2. Lexicology & Lexicography
• Lexicology – the study of words and the
lexicon
• Lexicography – the cataloguing of the lexicon
in dictionaries
3. Lexicology
• What is a word? – the nature of words
• Morphology - the forms and elements of words
• Lexical semantics – the meaning of words
• Semantic relations – how words relate to one
another
• Collocation and phraseology – how words
combine with one another
• The lexicon as a system
4. What is a word?
Single indivisible unit* of language with a discrete
meaning
*unit = combination of sounds
NB: A single “word” in the semantic/phonetic
sense may correspond to more than one written
word:
e.g. washing machine, cara de pau
5. One word or more?
• English: to the man
• Portuguese: ao homem
• Danish: til manden
• Arabic: للرجل lir-rajul (li+al+rajul)
• Turkish:
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız?
Você é um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?
6. Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan
mısınız?
Brezilya - Brasil
Brezilyalı – brasileiro
Brezilyalılaş – virar brasileiro
Brezilyalılaştır – fazer virar brasileiro > abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştırama – não possível abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştıramadık – que não possível abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklar – aqueles que não possível abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımız – aqueles que não possível nós abrasileirarmos > que não conseguimos
abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan – um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mı? – um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?
Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız? –Você é um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?
7. Lexemes
• Are dog and dogs the same word, or two
different words?
• Are speak, speaks, speaking, spoke and
spoken five different words, or one?
Lexeme DOG has two word forms: dog, dogs
Lexeme SPEAK has five word forms: speak,
speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken
8. Morphemes
• Morpheme: minimal meaningful unit of
language
dogs consists of two morphemes:
root morpheme dog
inflectional morpheme -s
independently consists of four morphemes:
root morpheme depend
derivational morphemes in- -ent -ly
9. Inflectional Morphemes
• Inflectional morphemes produce different
forms of the same lexeme
e.g. speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken
• Use of inflectional morphemes is determined
by inflectional rules, which in turn are
determined by syntax – the role of the word in
the sentence: morphosyntactics
10. Derivational Morphemes
• Derivational morphemes produce new lexemes
e.g. write > writer, rewrite, writings
• Use of derivational morphemes are determined
by rules of word formation
• Derivational morphemes (affixes: prefixes and
suffixes) have a meaning. These meanings can be
difficult to describe in words, but are instinctively
understood by native speakers through ANALOGY
11. Prefixes in English 1
Prefixes Examples Portuguese
A. Negative prefixes
un-, in-, non-, de-, dis- unzip, illegal, non-smoker,
decode, dislike
des-, in-, não, dis- , pouco
B. Latin prefixes
anti-, co-, inter-, post-, pre-,
pro-, re-, semi-, sub-,
super-, etc.
NB:
arch-
hyper-
hypo-
anti-American, co-pilot,
international, post-war,
prefabricated, pro-Chinese,
rebuild, semicircle,
subconscious, supersonic
anti-, co-, inter-, pós-, pré-,
pró-, re-, semi-, sub-,
super-, etc.
NB:
arqui-, arque-, arce-
hiper-
hipo-
12. Prefixes in English 2
C. English prefixes Examples Portuguese
mis- misjudge, misspell, mistake mal, de forma errada
out- outgrow, outlive,
outnumber, outwit
(superar, exceder,
ultrapassar)
over- 1. overeat, overdo,
overweight
2. overcome, overtake
3. overfly, overpass
1. (em excesso, de forma
exagerada)
2. (superação)
3. (por cima)
under- 1. undernourished,
underfunded
2. undergo, undertake
3. underline, underpin
1. (insuficiência) sub-
2. (incumbência,
submissão)
3. (por baixo)
13. Exercise 1
1. Hipermercado - hypermarket
2. pós-operatório – post-operative
3. desadicionar (no orkut, FB) - unfriend
4. pouco convincente - unconvincing
5. Arquirrival - archrival
6. Misinformation – informação errada, equivocada
7. Not to be outdone (ser superado, ficar para trás), our
neighbors also bought a new car.
8. Don’t overdo (exagerar) it.
9. “John Lewis – never knowingly undersold (vender mais
barato)”
10. The apartment had to be deroached (desinsetizado).
19. Words ending in -ic/-ical 1
• Either -ic or -ical with no change of meaning:
ecclesiastistic(al), geographic(al), geometric(al), ironic(al),
logistic(al), philosophic(al), poetic(al), rhythmic(al), stoic(al),
symmetric(al), typographic(al)
• Noun ends in –ic(s), adjective ends in –ical:
aeronautics/aeronautical, arithmetic/arithmetical, cleric/clerical,
clinic/clinical, critic/critical, ethics/ethical, fanatic/fanatical,
heretic/heretical, logic/logical, lyric/lyrical, mathematics/
mathematical, mechanic/mechanics/mechanical, medic/medical,
music/musical, mystic/mystical, optics/optical, rhetoric/rhetorical,
sceptic/sceptical, statistic/statistics/statistical, tactic/tactical,
theatrics/theatrical, topic/topical, tropic/tropical
• NB: periodical/periodic(al)
20. Words ending in -ic/-ical 2
• Both forms exist with distinct meanings:
classic (típico, consagrado, admirado) x classical (relativo à música clássica
ou à antiguidade romana e grega)
comic (escrito como comédia) x comical (muito engraçado)
economic (relativo à economia) x economical (barato, parcimonioso)
electric (movido à eletricidade, eletrizante) x electrical (relativo à
eletricidade ou a aparelhos eletricos)
historic (muito antigo; marcante, que faz história) x historical (relativo à
história)
magic (que tem poder mágico ou que envolve mágica) x magical (irreal,
onírico)
metric (relativo ao sistema métrico de medidas) x metrical (relativo ao
metro poético)
politic (prudente, diplomático) x political (relativo à política)
21. Exercise 2
1. um erro clássico
2. prédios históricos
3. uma noite mágica
4. um fogão elétrico
5. um pianista clássico
6. um estudo histórico
7. um anel mágico
8. um defeito elétrico
9. uma vitória histórica
10. uma cena cômica
22. How does the lexicon develop and
expand?
• Existing words take on new meanings
e.g. mouse, to click, to like, bookmark
• New words are created
e.g. internet, dongle, docudrama
• Words are borrowed from other languages
e.g. samba, capoeira, favela, caipirinha
• Words and meanings fall into disuse and die
out
23. How are new words created?
• Conversion (e.g. from noun to verb: to hand,
to book, to house, to friend)
• Derivation (write > writer, rewrite, writing)
• Composition (toothbrush, ghost-writer etc.;
write back, write in, write off, write out)
• Invention (dongle, docudrama, edutainment)
24. Word types
• Root words (house, book, hand, car, write
etc.)
• Derived words (handy, writer, rewrite,
bookish etc.)
• Compound words (houseboat, bookshelf, race
car, ghost-write etc.)
• Shortenings and abbreviations (lab, flu, photo,
MP, OK etc.)
25. Content Words vs. Form Words
• Content words – most of the words of the
language which have a more or less clearly
defined meaning even in isolation
e.g. car, house, impossible, to create etc.
• Form words – words which are almost empty
of meaning in isolation, but which structure
the relations between content words
e.g. the, that, not, a(n), of, will etc.
26. The meaning of words
• Until 1930s, people only interested in the
development of words over time: etymology
and evolution of meaning
• Synchronic study of meaning only began in 20th
century with Saussure
• Saussure took structuralist approach: the
meaning of a word is understood by how it
differs from the meaning of other words in the
lexicon
27. Ferdinand de Saussure
• Swiss linguist 1857-1913
• Each word is a sign
• Each sign consists of a signifier (phonetic or
written representation) and a signified (the thing,
action or quality referred to)
• Signifiers are arbitrary – that’s why there are
different languages
• Signified is also arbitrary – how the world is
classified is not fixed, but done using language, so
native speakers of different languages see the
world in different ways
30. The signified is also arbitrary 2
English
Bonfire Night, homecoming queen, letter
jacket, root beer, sorority, binge drinking
Portuguese
feijoada, roda de samba, forró universitário,
farofeiro, favela
31. What is meaning?
The meaning of a word is made up of:
• denotative component
• connotative components
32. Denotative components
lonely -------- » [alone, without company]
notorious -------- » [widely known]
celebrated -------- » [widely known]
to glare --------» [to look]
to glance --------» [to look]
to shiver --------» [to tremble]
to shudder--------» [to tremble]
33. Connotative components
lonely -------- » [alone , without company] {sad}
solitary -------- » [alone , without company] {out of choice}
notorious -------- » [widely known] {for doing bad things}
celebrated -------- » [widely known] {for outstanding
achievement}
to glare --------» [to look] {angrily}
to glance --------» [to look] {briefly}
to stare --------» [to look] {insistently, for some time}
to shiver --------» [to tremble] {continuously, usually with cold}
to shudder--------» [to tremble] {once, with fear or disgust}
34. Connotation Types
Connotation Type Examples
Intensity surprise, astonish, amaze, astound
Duration stare, gaze, peer vs. glance, peep
Emotive lonely vs. solitary
Evaluative (value judgement) notorious vs. celebrated, eyes sparkle vs.
eyes glint/glitter
Causative shiver (with cold) vs. shudder (with
disgust), to blush (with embarrassment)
vs. to redden (with anger)
Manner walk vs. stroll, amble, trot etc.
Attendant circumstances peep (secretly, from a hiding place) vs.
peer (in darkness, at a distance)
Attendant features beautiful vs. handsome vs. pretty
Stylistic (register) meal vs. bite to eat, repast, blow-out; to
leave vs. to clear off, to leg it, to depart,
to withdraw
35. Exercise 3
What are the connotations of the following
words:
• think, ponder, reflect, deliberate, meditate,
muse, ruminate, brood
• laugh, chuckle, chortle, guffaw, giggle, titter,
snicker (Brit: snigger), roar, crack up, piss
yourself
36. Register
• Neutral – words that do not have a particular register (e.g.
toilet, bottom)
• Colloquial – words that are only appropriate in informal
speech/writing (e.g. loo, bum/butt/buns)
• Slang – words restricted to certain groups and/or certain
very informal situations (e.g. bog, arse/ass)
• Taboo – swear words (e.g. shitter, arsehole/asshole)
• Formal – words that are only used in formal contexts (e.g.
lavatory, WC; buttocks, rear)
• Literary – words that are only used in literary contexts (e.g.
privy, derrière)
• Specialist – words relating to a specific field (e.g. toilet
bowl, glutes)
37. Euphemism
Euphemism Non-euphemism
public convenience, bathroom, restroom,
comfort station
toilet
backside, behind, derrière buttocks
pass away die
family planning contraception
privates, private parts genitals
overweight fat
homely, plain unattractive
differently abled disabled, handicapped
sleep with, go to bed with have sex with
tired and emotional drunk
freaking, frigging, flipping fucking
38. Exercise 4
1. to be economical with the truth
2. intellectually challenged
3. to powder your nose
4. to see a man about a dog
5. bathroom tissue
6. correctional facility
7. enhanced interrogation
8. adult entertainment
9. sanitation worker
10. gentlemen’s club
39. Synonyms
• Ideographic synonyms – same denotation,
different connotation (e.g. arremessar, jogar,
tacar)
• Stylistic synonyms – same denotation,
different register (e.g. colocar x botar)
• Absolute synonyms – identical in denotation,
connotation and register (e.g. colocar, pôr)
41. Conclusions
• Languages have a neutral core vocabulary which is purely
denotative and unmarked
• Absolute syonyms are a temporary phenomenon in
language – generally, no two words share exactly the same
denotation and connotation
• One element of meaning is the contrast with other words
in the lexicon
• Translators should match not only the denotative meaning
of a word or expression, but also the connotative elements.
Bilingual dictionaries only do this to a certain extent.
• Teachers should teach not only the denotative meaning of
a word or expression, but also make students aware of its
connotations. Translation helps here.
42. False Friends 1
1. These days, environmental concerns are high on the agenda.
O primeiro-ministro tem uma agenda muito cheia.
2. The president had not anticipated the outcry the decision would cause.
O presidente antecipou para segunda-feira sua reunião com ministros.
3. The man was charged with assault.
O homem foi condenado por assalto à mão armada.
4. This cannot be done without Her Majesty’s assent.
Um rapaz cedeu o assento à senhora idosa.
5. The magician asked a member of the audience to assist him with the trick.
O senador assistiu ao casamento da filha de um aliado político.
43. False Friends 2
6. It is safe to assume that the phone company is to blame for the mistake.
Não vou assumir a culpa por uma coisa que eu não fiz.
7. I’m not sure I’m going to be able to attend tomorrow’s meeting.
Você acha que ela vai atender ao nosso pedido?
8. The party was a very casual affair and I felt rather overdressed.
Não passou de um encontro casual.
9. The casualties were taken to a nearby hospital.
O gol contra pode ter sido uma casualidade, mas já é o terceiro marcado por este
jogador.
10. The government is proposing a comprehensive set of reforms.
Eu achei que você fosse ser mais compreensivo.
44. False Friends 3
11. How can peace be achieved when neither side is prepared to compromise?
Os dois países se comprometeram a encontrar uma solução pacífica.
12. Do you already have your costume for the Carnival parade?
O casamento foi combinado pelos pais, como é o costume do país.
13. He was charged with obtaining money by deception.
Ela não conseguiu esconder sua decepção.
14. Security cameras are supposed to deter intruders.
Os seguranças resolveram deter o intruso.
15. It’s a disgrace the way people are treated in public hospitals.
Não sou de me comprazer com a desgraça alheia.
45. False Friends 4
16.One of the robbers creates a diversion while the other steals the bag.
A Internet pode ser uma fonte inesgotável de conhecimentos e diversão.
17.She’s very well educated.
Ela é muito bem-educada.
18.The couple exchanged e-mails and eventually arranged to meet.
Os participantes trocam e-mails e eventualmente marcam um encontro.
19.The minister’s exit from office has sparked a political crisis.
O ministro não obteve êxito com a nova política.
20.The policeman was exonerated of any blame for the shooting.
O policial foi exonerado por ter atirado contra o suspeito.
46. False Friends 5
21. It felt more secure to be in familiar surroundings.
Muitas crianças não vivem num ambiente familiar estável.
22. There are many grand buildings and monuments in Paris.
É um prédio grande com uma agència de viagens no térreo.
23. Environmental protection should be an integral part of all government policy.
As famílias têm assistência médica integral.
24. You can’t buy liquor unless you have ID.
Depois do jantar, pedimos um licor.
25. I don’t think I can manage another piece of cake.
Massa maneja o carro com grande habilidade.
47. False Friends 6
26.There was a notice on the door saying “Back in 5 mins”.
Foi uma notícia que surpreendeu a todos.
27.I like reading historical novels.
Gosto de novelas de época.
28.It’s an offence to park on a double-yellow line.
Nos países árabes, é uma ofensa mostrar a sola do pé.
29.Here’s a photo of my parents.
Essa é uma foto de alguns dos meus parentes.
30.He has a peculiar accent. Where’s he from?
Os sul-africanos tèm um sotaque peculiar.
48. False Friends 7
31.The price of petrol has gone up again.
O preço do petróleo voltou a subir.
32.Many gay teenagers have suffered prejudice at school.
Muitos comerciantes sofreram prejuízo com o quebra-quebra.
33.She doesn’t call me anymore now she’s preoccupied with her new baby.
A mãe estava preocupada com o bebê, que não mamava direito.
34.This cake contains no preservatives or artificial flavorings.
A Igreja católica condena o uso do preservativo.
35.He pretends to be a professional footballer.
Ele pretende ser jogador profissional.
49. False Friends 8
36. She’s a physics professor.
Ela é professora de Física.
37. The discussion was resumed after lunch.
A discussão foi resumida na ata.
38. It was an emotional reunion.
Foi uma reunião acalorada.
39. I was robbed as I was coming out of the bank.
A minha carteira foi roubada dentro do banco!
40. I don’t know how he supports that family of his.
Não sei como ele suporta aquela família dele.
41. She was very sympathetic and said she would try to help me.
Ela foi muito simpática e disse que ia me ajudar.
42. The government introduced a tax on financial transactions.
O banco cobra uma taxa por cada movimento da conta.
