Grammar
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Critical listening involves using reason to make logical judgments about what is heard. It includes listening for appropriate tone, distinguishing between facts and opinions, understanding denotation versus connotation, identifying euphemisms, recognizing self-important language, and avoiding logical fallacies. Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can mislead listeners. Examples of common fallacies discussed are hasty generalizations, begging the question, non sequiturs, testimonials, bandwagon techniques, card stacking, false comparisons, and emotional appeals.
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Chapter 4: Rhetorical Devices and Informal Fallacies
Not surprisingly, people who wish to convince others to adopt their positions
do not always rely solely on attempts to establish sound and cogent arguments.
People are often more interested in convincing rather than seeking the truth
of the matter. Advertisers, advocates, politicians, political pundits, etc. (the list
truly goes on and on) have developed quite an arsenal for levelling arguments
or colouring the language of argumentation in such a way as to make the rea-
sons for accepting their point of view seem to be much more compelling than
they actually are. This need not be intentional; that is, a person’s intent need not
be deception to make use of these highly persuasive tactics. Certainly there are
many cases in which a devious type will deliberately set out to deceive, but there
also many instances in which people in good faith unwittingly make use of them
as well. Those who have an interest in identifying attempts at deception as
well as those who are interested in compellingly arguing their points in a reason-
able manner should take note of what follows.
4.1 Rhetorical Devices
A rhetorical device, in general, is a use of language that makes a position seem
to be more compelling than it would otherwise be by generating an emotional
response. This sort of tactic is especially insidious as it often much easier to
manipulate emotions than it is to appeal to reason. Heightened emotions cloud
the thinking and often have the effect of masking the fact that emotions have
been manipulated in the first place. It is crucial to insightful and critical thought
that such manipulation be identified and that a position be dispassionately con-
sidered on its merits rather than on emotional responses that have been gener-
ated by its proponents or opponents. The following is a brief overview of some
rhetorical devices. This list is by no means exhaustive.
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EBSCO : eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 10/12/2018 7:46 PM via FAYETTEVILLE TECH COMM CLG
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Account: s5824366.main.eds
Critical Thinking 47
Euphemisms and dysphemisms
A person’s emotional attitude towards something can often and easily be influ-
enced by the term that is used to refer to it. A euphemism is a replacement term
that is introduced in order to make something seem less offensive or negative
than it would otherwise be. The paradigmatic example of a euphemism is the
replacement of the term “civilian casualties” with “collateral damage.” By con-
trast, a dysphemism is a replacement term that is introduced to make somethi.
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Poor Reasoning and Fallacies Cheat Sheet Appeal to the Pe.docx
Poor Reasoning and Fallacies Cheat Sheet
Appeal to the People (Bandwagon) - Claiming that something is true just because many people
believe it is. Example: Everybody buys this product, so it must be the best one.
Faulty Appeal to Authority - Using research without naming the source, such as, "Many researchers
say..." or answering questions one is not qualified to answer. Example: I asked my dentist if he thought
this mole was cancerous. He said “No” so I do not need to get it checked out.
Proof by Lack of Evidence (Burden of Proof) - Asserting something is true just because there is no
evidence it's false. Example: UFO’s exist because no one has ever been able to prove they don’t.
Innuendo – Making a claim without actually making the claim. Example:
Non Sequitur - It doesn't follow logically. Samantha lives in a large building; therefore she must have a
large home.
Fake Dilemma (Black and White) – Presenting two alternative states as the only possibilities, when in
fact there are more. Example: "You are either for the U.S. or against the U.S." doesn't allow for neutral
countries.
Naturalistic Fallacy (Appeal to Nature) - Making the argument because something is “natural”, it is
therefore valid, good or the way it’s supposed to be. Example: This product uses all natural ingredients
therefore it’s the only one on the market you should buy.
Circular Reasoning (Begging the Question) – Using the statement to prove the conclusion and the
conclusion to prove the statement. Example: The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this
because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and
Should Not Ever Be Questioned.
Overgeneralization – Asserting something is an entire class of things when it may not be true for all
members of the class. Example: Beth is a Psychology student and shy is shy, therefore all psychology
students are shy.
False Analogy (Slippery Slope) – Making a false or misleading analogy. Example: Colin Closet asserts
that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we'll be allowing people to marry their
parents, their cars and even monkeys.
Jumping to Conclusions – Drawing conclusions with little evidence. Example: My son is crying, you
must have taken his toy.
Being Unrealistic – Using only information in an unrealistic manner. Example: The candidates just all
graduated from college… therefore they should not take a job for less than 6 figures.
Verbal Fallacies (Ambiguity) – Accenting, omitting, or misusing certain words to influence or mislead
the reader or listener. Example: After the team lost, Susan became mad. (upset, angry, insane, happy…
who knows)
Using only information that supports your argument (Texas Sharpshooter) - Example: Research
says a glass of wine a day is good for my heart. So drinking is good for my heart!
Source: Jesse Ri.
Ch12 reasoning
Reasoning is the process of generating conclusions from evidence or premises. There are three main types of reasoning: inductive reasoning which creates generalizations from examples; deductive reasoning which applies generalizations to specific cases through syllogisms; and fallacies which are errors in reasoning. Inductive reasoning uses examples, causes, signs, comparisons, or authority to form conclusions while deductive reasoning uses major and minor premises to logically deduce a conclusion.
Listening And Evaluating[1]
The document discusses important skills for being a good listener, including being attentive, receptive, seeking information, and evaluating what is heard. It outlines factors that can affect listening such as physical/mental state, the speaker, prejudices, and the environment. Some tips for controlling these factors include being well-rested, focusing on the message, keeping an open mind, and adjusting the physical environment. The document also discusses techniques for listening critically such as identifying the speaker's goal and main ideas, looking for supporting details, and paying attention to nonverbal clues and emphasis.
Persuasion
This document provides information about persuasion and how to effectively persuade an audience. It defines persuasion as bringing an audience to believe a certain viewpoint or take a desired action. It discusses analyzing the audience to determine how to best appeal to them using Aristotle's three appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos. Logos involves using logic and evidence to persuade rationally. Ethos involves establishing credibility and trust with the audience. Pathos involves appealing to the audience's emotions. The document also discusses other techniques like determining the audience's motivation and addressing their needs using Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Influence without authority session handout
This document discusses techniques for influencing others without direct authority over them. It introduces the "Triangle of Influence" which involves understanding who the audience sees as the "hero", what motivates them ("what makes them tick"), and how to create change. The key is appealing to both the heart and mind of the audience by balancing rational arguments with emotional appeals. Stories can help win people over by addressing both their logical and emotional thinking. The goal is to ethically influence or persuade others by understanding their perspective and helping them, not forcing actions upon them against their will.
1Running Head FALLACY JOURNAL5FALLACY JOURNALName.docx
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Running Head: FALLACY JOURNAL
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FALLACY JOURNAL
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Institution
Date
Emotionally Loaded Language
This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality.
Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly.
Appeal to ignorance
This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa.
Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive.
Inconsistency
A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.
Communication skills
The document discusses effective communication and its importance for building productive relationships. It notes that 70% of workplace mistakes result from poor communication due to issues like lack of listening and understanding. Failure to communicate clearly can lead to problems like lower productivity and morale. Both verbal and nonverbal communication affect how messages are received. The key aspects of communication discussed include actively listening, asking open-ended questions, managing body language, and ensuring the message received matches the intended message.
1Running Head FALLACY JOURNAL2FALLACY JOURNALName.docx
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Running Head: FALLACY JOURNAL
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FALLACY JOURNAL
Name
Institution
Date
Emotionally Loaded Language
This fallacy arises when one uses the terms that shows more about ones feelings on the issues other than the rational basis from which those feelings are derived or when one uses emotions to alter the belief or behavior of others. Emotionally loaded language uses terms to evoke emotional response towards a particular product rather than explaining the reasoning for using or purchasing the product (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). This fallacy manipulates emotions in order to get ones attention away from an important issue. An emotional appeal is directed to divert the audience emotions and often uses the appeal of prejudice rather than offer a good assessment of a situation (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
In the advertisement words positive connotation also known as glittering word such as glamour, intrigue and power have been used. The audience associates the words glamour, intrigue, power and sex with an internationally known icon, playboy Bunny (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009). The fallacy is in the inference. By purchasing the key to the play boy club lifestyle and one can own powerful sexuality. Ones reasoning contain the fallacy of appeal to emotions when ads appeal one to purchase the product merely because the appeal arouses ones feelings of sexuality.
Sexuality is a strong emotion. Sexual connection is instinctive, immediate and appeals to everyone. A person doesn’t usually apply critical thinking to sexual impulses, so this type of advertisement pays off quickly.
Appeal to ignorance
This fallacy argues on the basis of what is not known and cannot be proven. It holds the belief that if one cannot prove that something is false then it must be true and vice versa.
Appeal to ignorance occurs when one believes something to be true that is not, because one has no knowledge about the subject to prove otherwise. For instance, an argument that is based on stereotype (Frans van Bart and Bert 2009).
The cigarette advertisement asks the audience to accept the truth of the claim that pleasure tastes great in red because there no proof that the contrary exists. In this case, there is no reason for holding to this belief but one is asked to accept the statement as true because it cannot be proven false. The assumption that pleasure tastes great in red is an error in reasoning. The audience is made to assume that pleasure does not taste great in blue, yellow or green. This advert is simply illogical rhetoric that also uses an appeal to emotional language. The meaning associated with the word pleasure is universally positive.
Inconsistency
A fallacy is inconsistent if it contains two assertions either implicit or explicit, which are logically incompatible with each other. Inconsistency may occur between words or actions. The fallacy occurs when one accepts an inconsistent set of claims, that is, when one accept a claim that logically confl.
Perceptual processes
This document provides an overview of various perceptual processes involved in perceiving other people. It begins with a self-test to assess one's accuracy in people perception. The test examines tendencies such as implicit personality theories, self-fulfilling prophecies, perceptual accentuation, primacy-recency effects, consistency biases, and stereotyping. The document then discusses each of these concepts in more detail, explaining how they can influence perceptions and potentially lead to inaccurate impressions if not accounted for critically. It concludes with suggestions for developing other-orientation to improve interpersonal effectiveness and form more accurate perceptions.
Fallacies (2).pdf
The document discusses various types of logical fallacies, which are flaws in reasoning that can undermine arguments. It defines fallacies as violations of logical laws or erroneous forms of reasoning. The document then explains 12 common informal fallacies, including appeals to emotion, authority, popularity and ignorance. It provides examples to illustrate each fallacy. The document concludes by presenting statements containing potential fallacies and asking the reader to identify them, along with answering any additional questions.
Question 1 Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one.docx
Question 1
Evaluate a mode of study that you do well and one that you could improve on. Please explain
how you plan on improving that which you find to be weak in your own study habits.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 2
Describe the two ways that students normally study in a typical college course.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length. You are required to use at least the attached
textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook, must be
referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Question 3
Describe the typical design of a college course and the outcomes that result for students in these
courses. In addition, describe a situation in which you found yourself falling into this style of
learning.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length. You are required to use at least the
attached textbook as source material for your response. All sources used, including the textbook,
must be referenced; paraphrased and quoted material must have accompanying citations.
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Display competence in the art of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
2. Determine the purpose of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
3. Compare and contrast the logic of college as it is and as it should be.
4. Assess the logic of the four modalities of communication.
5. Appraise the criteria for evaluating an author's reasoning by using the elements of thought.
6. Identify how one should assess one's progress in learning.
7. Describe the strategies for self-assessment.
8. Apply the generic model to various applied majors
Unit Lesson
This lecture continues with the discussion of rhetorical devices.
Downplayers
A downplayer is a word that is inserted in a sentence that undermines something that is being discussed. Let’s take a look at two
sentences that mean the same thing in their deepest structure, but that have radically different connotations due to one word.
“Brent got a B on his exam.”
“Brent only got a B on his exam.”
By inserting the word “only,” the person saying sentence two has downplayed Brent’s achievement. Most people would be
happy, or at least satisfied, with a grade of B on an exam. However, the second sentence seems to diminish Brent’s
accomplishment by indicating that a grade of B on the exam does not meet his or her expectations of Brent. You can think of
downplayers as using scare quotes “” in verbal language. Let’s look at some more examples.
“Yeah, Ellen just got her ‘degree’,”
In this case, the person seems to indicate ...
Persuading complaining etc
This document provides information on different persuasive techniques including persuading, complaining, demanding, apologizing, and interrupting. It defines each term and gives tips and strategies for how to effectively employ each technique. For persuading, it discusses the elements of ethos, logos, and pathos. For complaining, it offers advice on how to complain in person or over the phone. For demanding, it provides sample language constructions. For apologizing, it presents a formula for crafting apologies. And for interrupting, it lists different ways to interrupt someone respectfully. The document aims to teach readers how to skillfully navigate interpersonal interactions involving these common communication acts.
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V Upon completion of thi.docx
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit V
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Display competence in the art of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
2. Determine the purpose of analyzing the logic of the subject one is studying.
3. Compare and contrast the logic of college as it is and as it should be.
4. Assess the logic of the four modalities of communication.
5. Appraise the criteria for evaluating an author's reasoning by using the elements of thought.
6. Identify how one should assess one's progress in learning.
7. Describe the strategies for self-assessment.
8. Apply the generic model to various applied majors
Unit Lesson
This lecture continues with the discussion of rhetorical devices.
Downplayers
A downplayer is a word that is inserted in a sentence that undermines something that is being discussed. Let’s take a look at two
sentences that mean the same thing in their deepest structure, but that have radically different connotations due to one word.
“Brent got a B on his exam.”
“Brent only got a B on his exam.”
By inserting the word “only,” the person saying sentence two has downplayed Brent’s achievement. Most people would be
happy, or at least satisfied, with a grade of B on an exam. However, the second sentence seems to diminish Brent’s
accomplishment by indicating that a grade of B on the exam does not meet his or her expectations of Brent. You can think of
downplayers as using scare quotes “” in verbal language. Let’s look at some more examples.
“Yeah, Ellen just got her ‘degree’,”
In this case, the person seems to indicate that Ellen’s degree is not really a degree. The person is attempting to cast suspicion on
Ellen’s accomplishment.
Friend #1: “I hear that the teacher for critical thinking is great.”
Friend #2: “Oh yeah, he’s a great ‘teacher’.”
It seems that Friend #2 does not think that the teacher for critical thinking performs very well and has cast doubt on the
teacher’s abilities by downplaying
the teacher’s pedagogy. Be on the lookout for the use of downplayers. Do not let anyone downplay accomplishments by using
disingenuous words. Always remind yourself of the facts. If Brent got a B on a difficult organic chemistry exam, then one should
give credit where credit is due and not try to discredit his accomplishment in a devious manner.
Ridicule
Ridicule occurs when someone tries to cast suspicion on another by making fun of the person or personally embarrassing the
person in front of others. We are often told that this form of interaction is a high school phenomenon, but most of us realize
that this form of interaction can occur at any time, and often in the most inappropriate contexts.
Employee to Boss: “According to the research that our team put together, it seems that a marketing campaign targeted towards
18-35 year old women would be in the best interests of the company.”
Boss: “What do you know? You are just an inte ...
1 2 t4_chapter_one_powerpoint_new
The document provides an overview of critical thinking skills and discusses addressing obstacles to developing those skills. It defines stereotypes as overgeneralizations that can bog down thinking and provides examples. It also discusses adopting multiple perspectives, recognizing biased language, and analyzing arguments by evaluating their structure and the truth of any premises.
Truth And Opinion.pptx
1. The document discusses various philosophical concepts and methods for determining truth, including the relationship between truth and knowledge, the nature of propositions, and how philosophers establish truth through questioning beliefs and using evidence and reason.
2. It also examines how to distinguish facts from opinions, and the role of logic and fallacies in philosophical arguments. Bias and faulty reasoning can undermine arguments and make it difficult to determine what is true.
3. Philosophers emphasize using doubt, evidence, and rigorous reasoning to separate opinions and beliefs from verifiable facts, in order to gain a clearer understanding of truth and knowledge.
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Grammar
- 1. Critical listening is really critical or logical thinking in that you use reason to make judgments about what you hear.
- 3. LISTENING FOR APPROPRIATE TONE. Fact and Opinion A fact is something that can be verified as true or as something that has actually happened. An opinion is something that cannot be proven. Speakers must support opinions with pertinent facts before the opinions can be accepted as valid. FACT: Mars is a planet in our solar system that is fourth in distance from the sun. OPINION: Mars is a plant that we could live on if Earth became too crowded. Denotation and Connotation The denotation of a word is its literal or exact meaning. The connotation is its suggested or implied meaning. Speakers may choose words with unfavorable connotations to resent someone or something unfavorably. NEUTRAL DENOTATION: That man acts in a childlike way. UNFAVORABLE CONNOTATION: That man acts in a childish ways. Euphemism Euphemisms are words or phrases used in place of others that are considered unpleasant or offensive. A speaker may use a euphemism to soften the meaning that a direct word would convey. EUPHEMISM: Mr. Carlin passed on at the age of 84. DIRECT WORD: Mr. Carlin died at the age of 84. Self-Important Language Self-important or inflated language consists of flowery or unnecessary long words or phrases. A speaker may use it to try to impress listeners. Jargon, the specialized vocabulary of a profession or other group, can also be a type of inflated language. Inflated language conceals rather than reveals the ideas behind the words. SELF-IMPORTANT LANGUAGE: Upon completion of the form, affix signature at the bottom. DIRECT LANGUAGE: After you fill out the form, sign it at the bottom.
- 4. If the rules for logical reasoning are not followed, the result is a logical fallacy. Logical Fallacies
- 5. A hasty generalization is a statement that offers conclusions based on a few examples without taking into account exceptions or qualifying factors. They tend to sound highly reliable. However, they are usually being used to exert influence for a particular cause. A hasty generalization is a statement that offers conclusions based on a few examples without taking into account exceptions or qualifying factors. They tend to sound highly reliable. However, they are usually being used to exert influence for a particular cause. A hasty generalization is a statement that offers conclusions based on a few examples without taking into account exceptions or qualifying factors. They tend to sound highly reliable. However, they are usually being used to exert influence for a particular cause.
- 6. EXAMPLE: Many teenagers have reading problems. Some teenagers would rather watch television than read. Television is the reason why teenagers have reading problems.
- 7. Begging the question, also called circular reasoning, is a logical fallacy that violates the rules of deductive reasoning. A speaker who “begs the question may start with a definition or a general principle but does not take any further steps to provide proof for the statements. The validity of the conclusion is taken for granted. EXAMPLE: A movie becomes a classic when it says something new to each generation. This movie says something to me and it came out thirty years ago, so it is a classic.
- 8. A non sequitur is a logical fallacy that violates the rules of inductive reasoning. A non sequitur is a conclusion that does not follow logically from the preceding evidence. EXAMPLE: A man running for the office of treasurer says you should vote for him because his father is wealthy.
- 9. A testimonial is the use of a famous person to endorse a product or a service so the general public will believe in it. The person, however famous, may not be an authority on the particular subject at all. EXAMPLE: A movie star who appeared in western endorses a brand of jeans
- 10. The bandwagon technique is used by a speaker to urge people to “jump on the bandwagon” and be part of the group that buys a product, supports a candidate, or holds a point of view. EXAMPLE: A soft drink commercial urges you to drink their soda to become part of the “now” generation.
- 11. Card stacking is a technique in which the speaker emphasizes only the positive points that support his or her position. Any negative aspects or alternatives are not mentioned. EXAMPLE: A politician makes a speech to outline his plan for increasing the school budget but fails to mention that taxes would be raised.
- 12. A false comparison is one that compares unlike objects or events in order to gain credibility as evidence for a particular argument or cause. EXAMPLE: A science writer explains that just as machines need oil so do humans need fat in their diet.
- 13. A speaker uses an emotional appeal to persuade listeners by arousing their feelings rather than their reasoning abilities. Facts needed to make informed decisions are often omitted. EXAMPLE: A boy persuades his father to raise his allowance so that he will have more money to save for the father’s birthday present.