Grammar ii prepositions and conjunctions

Tradução de Inglês/Ensino de Língua
Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias -
Gramática II
Day I – Prepositions and Conjunctions

Day 1
• The evolution of the English preposition (a diachronic approach)
• Types of prepositions
• Prepositions – traditional analysis: space and time
• Prepositions in set expressions in place, manner and time – possible
patterns
• Prepositions and meanings – literal, figurative and metaphorical
• Prepositions as units of meaning
• Prepositions as other parts of speech – verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs
• Dependent prepositions
• Prepositions in idioms
• Prepositions or adverbs?
• Prepositions as particles
• Prepositions in phrasal verbs
• Teaching tips
Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas
Tecnologias - Gramática II

Day 1
• Definitions of the conjunction
• Types of conjunctions
• A syntactic analysis of the conjunction
• Conjunction as a connector
• Conjunctions in compound sentences
• Conjunctions in complex sentences
• Conjunctions in subordinate clauses
• Expressions that have a conjunction-like nature
• Conjunctions as units of meaning
• Conjunctions as translatable units
• Discourse markers
• Linkers – conjunctions and discourse markers
• Teaching tips

Container, Flat surface or Point?
• a room
• the beach
• a plate
• a bowl
• a platter or a tray
• a roof
• a river
• a shelf
• a cabinet
• a bank
• a company
• a tree
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Container, Flat Surface or Point?
• Christmas
• Weekend
• Easter
• The winter, spring, summer, fall
• Sunday
• Carnival
• A fortnight
• January
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Exercise 1- guess the preposition
• You can buy batteries AT/IN the corner shop.
• David is studying AT/IN university.
• What's on AT the cinema tonight?
• Is Sam IN/ON the basketball team?
• The library is not ON this side of the street.
• We sat IN the living room and watched a great
classic movie.
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• Mike worked AT/IN/FOR the airport for six
years.
• Go back TO bed! You should be asleep.
• David is OUT/AWAY. He is not at home.
• The burglar climbed OVER the fence and into
the garden.
• It's not far. We're getting CLOSE to the station.
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• Jack was leaning ON/AGAINST the wall.
• I was UNDER the impression that you liked it.
• You are liable TO/FOR your son's debts as he
is under age.
• My mum went TO hospital last week.
• Traveling IN your own car is better than going
ON foot.
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The preposition – a definition - 1
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The preposition – a definition - 2
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Simple prepositions
• in, on, at, above, below, over, under, around,
through, before, after, to, from, about, by,
with, without, between, among, inside,
outside, beside (next to), near, atop (on top
of), underneath
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Example phrases
• in the house
• on the desk
• at school
• above average
• below 100
• over the fireplace
• under the table
• around the building
• through the door
• before lunch
• after 10
• go to Colorado
• come from Arizona
• about a boy
• by Marius
• with or without you
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Example phrases
• between you and me
• among us
• don't keep it all inside
• think outside the box
• behind blue eyes
• beside the table
• near the library
• sitting atop the world
• underneath that harsh
interior
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Some simple prepositions raise a few doubts as
to usage
• Above X Over
• Below X Under
• Underneath X Beneath
• Between x Among
• Next to X Close to X
Near
• To X For
• At X To
• In X Inside
• Near X Nearby
• By X Until
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Above x Below: a vertical reference
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Over X Under: a level reference
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Under, underneath, beneath
• Beneath and underneath can occupy final position in
a sentence:
– Who knows what lies beneath/underneath?
• Beneath, under, and underneath function as the
head of a prepositional phrase:
– I can't find anything underneath/under/beneath all that
mess.
• Under can appear in final position when the
accompanying noun phrase is omitted, but implied:
– I come from the land down under.
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Between X Among: two or more referents
• There is no difference between one and the other
• It would seem we have a traitor among us.
• Mastering a language can be the difference between
landing a well-paid job, achieving job stability,
working in a dead-end job or furthering a career.
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Next to X Close to X Near
• Next to means the same as "at the side of", close to
and near imply an indefinite proximity:
– Come sit near /close to me (anywhere in the vicinity of)
– Come sit next to me = Come sit beside me
• Close to implies a more intimate position than near;
near usually refers to buildings or locations
– The closer I get to you, the more you make me feel.
– The new mall is near the old train station
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In X Inside
• Inside can be used in final position of a sentence
with the noun phrase omitted:
– That's a big box. I wonder what's inside (it).
– That's a big box. I wonder what's in it.
• In can only be used at the end of the sentence if it
precedes a noun phrase , NOT a pronoun:
– Are you coming with us to the market? Hop in (the car)!
• Inside is usually more specific or emphatic than in:
– Get inside the house now! You could get shot!
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Near X Nearby
• Near is only used as a preposition or advebr e.g. Is
there a post office near here?
• Nearby is an adverb, e.g. After the play, we can do
some shopping nearby = in the vicinity.
• Nearby is also used adjectivally e.g. I'm trying to find
a nearby service station.

To x For
– For: purpose, intention, favor, direction (with
certain verbs): Could you send this invite out to
everyone for me? Thanks so much
– To: direction, destination, receiver: Could you
send this invite out to everyone by the end of the
day?
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At X To
– At: final point of movement, aggression: Don't
raise your voice at me young man!
– To: direction, destination, cooperation: Throw the
ball to me, will ya?
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Simple prepositions – formation
• Prepositions formed by prefixing a-: aboard, above,
about (from Old English abutan), across, against
(from Old English gean, from the verb gan "to go"),
along, amid, amidst, among (from Old English
onmang, from the verb gemengan "to mingle"),
amongst, around, athwart
– amid = amidst = among = amongst (the first two are more
formal and more literary)
– Athwart = in opposition to, contrary to; from side to side
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• Prepositions formed by prefixing Old English be-:
before (replacing the older afore and tofore), behind,
below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt,
beyond
– Please find the aforementioned list in the attached file
– Betwixt (in an intermediate position, indecisive or middle
position): She found herself caught betwixt her loyalty to
her friend and the need to do the right thing.
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• Prepositions formed by compounding two
prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb: into,
throughout, toward, towards, underneath, until,
unto, upon, within (also inwith in older works),
without (also outwith in older works)
– He climbed upon his horse and rode off into the horizon
– Upon seeing her (When he saw her) after all these years,
he burst into tears
– Once upon a time = There once was a time (on the
occasion of)
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• Participles that became prepositions: bating, barring,
concurring, during, excepting, notwithstanding,
regarding, respecting, touching, considering,
excluding, failing, following, pending, and saving,
concerning, considering, given, granted, pending,
including
– Given the time it will take to thaw we can run off to the
store and get the wine.
– Barring the Supply Manager, everyone seems to be in
agreement about the campaign .
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• Imperative verbs used as prepositions: save, except
– The trip went smoothly, save the airport delays (but for)
• Adjectives used as prepositions, implying a following
to: nigh, near, next, opposite
– Repent for the end is nigh.
• Conjunctions used as prepositions: but
• Loanwords used as prepositions: vis-à-vis, anti,
versus
– Vis-à- vis the current economic storm, cutbacks will have
to be made
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Complex prepositions
• In the interest of
• In the interest
• In need of
• In lieu of
• In quest of
• In place of
• In respect of
• In search of
• In settlement of
• In spite of
• In view of
• In accordance with
• In aid of
• In line with
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• By courtesy of
• By dint of
• By means of
• By permission of
• By reason of
• By virtue of
• In consideration of
• In danger of
• In favor of
• In front of
• As well as
• Thanks to
• In addition to
• Due to
• Contrary to
• Owing to
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Exercise 2: what's the preposition?
• UNDER/GIVEN the
circumstances
• BELOW/ABOVE/ON
average
• UNDER the impression
that
• road UNDER repair
• a program ON TV
• ON/TO/AT page 4
• BY heart
• IN memory
• ON leave
• WITHOUT fail
• TO my surprise
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A historical approach to prepositions
• Simple prepositions have originated from complex
ones by means of grammaticalization
• N.B. morphemes go from a lexical to a more
grammatical status over time

• Lexicalized prepositions can be considered an open
class comprised of complex prepositions or
prepositional locutions. These can be seen as chunks
– New twists and turns in search for Lisa Irwin

• More grammaticalized prepositions have an
unknown or unclear lexcial origin. Their meaning can
only be perceived by isolating their elements, e.g. in
spite of, in view of

• Conversely, the majority of grammaticalized
prepositions are simple (one-word) forms. e.g.
instead of (in stead of), between (by- tweonum)

Why treat them as semantic units?
• Direct equivalence, e.g.
I'm in!
• Transferred meanings
e.g. Are we on for
tonight?
• Possibility of
compounding e.g. He
was up and about soon
after the surgery.
• Incorporation of verb
meaning e.g. Up from
down Under
• Idiomatic nature e.g.
I'm into you, I'm on the
case
• Lexicalizing nature e.g.
The firefighters had
some trouble outing
the fire.
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Grammaticalization (Kurylowicz, 1965)
Affixes gain full-fledged status
Syntactic litmus test: the more prepositional, the
more grammatical
closed class = advanced "grammaticalization" =
"desemanticization"
Prepositions/adverbs fluctuate from lexical to
grammatical and vice versa.
Loss of compositional meaning – separate elements,
one meaning
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Lexicalized vs. Grammaticalized prepositions
• Precise meaning (from more lexical to more
grammatical): in contradiction to >> in spite of >>
instead of
• Lexicalized forms belong to a single syntactic class
whereas grammaticalized ones span over several
classes e.g. to (prep.) (adv.); in (prep.) (adj.) (n.)

• Lexicalized forms are more transparent in meaning
• Grammaticalized prepositions are inseparable and
non-inflectional units (cannot take plural forms for
example):
– Into
– With the exception of
– Up to

• Lexicalized units, however, can be separated:
– This holds true till today, except, of course, for the new
areas of genetics and nanotechnology.
– The local currency may appreciate in absolute terms of
one currency and yet depreciate in terms of another.

• The lexicalization of prepostions depend on
frequency of usage
• Current grammaticalized units will eventually suffer
lexicalization
• Lehman (1991:501) relates that the formation of
new prepostions is a common grammaticalization
process
• Such a process is not easily perceptible, though, to
the speaker, not to mention the learner.
– The reason? The duration of the process

The problem of preposition analysis
• Prepositions in many languages, including English,
are a hybrid category: they can be semantically rich
(lexical) on one end and syntactic (functional) on the
other
• Most studies involving the preposition adopt a
unified approach when its hybridic nature makes this
unfeasible

The problem of preposition analysis
• Jackendoff (1973) classifies the preposition as
a major lexical category along with Nouns,
Verbs and Adjectives (although proven to be a
closed class with limited membership)
– The group has 50-60 members
– The group has a slow add-rate

Key features of the preposition as a hybrid
category
• Most express semantic relations, others assign
Case (dative, locative, etc.) NB. The latter
function no longer applies to the English
preposition. Compare:
– Meet me in the bank (as opposed to "at the
bank")
– Parts of the car have to be repaired

Non-lexical (grammaticalized) prepositions
• They assign Case (as in the sentence on the
previous slide: Parts of the car have to be
repaired)
• They appear in fixed expressions (idioms
included) the meaning of which is transmitted
as a single unit or chunk e.g. Roger's been on a
break for a month now

Non-lexical and Lexical
• Prepositions function as heads (núcleos) of
noun or prepositional phrases, e.g. in time for
something, at the heart of the story, till the
end of time

Semantically rich (Lexical) prepositions
• According to studies with young learners
(Friederici, 1983) lexicalized prepositions are
more easily acquired simply due to their high
semantic content

Exercise 3: prepositions and meaning
A) ending B) reducing C) improving D) solving
• I'm taking evening classes to brush up on my
Spanish. C
• Turn down the music, will you? It's way too
loud. B
• When I figured out how much I owed my best
friend, it really hit me. D
• It's taking much longer to do up the house
than I expected. A
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Exercise 3: prepositions and meaning
A) ending B) reducing C) improving D) solving
• I was just about to finish the deal with the
delegates on the phone when the call was cut
off. A
• My dad's got a job now, so now things are
probably going to pick up again. C
• The USA has broken off relations with Cuba
since the Bay of Pigs incident. A
• We need to sort out this problem soon D
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Prepositions in idioms
• Many idiomatic expressions in English are
classified by the head of the noun phrase –
the preposition

Prepositions cover a wide semantic scope and
carry out several syntactic functions
• In
• Of
• To
• For
• On
• About

• Adverb/Preposition + Preposition: along with, as for,
away from, out of, up to
• Verb/Adjective/Conjunction + Preposition: owing to,
due to, because of
• Preposition + Noun + Preposition: by means of, in
comparison with, in front of

Expressing relations of space
• Above – across – against – along – around – at –
behind – below – beneath – beside – between –
beyond- by – down – from – in – in front of – inside –
into – near – next to – off –on – onto – opposite –
out of – outside – over – past – round – through – to
– towards – under – underneath – up
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Expressing relationships of time
• After – at – before – between – by – during – from –
in – on – past – since – throughout – to – towards –
until (till) – within
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By X Until
By
• The last moment in which
something has to be done.
• An ultimatum
• At or prior to a given time.
• The deadline itself.
Until
• The total amount of time to
accomplish something.
• A grace period
• Prior to a time that follows
• Lead-up to the deadline

Any difference?
• You have to get to school by 8:00 a.m.
• You have until 8:00 a.m. to get to school.
(until = no later than)
• I am to finish a task by sundown.
• I can finish a task until sundown.

Expressing other relations
• About – against – at – besides – by – but – despite –
except – for - from - in – like – of – on - out of – than
– to – unlike – with – without -
– but = except
– But for me, you would all have been killed = If it hadn't
been for me,
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Preposition, Adverb or Particle?
• The preposition occupies only a pre-object
position, as opposed to the adverb or the
particle:
– Fill up the pail OR Fill the pail up (particle)
– Pick up my box OR Pick my box up (adverb)
– Walk up the hill (preposition)
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• Prepositions separate pronoun objects from
the verb:
• He ate it up (particle)
• I'm peeling it off (adverb)
• I stepped over it (preposition)
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• Adverbials can come between verb and PP
(prepositional phrase):
– I'll pick out the shoes quickly (particle)
– She took off her bandaid quickly (adverb)
– She jumped quickly off the chair. (preposition)
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• Only prepositions can be fronted :
– She filled up the pail. (particle )
– I picked up my things. (adverb)
– Up the hill they climbed. (preposition)
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Exercise 4: adverb or preposition?
• Have you ever seen a live college basketball game
before? Adverb
• A sign outside (Preposition) the arena said my two
favorite teams were playing inside (Adverb).
• Come along (Adverb); let's get to our seats before
(Preposition) the game.
• The teams came out (Adverb) to warm up before
(Preposition) the game.
• Two aggressive players fouled each other throughout.
(Adverb)
Gramática II

Exercise 4: adverb or preposition?
• At half time, one team was ahead by (Preposition) eight
points.
• A player threw the ball in from (Adverb/Preposition) the
sideline.
• We talked around during (Adverb/Preposition) halftime.
• After (Preposition) the game, the winners were given the
championship trophy inside (Preposition) the locker
room.
• Despite losing in (Preposition) the playoffs, that team
had a winning record for (Preposition) the season.
Gramática II

Position of prepositions with phrasal verbs –
Correct or incorrect?
• Thieves broke in and got away with over 10 million in
jewelry. CORRECT
• Burglars broke in the house while they were at the
opera. CORRECT
• The bus drew (UP) at the traffic lights up. INCORRECT
• The committee will draw up a list of demands.
CORRECT
• I've got so much work I'm really falling behind (WITH
it) with. INCORRECT
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Position of prepositions with phrasal verbs
• He got caught in the rain and came (DOWN) with a
cold down.
• He's not very nice to his teachers. He's always
sending THEM up them.
• She got a loan when she furnished the flat, but she's
falling behind with the payments. CORRECT
• She really takes AFTER her father after.
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Dependent prepositions
• Like in many languages, the use of a given
preposition is determined by other word classes,
namely verbs, adjectives and nouns
• The choice of a given preposition is generally
semantically driven, although the relationship
between the word and its corresponding preposition
may not be clear, e.g. worried about
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Dependent prepositions
• From one language to another, there is no guarantee
of direct equivalence, which calls for more attention
on the part of the learner
– Get married to »» se casar com
– Fall in love with »» se apaixonar por
• There are several combinations that seem to come
naturally and the learner intuitively tells whether the
form is corect or not. This so-called knowledge
comes with practice and exposure to the language
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Exercise 4: Adjective + preposition
• My granddad is very dependent ON my parents.
• The film is based ON a novel by Virginia Woolf.
• I know it's rusty and everything, but I'm so attached
TO it.
• Bill is emotionally detached FROM his parents. He
hardly chats with them.
• MacDonald's has become synonymous OF an
unhealthy diet.
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Exercise 4: Adjective + preposition
• The employees kept quiet ABOUT/ON the case of
creative accounting that was unearthed last week.
• You can't say anything to her. She's impervious TO
any sort of criticism.
• The working hours are incompatible WITH family life.
• His unruly behavior at school is indicative OF a
deeper psychological problem.
• It is the teacher's duty to be concerned ABOUT the
weak students.
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Exercise 5: Forming three-word phrasals
• I think we've just run out OF coffee. We will have to
get some in the morning.
• Does anybody feel up TO Mick's party tonight?
• My boss asked me to stand in FOR him during his
week off from the office.
• Being a father has helped him learn to face up TO his
responsibilities.
Gramática II

Exercise 5: Forming three-word phrasals
• The Chief of Staff has been coming in FOR a shower
of criticism for the way he has tried to make little of
the accusations against him of fraud and
embezzlement.
• I don't really go in FOR team sports; give me a tennis
racket or a pair of trainers any day!
• The troops plan to pull out OF/FROM the occupied
territories for economic reasons.
Gramática II

Verb + preposition
• The state-funded health service accounts FOR 85% of
public spending.
• In times of trouble, you can always turn TO a friend.
• His conviction for reckless driving counted AGAINST
him when he tried to renew his car insurance.
• Sometimes it seems almost impossible to keep up
WITH the latest news.
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Many adjectives and verbs take multiple
prepositions, altering the meaning in the process

• Abide "with us for a while," "by the rules" (or "I
can't abide him").
• ABIDE WITH = STAY WITH
• ABIDE BY = ADHERE TO OBEY
• ABIDE = TOLERATE

• Answer "to him for what you've done," "for what
you've done.”
• ANSWER TO = LIABLE TO, REPORT TO, GIVE
SATISFACTION, EXPLAIN
• ANSWER FOR (A CRIME) = PAY FOR (A CRIME)

• Caution "about unsafe conditions," "against the rash
proposal.”
• CAUTION ABOUT = PREVENT/TAKE PREVENTIVE
MEASURES
• CAUTION AGAINST = SHOW DISAPPROVAL OF STH

• Compare "with other products that make the same
claims," "apples to oranges.”
• COMPARE WITH STH =
• COMPARE X TO Y =

• Confide "in her about my problems," "to him what I
really think.“
• CONFIDE IN
• CONFIDE TO

• Conversant "about climate change," "in several
languages," "with aspects of technology.”

• Differ "from other species in their diet," "with them
about the cause of the company's failure," or "about
public policy," "on public policy," or "over public
policy.”

• Different "from what he was used to," "than he was
used to." From is the preferred usage, but than
substitutes for "from what." ("Different to" is a
Briticism.)

• Dissent "against the status quo," "from the majority
opinion." (To or with are not considered standard
usage.)

• Dissimilar "to her previous sculpture." (From is
considered incorrect.)

• Enamored "of every woman he meets." (With is

• Equivalent "in amounts," "to the earlier result."
(With is not considered standard usage.)

• Excerpt "from their book was reprinted without their
permission." (Of is considered incorrect.)

• Forbid "him from attending," "him to attend." (To is
considered the more correct of the two choices.)

• Identical "to the one she saw yesterday," "with the
one she saw yesterday." (Language purists consider
with more correct, but use of to is significantly more
common.)

• Impatient "with him," but "about the delay," "at the
delay," or "with the delay.”

• Independent "of the group, he protested the plan."
(From, as in "Independent from her family," is

• Inquired "of him where he was going" and "after her
whereabouts," but "into their progress" or "about
the vacant apartment.”

• Instilled "instilled a few drops of the solution into the
wound," "in him a drive to succeed." (With, as in
"Instilled with a drive to succeed," is considered
incorrect.)

• Oblivious "of the warning signs," "to the noise"; the
choices are often interchangeable. (About is often
used in association with oblivious, but it's not
considered standard usage.)

• Vexed "about her behavior," "at her behavior.”

• Mastery "over all other competitors," but "of the
skill.”

• Reconcile "with her boyfriend," but "to the loss of
her boyfriend.”

• Succeed "as a businessperson," but "to the position."

Prepositions in compound adjectives
• We had lunch at a DOWN-market restaurant the other
day. Not surprisingly, the food was horrendous.
• Renowned linguist, Noam Chomsky is now a very
OUTspoken critic of the government's foreign policies.
• The army has been accused of using OVERwhelming
force to quell the protests.
• After the corruption scandal that rocked the market, the
company now faces a (n) UPhill struggle to avoid further
losses.
Gramática II

Prepositions in compound adjectives
• I just received a BACKdated pay award, so this
month's salary is a little larger than usual.
• Could you provide some BACKground information on
the company?
• Stop behaving like a (n) OVERgrown boy, act your
age!
• She had the nerve to accuse me of stealing her
purse. The very thought is DOWNright outrageous!
Gramática II

Prepositions in idioms
• As mentioned before, several idiomatic expressions
are catalogued based on the head preposition e.g. at,
in , on
• It would be best to learn them as chunks, although
the semantic content may/may not be evident to or
felt by the user
Gramática II

Exercise 6 – Use the words in brackets to make
idioms for the underlined words
• He claimed he hadn't done it intentionally. (ON
purpose) OUT OF SPITE
• We admire her because of her intelligence. (ON
ACCOUNT OF)
• I don't want you to sympathize with me. (sorry)
• If you're not sure about what to write, it's best to
make notes beforehand. (doubt)
Gramática II

Exercise 6 – Use the words in brackets to make
idioms for the underlined words
• Love letters will never be outdated because people
will always feel enamored. (OUT OF fashion, fall IN
LOVE)
• I know the person from appearance but not from
what he/she's called. (BY sight, BY name)
• She's working much too hard causing harm to her
health. (AT THE expense OF)
• I wonder if you know what's on at the cinema,
perhaps? (BY/ANY chance)
Gramática II

Exercise 7 – Form idioms with the parts
underlined and the preposition "at"
• The winners are selected without any plan by a
computer. AT RANDOM.
• It was a wonderful show – anyway I enjoyed it. AT LEAST
• It was a difficult problem and I was uncertain what to do.
AT A LOSS
• I'm sure that our friends will arrive very soon – anyway I
hope so. AT ANY MOMENT/MINUTE, AT LEAST
• If you need to stay overnight, please book a hotel room
and we will pay. AT OUR EXPENSE
Gramática II

underlined and the preposition "at"
• The hero was rescued a moment before it was too
late. AT THE LAST MINUTE
• The show closed because it was running without
making a profit. A T A LOSS
• We were talking about different things but didn't
realize it. AT CROSSROADS
• It's impossible to get tickets for such a popular show
without previous warning- you need to book no less
than six months in advance. AT THE SPUR OF THE
MOMENT, AT LEAST
Gramática II

underlined and the preposition "on"
• (At a restaurant) There are so many desserts ON THE
MENU but I won't have anything because I'm ON A
DIET.
• I would like to thank you ON BEHALF OF the entire
sector and the board.
• He promised to help me ON THE CONDITION THAT I
returned the favor some other time.
• It was a long drive so we stopped ON THE WAY to
have a meal.
Gramática II

underlined and the preposition "on"
• How much does a bus driver earn ON AVERAGE in
your country?
• Did you see the news ON TV last night?
• Trains leave every hour ON THE HOUR.
• It takes much longer to get there ON FOOT than by
bus.
• No, I don't dislike Chaplin at all; ON THE CONTRARY; I
admire him greatly.
Gramática II

Conjunctions
Syntactic (grammatical) elements used to link
ideas in a particular so as to portray contrast,
coordination, explanation, concession etc.
Elements that link ideas beyond the scope of the
noun or prepositional phrase, i.e. sentence,
paragraph and whole text

Coordinators
• Linking of elements of same syntactic status
(nouns, adverbials, adjectives)
Paul and David
cold and wet
tired but happy
slowly but surely
tea or coffee
hot or cold

Coordinators
• This also applies to longer units
We can eat now or wait till later
I love tennis but (I) don't play well

Coordinators
• Must appear between the elements
coordinated: Paul plays football and David
plays chess
• Can have the order of the coordinated
elements reversed, without changing
meaning: David plays chess and Paul plays
football

And x But x Or?
• To join a final thing to the rest of a list.
– When I visited India, I went to Mumbai, Delhi AND
Bangalore.

And x But x Or?
• To join two ideas, opinions or facts which are
different in a sentence.
– I’ve been to Thailand, BUT I haven’t been to the
Philippines.

And x But x Or?
• To join two adjectives which seem to be opposite in
meaning.
– My hotel room was clean BUT uncomfortable.

And x But x Or?
• To connect different possibilities, or the last thing in
a list of possibilities
– I don’t know why Sayed hasn´t come to class; he may be
ill, OR he may be too busy.

And x But x Or?
• To mean one thing and also not the other in a
negative sentence
– I haven’t been to Korea OR Thailand.

Correlative conjunctions
• Both . . . and . . .
• Either . . . or . . .
• Neither . . . nor . . .
• Hardly . . . when . . .
• If . . . then . . .
• No sooner . . . than . . .
• Not only . . . but also
• Rather . . . than
• Scarcely . . . when
• What with . . . and
• Whether . . . or

Subordinators
• Linking of unequal syntactic status
I left early because I had an interview early the
next day.
We visited Madame Tussaud while we were in
London

Most common subordinators
• Because
• While
• If
• Although
• Before
• Since
• Till
• Unless
• Whereas
• Whether

Subordinators
• Do not need to occur between the connected
items: Because I had an interview the next
day, I left early.
• When there is a change of order in the
connected items, there is either a change in
meaning or a dubious sentence: I had an
interview the next day, because I left
early.

Common mistakes with subordinating
conjunctions
• Although there are many reasons why young people
start to smoke.
– However, there are many reasons why young people start
to smoke.

conjunctions
• Whereas some argue that children should be forced
to do more exercise.
– However/On the other hand/By contrast, some argue
that children should be forced to do more exercise.

conjunctions
• People who enjoy communication by letter are
romantic because they tend to write in a very classy
way.
– People who enjoy communication by letter are romantic;
that’s why they tend to write in a very classy way.
– People who enjoy communication by letter are romantic.
As a result, they tend to write in a very classy way

Same sentence
• She used to call me "Tiny" although I was as tall
as she was.
• Three more nuclear stations were built
despite/in spite of widespread opposition
• Even though I have a degree in Business
Administration, I can't fill out a tax form.
• Much as she loved her son, she could not accept
his choice of career.
• Doctors' salaries have risen considerably
whereas/while nurses' pay have dropped.

Two sentences or clauses
• Car crashes have become rare; even so, there
should be stricter safety regulations
• Prices have been rising. It is unlikely, however,
that this increase is going to continue for long.
• It is a grueling competition. Nevertheless,
thousands of runners take part every year.
• Urban expansion would be a good thing. On the
other hand, it would be sad to lose the
countryside atmosphere.

Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition
• Short answers: Should I revise for the test? I
think you should
• Comments: "I thought the film was wonderful."
"I didn't."
• Subsequent responses: "I wish you'd lock the
door when you come in." "But I did!"
• With more than one auxiliary: "He could have
been lying." "Yes, he could/he could have been."

Reduced infinitives
• To give continuity to thoughts expressed,
e.g. "Haven't you done the washing-up?" "No, I'm
just about to."
• To respond politely, e.g. "Are you coming for a
walk?" "No, I dont want to."
• To comment: She's less moody than she used to
be.

Reduced infinitives
• My mother can't read. She just never learnt
to. (She just never learnt how)
• I know I should not have offended you. I
didn't mean to.
• At first he refused to help, but eventually they
got him to.

Participles/Relative pronouns/Reduced
clauses
• I don't believe a word they say, given they
never tell the truth.
• The women hurt in the accident are said to
still be in critical condition at the emergency
ward.

Paticiples as Discourse markers
• Particles refer to the whole sentence as logical
arguments, e.g Not knowing what to do, I
decided to wait

Discourse markers show the
relationships between …
• What is being said and what was said
• What is being said and what is going to be said
• Speaker's attitude and what he/she is saying
• Speaker's attitude and what was said

Adverbs
• Despite not being well-off, he gives quite
handsomely to charities.
• I admire him as a lecturer, though I find him a
difficult person to get along with as a colleague.
• He left school without any qualifications.
Nevertheless, he is now one of the wealthiest
men in the country.

Adverbs as Discourse markers
• Adverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g.
Sadly, the starting time had to be pushed
back.
decided to wait
• Discourse markers can be created from adverbs
and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need
a better job.

Adverbs as Discourse markers
• Adverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g.
Sadly, the starting time had to pushed back.
decided to wait
• Discourse markers can be created from adverbs
and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need
a better job.

Meanings portrayed
• Introduction: To begin with
• Reference: With reference to
• Change of subject: By the way
• Reinforcement: As a matter of fact
• Emphasis: Mainly
• Cause: Since
• Result, consequence: That's why
• Inference, conclusion: Therefore
• Purpose: In order to
• Future projection: From now on

Meanings portrayed
• Agreement: According to
• Searching the recent past: So far
• Momentary situations: For now
• Simultaneity: In the meantime
• Defining circumstances: In the midst of
• Generalizing: As a rule
• Coincidental events: Whenever
• Time relationship: As time goes by

Meanings portrayed
• Addressing: To whom it may concern
• Weak forms: So far
• Exclusion: As for me
• Position definers : From the standpoint of
• Assurance: Of course
• Equivalence: By the same token
• Condition: As long as
• Contrast: Whereas
• Reiterating: In other words

Meanings portrayed
• Giving examples: For instance
• Figurative: if you will
• Alternation: In his turn
• Last solution: As a last resort
• Addition: Not only... but also
• Dismissal: By the same token
• Reminder: Whereas
• Reiterating: (Otherwise) In other words
• Consequence: As a result

Discourse Markers - what does each mean?
• Basically, the country is spending too much
money.
• You might think I'm crazy when I say
something like that but actually, I'm not.
• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in
the hotel business.
• Surely you understand what I mean when I
say this?

Discourse Markers
• Basically, the country is spending too much
money. (That's the most important point)
• You might think I'm crazy when I say
something like that but actually, I'm not. (I'm
contradicting you gently)
• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in
the hotel business. (I've heard this, but don't
know if it's true)
• Surely you understand what I mean when I
say this? (I don't know why you don't see
things my way)

Some other discourse Markers
• Admittedly = I know this weakens my point
• After all = You have to admit
• As a matter of fact = This might come as a
surprise
• Mind you/Still = This is something you
should consider/I know this may contradict
what I said earlier
• I mean = What I'm trying to say is
• Obviously = The fact cannot be denied

Some other discourse Markers
• At least = I'm rectifying what I said
• Naturally = This is what I would expect (to
happen)
• Anyway = Concluding the topic/Moving on to
another topic
• All in all = I'm considering all the angles in the
situation
• So to speak = I'm speaking in a figurative
manner
• By the way = This isn't connected to what I
was just talking/The topic reminds me of
another one

Similar in meaning*
• Admittedly = Mind you/Still
• Naturally = Obviously
• All in all = After all
• By the way = As a matter of fact
(* with some restrictions, depending on the
context)

Some useful resources
• Cassell's Students' English Grammar
• Ways to Grammar
• Murphy's English Grammar
• Practical English Usage
• A Student's Grammar of the English Language
• The Good Grammar Book

Bibliography
1.BORDET, Lucile & JAMET, Denis. Are English Prepositions
grammatical or lexical morphemes? Cercles, Occasional Papers, p.1-
26. 2010
2.FEIST, Michele I. The changing shape of prepositional meanings. In:
CHAN, JACOB & KAPIA. Proceedings of the 32nd
Annual Boston
University Conference on Language Development. Boston, 2008
3.GRUBIC, Bob. Those Problematic English Prepositions. Presented
at the CFI- Baci Conference, Long Beach, California. November 13, 2004.
4.LITTLEFIELD, Heather. Lexical and Functional Prepositions in
Acquisition: Evidence for a hybrid category. Boston University. 2006
5.MARIN, A.M. A Semantic Description of the Preposition. 2010

Grammar ii prepositions and conjunctions

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