2004, USA navy published the patent which highlights the importance of fractal
as an encryption/decryption key in a cryptosystem [1]. Fractal possess butterfly effect i.e. sensitivity to initial condition, due to which small change in input produces a major change in output. This paper summarizes the various recent image encryption techniques in which fractal key is used to encrypt/decrypt
followed by substitution, scrambling and diffusion techniques to provide strong cryptosystem. The algorithms covered both private key encryption as well as public key encryption technique in the paper. The analysed algorithms include a set of fractal function such as Mandelbrot set, Julia set, Hilbert curve, 3D fractal, multi-fractal, IFS and chaotic function to generate a complex key used in the encryption process.
Corresponding performance of each algorithm is analysed by PSNR test, key space, sensitivity analysis and correlation coefficient value between the adjacent pixels of both images (Original image and encrypted image) which shows significant improvement in performance over the traditional encryption methods.
A new hybrid text encryption approach over mobile ad hoc network IJECEIAES
Data exchange has been rapidly increased recently by increasing the use of mobile networks. Sharing information (text, image, audio and video) over unsecured mobile network channels is liable for attacking and stealing. Encryption techniques are the most suitable methods to protect information from hackers. Hill cipher algorithm is one of symmetric techniques, it has a simple structure and fast computations, but weak security because sender and receiver need to use and share the same private key within a non-secure channel. Therefore, a novel hybrid encryption approach between elliptic curve cryptosystem and hill cipher (ECCHC) is proposed in this paper to convert Hill Cipher from symmetric technique (private key) to asymmetric one (public key) and increase its security and efficiency and resist the hackers. Thus, no need to share the secret key between sender and receiver and both can generate it from the private and public keys. Therefore, the proposed approach presents a new contribution by its ability to encrypt every character in the 128 ASCII table by using its ASCII value direct without needing to assign a numerical value for each character. The main advantages of the proposed method are represented in the computation simplicity, security efficiency and faster computation.
Three Party Authenticated Key Distribution using Quantum CryptographyIJMER
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) is Peer reviewed, online Journal. It serves as an international archival forum of scholarly research related to engineering and science education.
International Journal of Modern Engineering Research (IJMER) covers all the fields of engineering and science: Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Thermodynamics, Structural Engineering, Control Engineering, Robotics, Mechatronics, Fluid Mechanics, Nanotechnology, Simulators, Web-based Learning, Remote Laboratories, Engineering Design Methods, Education Research, Students' Satisfaction and Motivation, Global Projects, and Assessment…. And many more.
Cryptography is a process used for sending information in secret way. Goal of this process is to provide protection for information but in different way. In this paper our motive to represent a new method for protection that is generated by combination of RSA and 2 bit rotation mechanism of cryptography. There are many algorithms exist for this process. For cryptography there are algorithms like RSA, IDEA, AES, and DES but here we are using only one algorithm from these that is RSA which is enough to implement combined process using 2 bit rotation. The encrypted image is used as input for network for further implementation.RSA encrypt image with 1 bit rotation. In 1 bit rotation only 1 bit is shifted and at decrypt side shifted bit are reversed. But to make it more secure we are going to perform 2 bit rotation due to which it is more secure as compared to existing algorithm. After applying the 2 bit rotation we perform the permutation of that image that will give us encrypted image. Shivam Kumar | Dr. Ganesh D "Image Cryptography using RSA Algorithm" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42408.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comcomputer-science/computer-security/42408/image-cryptography-using-rsa-algorithm/shivam-kumar
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Abstract: Security is playing an important and crucial role in the field of network communication system and internet. Here, lot of encryption algorithms were developed and so far .Though many algorithms are used now a days, there is a lack of security in message transformation. Security can be improved by making some modifications in traditional algorithms. Algorithms are DES, RSA, ECC algorithm etc. Among this it is preferred to do some modifications in RSA Algorithm. So, the changes applied in these algorithms, security will be better than the previous.
Keywords: Encryption, Decryption, DES, RSA, ECC, Plain Text, Cipher Text.
Title: Improving Network Security by Modifying RSA Algorithm
Author: KANNIKA PARAMESHWARI B, KRITHIKA M, KARTHI P
ISSN 2350-1022
International Journal of Recent Research in Mathematics Computer Science and Information Technology
Paper Publications
Overview on Symmetric Key Encryption AlgorithmsIJERA Editor
In today’s digital communication era sharing of information is increasing significantly. The information being transmitted is vulnerable to various passive and active attacks. Therefore, the information security is one of the most challenging aspects of communication. Cryptography is the one of the main categories of computer security that converts information from its normal form into an unreadable form by using Encryption and Decryption Techniques. The two main characteristics that identify and differentiate one encryption algorithm from another are its ability to secure the protected data against attacks and its speed and efficiency in doing so. There are basically two techniques of cryptography Symmetric and Asymmetric. This paper presents a detailed study of the symmetric encryption techniques.
In many of today’s computer application needs, faster operation is essential to the efficient implementation
of information security algorithm. RC4 has been used as the data encryption algorithm for many
applications and protocols including the Wi-Fi, Skype, and Bit Torrent to name a few. Several efficient
approaches to the implementation of RC4 have been proposed and we review some of those. More recently
some parallel approaches to faster implementation of RC4 have been presented and we include those in our
survey of efficient approaches to RC4. This paper presents an analysis of available hardware/software
parallel implementations of RC4 symmetric key-based algorithm and some security approaches which
make it more secure.
An Approach on Data Security with the Combination of Symmetric and Asymmetric...AnirbanBhowmik8
Data security is an important issue in modern era. In this paper, we use both symmetric and asymmetric key for encryption and decryption for data security. In our technique, two phases are used. In the 1st phase symmetric key encryption is used and in 2nd phase asymmetric key encryption like RSA is used.
Bluetooth technology is an emerging wireless networking standard, which is based on chip that provides short-range wireless frequency hopping communication. Now, Bluetooth technology is mainly applied to the communication between mobile terminal devices, such as palm computers, mobile phones, laptops and so on. However, the phenomenon of data-leaking frequently arises in using the Bluetooth technology for data transfer. To enhance the security of data transmission in Bluetooth communication, a hybrid encryption algorithm based on DES and RSA is proposed. The currently used encryption algorithm employed by the Bluetooth to protect the confidentiality of data during transport between two or more devices is a 128-bit symmetric stream cipher called E0. The proposed hybrid encryption algorithm, instead of the E0 encryption, DES algorithm is used for data transmission because of its higher efficiency in block encryption, and RSA algorithm is used for the encryption of the key of the DES because of its management advantages in key cipher. Under the dual protection with the DES algorithm and the RSA algorithm, the data transmission in the Bluetooth system will be more secure. This project is extended with triple des in place of des to enhance more security.
Different date block size using to evaluate the performance between different...IJCNCJournal
The different computer networks whether wired or wireless are becoming more popular with its high
security aspect. Different security algorithms and technique are using to avoid any aforementioned attacks.
One of these technique is a cryptography technique that makes the data as unreadable during the transfer
hence; there is no chance to reclaim the information. Presently, most of the users are using various media
types and internet to transfer the data but, it has the chance to retrieve the data by using these media types.
The perfect solution for this problem is to provide security on time-to-time basis; this stage is always
significant to the security related community discussions. This paper explains the comparison between the
run time of three different encryption algorithms which are DES, AES and Blowfish The compression
includes using different modes, data block size and different operation modes. As a result, Blowfish
algorithm followed by AES take less time for running compared to DES.
Security analysis of fbdk block cipher for digital imageseSAT Journals
Abstract Network security is one of the major concerns in the modern world. In this regard, a strong security technique is required to protect user data. Cryptography techniques plays an important role in secured transmission through encryption of data and thus ensuring integrity, authenticity, confidentiality of information. Several encryption algorithms have been proposed like AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), DES (Data Encryption Standard) and RSA. These provide very good encryption for text applications. However, these encryption schemes appear not to be ideal for image applications. Some algorithms like GKSBC and RC6 provide very good encryption for digital images. New techniques are emerging that are aimed at providing secured transmission of images over networks. The FBDK (Fixed Block with Dynamic Key Size) block cipher is a new cryptography technique designed using simple operations like XOR, substitutions, circular shifting. The FBDK algorithm is applicable for blocks of any size with key size being dynamic for each block. It does not involve any complex mathematical operations like modular exponentiation. It is a hybrid cryptography technique based on symmetric key and asymmetric key cryptosystems. This paper investigates the security of FBDK block cipher for digital images against brute-force attack, statistical analysis and Differential analysis attacks. In this paper, various security analysis tests has been discussed which are helpful in finding out whether the FBDK encryption algorithm can do secure encryption or not. Experimental results proves the security and efficiency of FBDK cipher for images against all aforementioned types of attacks which justifies its consideration for real time image applications. Keywords: Cryptography, Ciphers, Encryption, Security, and cryptanalysis.
IMAGE ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES USING FRACTAL FUNCTION: A REVIEWijcsit
An increasing demand of secure data transmission over internet leads to the challenge of implementing a consistent cryptosystem. In 2004, USA navy published the patent which highlights the importance of fractal
as an encryption/decryption key in a cryptosystem [1]. Fractal possess butterfly effect i.e. sensitivity to initial condition, due to which small change in input produces a major change in output. This paper summarizes the various recent image encryption techniques in which fractal key is used to encrypt/decrypt
followed by substitution, scrambling and diffusion techniques to provide strong cryptosystem. The algorithms covered both private key encryption as well as public key encryption technique in the paper. The analysed algorithms include a set of fractal function such as Mandelbrot set, Julia set, Hilbert curve, 3D fractal, multi-fractal, IFS and chaotic function to generate a complex key used in the encryption process.
Corresponding performance of each algorithm is analysed by PSNR test, key space, sensitivity analysis and correlation coefficient value between the adjacent pixels of both images (Original image and encrypted image) which shows significant improvement in performance over the traditional encryption methods.
A new hybrid text encryption approach over mobile ad hoc network IJECEIAES
Data exchange has been rapidly increased recently by increasing the use of mobile networks. Sharing information (text, image, audio and video) over unsecured mobile network channels is liable for attacking and stealing. Encryption techniques are the most suitable methods to protect information from hackers. Hill cipher algorithm is one of symmetric techniques, it has a simple structure and fast computations, but weak security because sender and receiver need to use and share the same private key within a non-secure channel. Therefore, a novel hybrid encryption approach between elliptic curve cryptosystem and hill cipher (ECCHC) is proposed in this paper to convert Hill Cipher from symmetric technique (private key) to asymmetric one (public key) and increase its security and efficiency and resist the hackers. Thus, no need to share the secret key between sender and receiver and both can generate it from the private and public keys. Therefore, the proposed approach presents a new contribution by its ability to encrypt every character in the 128 ASCII table by using its ASCII value direct without needing to assign a numerical value for each character. The main advantages of the proposed method are represented in the computation simplicity, security efficiency and faster computation.
Lightning Talk #9: How UX and Data Storytelling Can Shape Policy by Mika Aldabaux singapore
How can we take UX and Data Storytelling out of the tech context and use them to change the way government behaves?
Showcasing the truth is the highest goal of data storytelling. Because the design of a chart can affect the interpretation of data in a major way, one must wield visual tools with care and deliberation. Using quantitative facts to evoke an emotional response is best achieved with the combination of UX and data storytelling.
A New Method for Encrypting Digital Data Using Symmetric Key in Information E...Editor IJCATR
with the arrival of the information age and much more important information systems and communication in human
everyday life, necessity immunization information and communication strategy were also raised. The easiest way to meet this
necessity is conventional encryption algorithms. Encryption is a right tool for data protection in an unsecure channel. To this end, from
two-method symmetric key encryption and public-key cryptography are used. In this paper we examine text cryptography, one of the
most important topics in cryptography. A unique attribute of this kind of encryption has been of interest to many researchers in this
field. This paper, considering the symmetric encryption algorithm, provides a text encryption algorithm using a 128-bit key. The
proposed algorithm uses a 128-bit key, the text data using the XOR operator to convert the encrypted information. Therefore, the aim
of this method is to provide a convenient method for symmetrically encrypting data not to be easily decoded, and finally, the results of
the tests show that the proposed method is better in terms of security and speed of execution
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
Creation of smart spaces and scaling of devices to achieve miniaturization in pervasive computing environments has put forth a question on the degree of security of such devices. Security being a unique challenge in such environments, solution demands scalability, access control, heterogeneity, trust. Most of the existing cryptographic solutions widely in use rely on the hardness of factorization and number theory
problems. With the increase in cryptanalytic attacks these schemes will soon become insecure. We need an alternate security mechanism which is as hard as the existing number theoretic approaches. In this work, we discuss the aspects of Lattice based cryptography as a new dimension of providing security whose strength lies in the hardness of lattice problems. We discuss about a cryptosystem whose security relies on high lattice dimension.
Comparative Analysis of Cryptographic Algorithms and Advanced Cryptographic A...editor1knowledgecuddle
Today is the era of Internet and networks applications. So,Information security is a challenging issue in today’s technological world. There is a demand for a stronger encryption which is very hard to crack. The role of Cryptography is most important in the field of network security. There is a broad range of cryptographic algorithms that are used for securing networks and presently continuous researches on the new cryptographic algorithms are going on for evolving more advanced techniques for secures
communication. In this study is made for the cryptography algorithms, particularly algorithms- AES, DES, RSA, Blowfishare compared and performance is evaluated. Also some enhanced algorithms are described and compared with the enhanced algorithms.
Keywords - AES, DES, BLOWFISH, Decryption, Encryption, Security
Encryption Data Measurement and Data Security of Hybrid AES and RSA Algorithmijtsrd
Transferring the secure data becomes vital for the important data of every days life. The system is a secure data transferring, combining the two techniques, Advance Encryption Standard AES and RSA. The data file is encrypted by using AES with the randomly generated key. This key is also encrypted by RSA using the receivers public key. The encrypted data file and encrypted key file are combined to form an output file to send to the receiver. The file at the receivers side is separated into two files, the encrypted data file and encrypted key file. The encrypted key file is decrypted by RSA method using the receivers private key. The AES key is acquired, the encrypted data file is then decrypted by AES method using the acquired AES key. The system includes file transferring process based on the Java socket technology. Khet Khet Khaing Oo | Yan Naung Soe "Encryption Data Measurement and Data Security of Hybrid AES and RSA Algorithm" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-6 , October 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd29243.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/computer-science/computer-security/29243/encryption-data-measurement-and-data-security-of-hybrid-aes-and-rsa-algorithm/khet-khet-khaing-oo
ANALYSIS OF SIDE CHANNEL ATTACKS ON VARIOUS CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHMSJournal For Research
The need for a secured data transfer through the internet is most needed in today’s life. From Online Banking & Reservation software, Electronic Mails, Social Networking Sites to Governmental informative websites & cloud services, security is the main concern throughout. Quite accordingly, availability of a secure cryptographic algorithm commercially is also of premium importance. The project basically deals with analyzing the performances of two commonly used cryptographic algorithms and determining their resilience against Side Channel cryptanalysis, ascertaining whether a Side Channel cryptanalytic method on these algorithms is possible and finally, strengthening the algorithms against future cryptanalytic attacks. We took the famous asymmetric RSA algorithm for our initial analysis, followed by the symmetric IDEA cryptographic algorithm. The basic objectives were as follows: Monitoring and analyzing the performances of the specified algorithms in normal cases and when subjected to Side Channel cryptanalytic attacks, Devising and implementing a method for a Side Channel cryptanalytic attack on the above cryptographic algorithms, Using principles of Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) to implement a method for strengthening the above cryptographic algorithms against possible Side Channel cryptanalytic attacks, wherein the inputs for the specified cryptographic algorithms was taken from an elliptic curve defined over a prime field.
ARTIFICIAL NEURAL CRYPTOGRAPHY DATAGRAM HIDING TECHNIQUES FOR COMPUTER SECURI...IAEME Publication
Cryptography is the scientific study of mathematical and algorithmic techniques relating to information security. Cryptographic techniques will help to protect information in cases where an attacker can have physical access to the bits representing the information, ex. When the information has to be sent over a communication channel that can be eaves dropped on by an attacker. Cryptographic primitives are the basic building blocks for constructing cryptographic solutions to information protection problems. A cryptographic primitive consists of one or more algorithms that achieve a number of protection goals. There is no well-agreed upon complete list of cryptographic primitives, nor are all cryptographic primitives independent, it is often possible to realize one primitive using a combination of other primitives.
A NOVEL STRUCTURE WITH DYNAMIC OPERATION MODE FOR SYMMETRIC-KEY BLOCK CIPHERSIJNSA Journal
Modern Internet protocols support several modes of operation in encryption tasks for data confidentiality to keep up with varied environments and provide the various choices, such as multi-mode IPSec support. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the modes of operation for symmetric-key block ciphers. Different block cipher modes of operation have distinct characteristics. For example, the cipher block chaining (CBC) mode is suitable for operating environments that require self-synchronizing capabilities, and the output feedback (OFB) mode requires encryption modules only. When using symmetric-key block cipher algorithms such as the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), users performing information encryption often encounter difficulties selecting a suitable mode of operation. This paper describes a structure for analyzing the block operation mode combination. This unified operation structure (UOS) combines existing common and popular block modes of operation. UOS does multi-mode of operation with most existing popular symmetric-key block ciphers and do not only consist of encryption mode such as electronic codebook (ECB) mode, cipher block chaining (CBC) mode, cipher feedback (CFB) mode and output feedback (OFB) mode, that provides confidentiality but also message authentication mode such as the cipher block chaining message authentication code (CBC-MAC) in cryptography. In Cloud Computing, information exchange frequently via the Internet and on-demand. This research provides an overview and information useful for approaching low-resource hardware implementation, which is proper to ubiquitous computing devices such as a sensor mote or an RFID tag. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given. This provides a common solution for multimode and this is very suitable for ubiquitous computing with several resources and environments. This study indicates a more effectively organized structure for symmetric-key block ciphers to improve their application scenarios. We can get that it is flexible in modern communication applications.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
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👩🏫 Lenka Dulovicova, Product Program Manager, UiPath
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Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
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The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
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Bob Boule
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Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
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JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and Grafana
H42063743
1. S. Sobitha Ahila et al Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 2( Version 6), February 2014, pp.37-43
RESEARCH ARTICLE
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OPEN ACCESS
State Of Art in Homomorphic Encryption Schemes
S. Sobitha Ahila1, Dr.K.L.Shunmuganathan2
Assistant Professor,CSE Easwari engineering college
Professor, CSE R.M.K Engineering College
Abstract
The demand for privacy of digital data and of algorithms for handling more complex structures have increased
exponentially over the last decade. However, the critical problem arises when there is a requirement for publicly
computing with private data or to modify functions or algorithms in such a way that they are still executable
while their privacy is ensured. This is where homomorphic cryptosystems can be used since these systems
enable computations with encrypted data. A fully homomorphic encryption scheme enables computation of
arbitrary functions on encrypted data.. This enables a customer to generate a program that can be executed by a
third party, without revealing the underlying algorithm or the processed data. We will take the reader through a
journey of these developments and provide a glimpse of the exciting research directions that lie ahead. In this
paper, we propose a selection of the most important available solutions, discussing their properties and
limitations.
Keywords— mobile agents, homomorphic encryption
I. INTRODUCTION
The goal of encryption is to ensure
confidentiality of data in communication and storage
processes. Recently, its use in constrained devices led
to consider additional features such as the ability to
delegate computations to un trusted computers. For
this purpose, we would like to give the un trusted
computer only an encrypted version of the data to
process. The computer will perform the computation
on this encrypted data, hence without knowing
anything on its real value. Finally, it will send back
the result, and user will decrypt it. For coherence, the
decrypted result has to be equal to the intended
computed value if performed on the original data. For
this reason, the encryption scheme has to present a
particular structure. Rivest et al. proposed in 1978 to
solve this issuethrough homomorphic encryption
Unfortunately, Brickell and Yacobi pointed out in
some security flaws in the first proposals of Rivest et
al . Since this first attempt,a lot of articles have
proposed solutions dedicated to numerous application
contexts: anonymity, privacy, electronic voting,
electronic auctions, lottery protocols , protection of
mobile agents , multiparty computation and so forth.
The goal of this article is to provide a survey of
partial and full homomorphic encryption techniques
In Section 2, we provide some basic and
fundamental information on cryptography and
various types of encryption schemes. In Section 3, we
discuss some of basic definitions about homomorphic
encryption schemes in the literature. Section 4
provides a brief presentation of applications of
homomorphic cryptosystems. Section 5 presents a
discussion on partial homomorphic encryption
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schemes. Section 6 presents a discussion on fully
homomorphic encryption schemes which are the
most powerful encryption schemes for providing a
framework for computing over encrypted data.
Finally, Section 7 concludes the chapter while
outlining a number of research directions and
emerging trends in this exciting filed of computation
which has a tremendous potential of finding
applications in the real-world deployments.
II. TOWARDS HOMOMORPHIC
ENCRYPTION
A. Conventional Cryptography
In this Section, we will recall some
important concepts on encryption schemes.
Encryption schemes are designed to preserve
confidentiality. The security of encryption schemes
must not rely on the obfuscation of their codes, but it
should only be based on the secrecy of the key used
in the encryption process. Encryption schemes are
broadly of two types
symmetric encryption schemes
asymmetric encryption schemes
In the following, we present a very brief
discussion on each of these schemes.
1) Symmetric encryption schemes
In these schemes, the sender and the receiver
agree on the key they will use before establishing any
secure communication session. Therefore, it is not
possible for two persons who never met before to use
such schemes directly. This also implies that in order
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to communicate with different persons, we must have
a different key for each people. Requirement of large
number of keys in these schemes make their key
generation and management relatively more complex
operations. However, symmetric schemes present the
advantage of being very fast and they are used in
applications where speed of execution is a paramount
requirement. Symmetric-key encryption can use
either stream ciphers or block ciphers.
Stream ciphers encrypt the digits (typically
bytes) of a message one at a time.
Block ciphers take a number of bits and encrypt
them as a single unit, padding the plaintext so
that it is a multiple of the block size. Blocks of
64 bits have been commonly used. The
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) algorithm
approved by NIST in December 2001 uses 128bit blocks.
Examples of popular and well-respected
symmetric algorithms Include Twofish, Serpent,
AES (Rijndael), Blowfish, CAST5, RC4, 3DES, and
IDEA
2) Asymmetric encryption schemes:
In these schemes, every participant has a
pair of keys private and public. While the private key
of a person is known to only her, the public key of
each participant is known to everyone in the group.
Such schemes are more secure than their symmetric
counterparts and they don’t need any prior agreement
between the communicating parties on a common key
before establishing a session of communication.RSA
,ElGamal, Diffie–Hellman key exchange protocol,
DSS (Digital Signature Standard), which incorporates
the Digital
Signature
Algorithm,
Paillier
cryptosystem, Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem and
YAK authenticated key agreement protocol
B. Security of encryption schemes
Security of encryption schemes was first
formalized by Shannon with the notion of perfect
secrecy/unconditional secrecy, which characterizes
encryption schemes for which the knowledge of a
ciphertext does not give any information about the
corresponding plaintext and the encryption key. OneTime Pad encryption scheme is perfectly secure
under certain conditions. However, no other
encryption scheme has been proved to be
unconditionally secure. For asymmetric schemes, we
can rely on their mathematical structures to estimate
their security strength in a formal way. These
schemes are based on some well-identified
mathematical problems which are hard to solve in
general, but easy to solve for the one who knows the
trapdoor – i.e., the owner of the keys. However, the
estimation of the security level of these schemes may
not be always correct due to several reasons. First,
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there may be other ways to break the system than
solving the mathematical problems on which these
schemes are based. Second, most of the security
proofs are performed in an idealized model called
random oracle model, in which involved primitives,
for example, hash functions, are considered truly
random. This model has allowed the study of the
security level of numerous asymmetric ciphers.
However, we are now able to perform proofs in a
more realistic model called standard model (Canetti
et al., 1998; Paillier, 2007). This model eliminates
some of the unrealistic assumptions in the random
oracle model and makes the
security analysis of cryptographic schemes more
practical.
Usually, to evaluate the attack capacity of an
adversary, we distinguish among several contexts
cipher-text only attacks (where the adversary has
access only to some ciphertexts)
known-plaintext attacks (where the adversary has
access to some pairs of plaintext messages and
their corresponding ciphertexts)
chosen-plaintext attacks (the adversary has
access to a decryption oracle that behaves like a
black-box and takes a ciphertext as its input and
outputs the corresponding plaintexts).
C.
Probabilistic encryption:
Almost all the well-known cryptosystems
are deterministic. This means that for a fixed
encryption key, a given plaintext will always be
encrypted into the same ciphertext under these
systems. However, this may lead to some security
problems.RSA scheme is a good example for
explaining this point. Let us consider the following
points with reference to the RSA cryptosystem:
A particular plaintext may be encrypted in a too
much structured way. With RSA,messages 0 and
1 are always encrypted as 0 and 1, respectively.
It may be easy to compute some partial
information about the plaintext: with RSA,the
cipher text c leaks one bit of information about
the plaintext m, namely, the so called Jacobi
symbol .
When using a deterministic encryption scheme, it
is easy to detect when the same message is sent
twice while processed with the same key.
In view of the problems stated above, we
prefer encryption schemes to be probabilistic. In case
of symmetric schemes, we introduce a random vector
in the encryption process (e.g., in the pseudo-random
generator for stream ciphers, or in the operating mode
for block ciphers) – generally called initial vector
(IV). This vector may be public and it may be
transmitted in a clear-text form. However, the IV
must be changed every time we encrypt a message. In
case of asymmetric ciphers, the security analysis is
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more mathematical and formal, and we want the
randomized schemes to remain analyzable in the
same way as the deterministic schemes. Researchers
have proposed some models to randomize the
existing deterministic schemes, as the optimal
asymmetric encryption padding (OAEP) for RSA (or
any scheme that is based on a trapdoor one-way
permutation) [2] A simple consequence of this
requirement of the encryption schemes to be
preferably probabilistic appears in the phenomenon
called expansion. Since for a plaintext we require the
existence of several possible ciphertexts, the number
of ciphertexts is greater than the number of possible
plaintexts. This means the ciphertexts cannot be as
short as the plaintexts; they have to be strictly longer.
The ratio of the length of the ciphertext and the
corresponding plaintext (in bits) is called expansion.
The value of this parameter is of paramount
importance in determining security and efficiency
tradeoff of a probabilistic encryption scheme. In
Paillier’s scheme, an efficient probabilistic
encryption mechanism has been proposed with the
value of expansion less than 2 .
III. HOMOMORPHIC ENCRYPTION
SCHEMES
A. Homomorphism:
A function f : G −→ H
from one group G to
another H is a (group) homomorphism if the group
operation is preserved in the sense that
f (g1 ∗G g2 ) = f (g1 ) ∗ H f (g2 )
for all g1, g2 ∈ G. Let eG be the identity in G and eH
the identity in H . A group homomorphism f maps e G
to eH : f (eG) = f (eH ).Note that f must preserve the
inverse map due to:
f (g)f (g−1) = f (gg−1) = f (eG) ,
therefore: f (g)−1 = f (g−1).
The kernel of a homomorphism f is
ker f = {g ∈ G : f (g) = eh}
The image of f is like the image of any function
im f = {h ∈ H : ∃ g ∈ G such that f (g) = h}
If a group homomorphism f : G → H is subjective,
then H is said to be a homomorphic image of G.
B. Homomorphic encryption
Homomorphic encryption is a form of
encryption which allows specific types of
computations to be carried out on ciphertext and
obtain an encrypted result which decrypted matches
the result of operations performed on the plaintext.
A public-key encryption scheme E = (KeyGen, Enc,
Dec) is homomorphic if for all k and all (pk, sk)
output from KeyGen(k), it is possible to define
groups M, C so that:The plaintext space M, and all
ciphertexts output by Encpk are elements of C. For
any m1, m2 ∈ M and c1, c2 ∈ C with m1 = Decsk (c1)
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and m2 = Decsk (c2) it holds that
Decsk (c1 ∗ c2 ) = m1 ∗ m2
where the group operations ∗ are carried out in C and
M, respectively. In other words, a homomorphic
cryptosystem is a PKS with the additional property
that there exists an efficient algorithm (Eval) to
compute an encryption of the sum or/and the
product, of two messages given the public key and
the encryptions of the messages, but not the
messages themselves.
C. Fully homomorphic encryption
This scheme is able to output a ciphertext
that encrypts f (m1,..., mt), where f is any desired
function, which of course must be efficiently
computable. No information about m1, ..., mt or f (m1,
..., mt), or any inter- mediate plaintext values should
leak. The inputs, outputs and intermediate values are
always encrypted and therefore useless for an
adversary.
A public key encryption scheme (KeyGen,
Enc, Dec) is fully homomorphic if there exists an
additional efficient algorithm Eval that, for a valid
public key pk, a permitted circuit C and a set of
ciphertexts Ψ = {c1, ..., ct} where
ci ← Encpk (mi), outputs c ← Evalpk (C, Ψ) under
pk.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF HOMOMORPHIC
ENCRYPTION SCHEMES
A. Protection of mobile agents
The protection of mobile agents by
homomorphic encryption can be used in two ways:
(i) computing with encrypted functions
(ii) computing with encrypted data.
Computation with encrypted functions is a
special case of protection of mobile agents. In such
scenarios, a secret function is publicly evaluated in
such a way that the function remains secret. Using
homomorphic cryptosystems the encrypted function
can be evaluated which guarantees its privacy.
Homomorphic schemes also work on encrypted data
to compute publicly while maintaining the privacy of
the secret data. This can be done encrypting the data
in advance and then exploiting the homomorphic
property to compute with encrypted data.
B. Multiparty computation
In multiparty computation schemes, several
parties are interested in computing a common, public
function on their inputs while keeping their
individual inputs private. This problem belongs to the
area of computing with encrypted data.
C. Election schemes:
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In election schemes, the homomorphic
property provides a tool to obtain the tally given the
encrypted votes without decrypting the individual
votes.
D. Mix-nets
Mix-nets
are protocols
that provide
anonymity for senders by collecting encrypted
messages from several users. A desirable property to
build such mix-nets is re- encryption which is
achieved by using homomorphic encryption.
E. Data aggregation in wireless sensor networks
Homomorphic encryption schemes can be
applied to protect privacy of input data while
computing an arbitrary aggregation function in a
wireless sensor network
V. PARTIAL HOMOMORPHIC
ENCRYPTION SCHEMES
In this Section, we describe some
homomorphic encryption systems which have created
substantial interest among the researchers in the
domain of cryptography.
A. Goldwasser-Micali scheme
In Goldwasser-Micali scheme as for RSA,
we use computations modulo n = pq, a product of two
large primes. Encryption is simple, with a product
and a square, whereas decryption is heavier, with an
exponentiation. Nevertheless, this step can be done in
O(l(p)2)[10]. The basic principle of GM is to partition
a well-chosen subset of integers modulo n into two
secret parts: M0 and M1.Then, encryption selects a
random element of Mb to encrypt b, and decryption
allows to know in which part the randomly selected
element lies. The core point lies in the way to choose
the subset, and to partition it intoM0 andM1. GM uses
group theory to achieve the following: the subset is
the group G of invertible integers modulo n with a
Jacobi symbol, with respect to n, equal to 1. The
partition is generated by another group H ⊂ G,
composed of the elements that are invertible modulo
n with a Jacobi symbol, with respect to a fixed factor
of n, equal to 1; with these settings, it is possible to
split G into two parts: H and
G H The
generalizations of Goldwasser-Micali play with these
two groups; they try to fit two groups G and H such
that G can be split into more than k = 2 parts.Some
limitations are encrypting k bits leads to a cost of
O(k·l(p)2). This is not very efficient even if it is
considered as practical. Concerns about the
expansion: a single bit of plaintext is encrypted in an
integer modulo n, that is, l(n) bits. Thus, the
expansion is really huge.
B. Benaloh’s scheme
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Benaloh is a generalization of GM, that
enables to manage inputs of l (k) bits, k being a
prime satisfying some particular constraints.
Encryption is similar as in the previous scheme
(encrypting a message m ∈ {0, ... , k − 1} means
picking an integer r ∈ Z∗ and computing c = g m r k
mod n but decryption is more complex. The input
and out- put sizes being, respectively, of l(k) and l(n)
bits, the expansion is equal to l(n)/l(k)[11]. This is
better than in the GM case. Moreover, the encryption
is not too expensive as well. The overhead in the
decryption process is estimated to be O(√k.l (k)) for
pre-computation which remains constant for each
dynamic decryption step. But Value of k has to be
taken very small, which in turn limits the gain
obtained on the value of expansion.
C. Naccache-Stern scheme
This scheme is an improvement of
Benaloh’s scheme. Using a value of the parameter k
that is greater than that used in the Benaloh’s scheme,
it achieves a smaller expansion and thereby attains a
superior efficiency[8].The encryption step is
precisely the same as in Benaloh’s scheme. However,
decryption is different. The value of expansion is
same as that in Benaloh’s scheme, i.e.
l (n)/ l (k).However, the cost of ecryption is less and
is given by: O(l (n)5 log (l (n)) The authors claim
that it is possible to choose the values of the
parameters in the system in such a way that the
achieved value of expansion is 4.
D. Okamoto-Uchiyama scheme
Considering n = p2 q, p and q still being two
large primes, and the group G = Zp ∗ 2 ,they achieve
k = p. Thus, the expansion is equal to 3[12].
E. Paillier scheme
One of the most well-known homomorphic
encryption schemes is due to Paillier[13]. It is an
improvement of the previous one, that decreases the
expansion from 3 to 2. Paillier came back to n = pq,
with gcd (n, φ (n)) = 1, but considered the group G
2
= Z ∗ p , and a proper choice of H led him to k = e
(n). The encryption cost is not too high. Decryption
needs one exponentiation modulo n2 to the power λ
(n), and a multiplication modulo n. Paillier showed in
his paper how to manage decryption efficiently
through the Chinese Remainder Theorem. With
smaller expansion and lower cost compared with the
previous ones, this scheme is really attractive.In
2002, Cramer and Shoup proposed a general
approach to gain security against adaptive chosenciphertext attacks for certain cryptosystems with
some particular algebraic properties . Applying it to
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Paillier’s original scheme, they proposed a stronger
variant. Bresson et al. proposed in a slightly different
version that may be more accurate for some
applications.
F. Damgard-Jurik scheme
Damgard and Jurik propose a generalization
of Paillier’s scheme to groups of the form Z •n s+l for
s > 0. In this scheme, choice of larger values of s will
achieve lower values of expansion [14]. This scheme
can be used in a number of applications. For
example, we can mention the adaptation of the size of
the plaintext, the use of threshold cryptography,
electronic voting, and so on. To encrypt a message, m
∈ Zn one picks r ∈ Z∗ n at random and computes
s
gmr n ∈ Zns+1. The authors show that if one can
break the scheme for a given value s = σ, then one
can break it for s = σ − 1. They also show that the
semantic security of this scheme is equivalent to that
of Paillier. To summarize, the expansion is of 1 + 1/s,
and hence can be close to 1 if s is sufficiently large.
The ratio of the encryption cost of this scheme over
Paillier’s can be estimated to be (1/6)s(s + 1)(s + 2).
The same ratio for the decryption step equals (1/6)(s
+ 1)(s + 2).Note that even if this scheme is better than
Paillier’s according to its lower expansion, it remains
more costly. Moreover, if we want to encrypt or
decrypt k blocks of l (n) bits, running Paillier’s
scheme k times is less costly than running DamgardJurik’s scheme once.
G. Galbraith scheme
This is an adaptation n the existing
of
homomorphic encryption schemes in the context of
elliptic curves [15]. Its expansion is equal to 3. For s
= l the ratio of the encryption cost for this scheme
over that of Paillier’s scheme can be estimated to be
about 7, while the same ratio for the cost of
decryption cost is about 14 for the same value of s.
However, the most important advantage of this
scheme is that the cost of encryption and decryption
can be decreased using larger values of s. In addition,
the security of the scheme increases with the increase
in the value of s as it is the case in Damgard-Jurik’s
H. Castagnos scheme
Castagnos explored the possibility of
improving the performance of homomorphic
encryption schemes using quadratic fields quotations
[16]. This scheme achieves an expansion value of 3
and the ratio of encryption/decryption cost with s = l
over Paillier’s scheme can be estimated to be about 2.
VI. FULLY HOMOMORPHIC ENCRYPTION
SCHEMES
A. Gentry’s scheme
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He proposed fully homomorphic encryption
consists of several steps: It constructs a somewhat
homomorphic scheme that supports evaluating
low-degree polynomials on the encrypted data. It
squashes the decryption procedure so that it can be
expressed as a low-degree polynomial which is
supported
by
the
scheme It applies
a
bootstrapping transformation to obtain a fully
homomorphic scheme[6].
B. Brakerski and Vaikuntanathan, Scheme
They have constructed a somewhat homomorphic
encryption scheme based on RLWE[1,3,4]. The
scheme inherits the simplicity and efficiency, as
well as the worst case relation to ideal lattices.
Moreover, the scheme enjoys key
dependent
message security (KDM security, also known as
circular security), since it can securely encrypt
polynomial functions (over an appropriately defined
ring) of its own secret key. The authors argue that
all known constructions of fully homomorphic
encryption employ a bootstrapping technique that
enforces the public key of the scheme to grow
linearly with the maximal depth of evaluated circuits.
This is a major drawback with regard to the usability
and the efficiency of the schemes. However, the
size of the public key can be made independent of
the circuit depth if the somewhat homomorphic
scheme can securely encrypt its own secret key[9].
With the design of this scheme, the authors have
solved an open problem - achieving circular secure
somewhat homomorphic encryption. The authors
have also shown how to transform the proposed
scheme into a fully homomorphic encryption
scheme following Gentry’s blueprint of squashing
and bootstrapping.
C. Smart and Vercauteren scheme
They present a fully homomorphic
encryption scheme has smaller key and ciphertext
sizes [17]. The construction proposed by the authors
follows the fully homomorphic construction based on
ideal lattices proposed by Gentry. It produces a fully
homomorphic
scheme
form
a
somewhat
homomorphic scheme. For somewhat homomorphic
scheme, the public and the private keys consist of
two large integers (one of which shared by both the
public and the private key), and the ciphertext
consists of one large integer.
D. Gentry and Halev scheme
They presented a novel implementation
approach for the variant of Smart and Vercauteren
proposition which had a greatly improved key
generation phase. In particular, the authors have
noted that key generation (for cyclotomic fields) is
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6. S. Sobitha Ahila et al Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 2( Version 6), February 2014, pp.37-43
essentially an application of a Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT), followed by a small quantum of
computation, and then application of the inverse
transform. The key generation method of Gentry and
Halevi is fast [7].
E. Stehle and Steinfield scheme
They improved Gentry’s fully homomorphic
scheme and obtained a faster fully homomorphic
scheme with O(n3.5) bits complexity per elementary
binary addition/multiplication gate However, the
hardness assumption of the security of the scheme is
stronger than that of Gentry’s scheme. The improved
complexity of the proposed scheme stems from two
sources[18]. First, the authors have given a more
aggressive security analysis of the sparse subset sum
problem (SSSP) against lattice attacks as compared to
the analysis presented in (Gentry, 2009). The SSSP
along with the ideal lattice bounded distance
decoding (BDD) problem are the two problems
underlying the security of Gentry’s fully
homomorphic scheme. On the contrary, the finer
analysis of Stehle and Steinfield for SSSP takes into
account the complexity of approximate SVP, thereby
making it more consistent with the assumption
underlying the analysis of the BDD problem.
F. Chunsheng scheme
Chunsheng proposed a modification of the
fully homomorphic encryption scheme of Smart and
Vercauteren. The author has applied a self-loop
bootstrappable technique[19] so that the security of
the modified scheme only depends on the hardness
of the polynomial coset problem and does not
require any assumption of the sparse subset
problem.In addition, the author have constructed a
non- self-loop fully homomorphic encryption scheme
that uses cycle keys. In a nutshell, the security of the
improved fully homomorphic encryption scheme in
this work is based on use of three mathematical
approaches: (i) hardness of factoring integer problem,
(ii) solving Diophantine equation problem, and (iii)
finding approximate greatest common divisor
problem.
G. Boneh & Freeman scheme
Boneh and Freeman propose a linearly
homomorphic signature scheme that authenticates
vector subspaces of a given ambient space [20]. The
scheme has several novel features that were not
present in any of the existing similar schemes. First,
the scheme is the first of its kind that enables
authentication of vectors over binary fields; previous
schemes could not authenticate vectors with large or
growing coefficients. Second, the scheme is the only
scheme that is based on the problem of finding short
vectors in integer lattices, and therefore, it enjoys the
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worst-case security guarantee that is common to
lattice-based cryptosystems. The scheme can be used
to authenticate linear transformations of signed data,
such as those arising when computing mean and
Fourier transform or in networks that use network
coding.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
We presented in this paper a state of the art
on homomorphic encryption schemes discussing their
parameters, performances and security issues. As we
saw, these schemes are not well suited for every use,
and their characteristics must be taken into account.
Nowadays, such schemes are studied in wide
application contexts, but the research is still
challenging in the cryptographic community to design
more powerful secure schemes. Performing
computations using fully homomorphic encryption
scheme nowadays takes quite a long time, but as
techniques evolve things will quickly change.
Researchers believe in the possibility of advancing in
fully homomorphic encryption area and bringing new
related technologies to the wide market. It can be used
whenever the need of doing computations on pieces of
un-owned information appears.We therefore conclude
that focusing on these topics would be a good idea for
further research.
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