Gluconeogenesis ppt gate notes pptx.pptx
•
0 likes•22 views
Gluconeogenesis is a major regulatory process in the liver and kidneys by which noncarbohydrate substrates
Report
Share
Report
Share
Recommended
Gluconeogenesis
1) Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids, primarily in the liver and kidneys.
2) Three irreversible reactions in glycolysis are bypassed through four alternate reactions in gluconeogenesis, including carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and transport of oxaloacetate between mitochondria and cytosol.
3) Gluconeogenesis requires energy in the form of ATP and NADH oxidation to synthesize glucose from precursors like pyruvate through a series of steps that are the reversal of glycolysis.
metabolismofcarbohydrates-191219112042 2.pdf
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism, including:
1) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then be converted to lactate or enter the citric acid cycle.
2) Gluconeogenesis is the opposite of glycolysis and produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids in the liver.
3) Glycogen is a stored form of glucose that can be broken down through glycogenolysis or synthesized through glycogenesis for energy needs or glucose regulation. Key enzymes regulate these pathways.
Metabolism of carbohydrates
1. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate and generates ATP through 10 steps. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, generation of NADH by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and production of ATP by phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase.
2. Pyruvate has three main fates after glycolysis: it can be reduced to lactate, converted to ethanol, or enter the citric acid cycle after carboxylation to oxaloacetate.
3. Gluconeogenesis uses similar pathways as glycolysis but in the reverse direction to generate glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors through the action of four key enzymes that bypass irre
Gluconeogenesis lec 2
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates like pyruvate. It occurs mainly in the liver and kidney and utilizes many of the same enzymes as glycolysis, but in the reverse direction. Key steps include the transport of oxaloacetate into the cytosol from the mitochondria, its decarboxylation to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by PEP-carboxykinase, and the dephosphorylation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and glucose 6-phosphate to bypass irreversible steps and produce glucose.
Biochemistry:Gluconeogenesis
1) Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids, primarily in the liver and kidneys.
2) Three irreversible reactions in glycolysis are bypassed through alternate reactions in gluconeogenesis, including carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and transport of oxaloacetate into the cytosol where it is decarboxylated back to phosphoenolpyruvate.
3) Gluconeogenesis requires energy in the form of ATP and NADH oxidation to synthesize glucose from precursors like pyruvate through a reversal of many glycolytic reactions
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The key steps are the phosphorylation of glucose to trap it in cells, and the splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules. Under anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces 2 ATP and pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Aerobically, glycolysis produces 8 ATP as NADH enters the electron transport chain. Glycolysis is regulated by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It is required to maintain blood glucose levels between meals or during fasting when glycogen stores have been depleted. The pathway involves converting pyruvate and related 3-carbon and 4-carbon compounds into glucose through a series of reactions that are essentially the reverse of glycolysis. This process is energetically expensive, requiring six high-energy phosphate groups from ATP and GTP to form each molecule of glucose from pyruvate.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significance
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Recommended
Gluconeogenesis
1) Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids, primarily in the liver and kidneys.
2) Three irreversible reactions in glycolysis are bypassed through four alternate reactions in gluconeogenesis, including carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and transport of oxaloacetate between mitochondria and cytosol.
3) Gluconeogenesis requires energy in the form of ATP and NADH oxidation to synthesize glucose from precursors like pyruvate through a series of steps that are the reversal of glycolysis.
metabolismofcarbohydrates-191219112042 2.pdf
The document summarizes carbohydrate metabolism, including:
1) Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. Pyruvate can then be converted to lactate or enter the citric acid cycle.
2) Gluconeogenesis is the opposite of glycolysis and produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids in the liver.
3) Glycogen is a stored form of glucose that can be broken down through glycogenolysis or synthesized through glycogenesis for energy needs or glucose regulation. Key enzymes regulate these pathways.
Metabolism of carbohydrates
1. Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate and generates ATP through 10 steps. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, generation of NADH by glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and production of ATP by phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase.
2. Pyruvate has three main fates after glycolysis: it can be reduced to lactate, converted to ethanol, or enter the citric acid cycle after carboxylation to oxaloacetate.
3. Gluconeogenesis uses similar pathways as glycolysis but in the reverse direction to generate glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors through the action of four key enzymes that bypass irre
Gluconeogenesis lec 2
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates like pyruvate. It occurs mainly in the liver and kidney and utilizes many of the same enzymes as glycolysis, but in the reverse direction. Key steps include the transport of oxaloacetate into the cytosol from the mitochondria, its decarboxylation to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) by PEP-carboxykinase, and the dephosphorylation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate and glucose 6-phosphate to bypass irreversible steps and produce glucose.
Biochemistry:Gluconeogenesis
1) Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids, primarily in the liver and kidneys.
2) Three irreversible reactions in glycolysis are bypassed through alternate reactions in gluconeogenesis, including carboxylation of pyruvate to oxaloacetate and transport of oxaloacetate into the cytosol where it is decarboxylated back to phosphoenolpyruvate.
3) Gluconeogenesis requires energy in the form of ATP and NADH oxidation to synthesize glucose from precursors like pyruvate through a reversal of many glycolytic reactions
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytosol of cells and is the first step in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. The key steps are the phosphorylation of glucose to trap it in cells, and the splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules. Under anaerobic conditions, glycolysis produces 2 ATP and pyruvate is reduced to lactate. Aerobically, glycolysis produces 8 ATP as NADH enters the electron transport chain. Glycolysis is regulated by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It is required to maintain blood glucose levels between meals or during fasting when glycogen stores have been depleted. The pathway involves converting pyruvate and related 3-carbon and 4-carbon compounds into glucose through a series of reactions that are essentially the reverse of glycolysis. This process is energetically expensive, requiring six high-energy phosphate groups from ATP and GTP to form each molecule of glucose from pyruvate.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significance
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
Gluconeogenesis - The Pathway and Regulation
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway by which organisms synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This occurs mainly in the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidneys. While some steps are reversible versions of glycolysis, three irreversible steps of glycolysis are bypassed. Specifically, pyruvate is converted to oxaloacetate then phosphoenolpyruvate through carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions requiring ATP and GTP. This generates free glucose which is an important control point, as glucose-6-phosphate is typically further processed rather than released as free glucose except in a few tissues.
Gluconeogensis its regulation by Benish Akhtar
(1) Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources in the liver and kidney. It occurs through essentially the reverse of glycolysis, with 3 key regulated steps.
(2) Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake when glycogen stores are depleted. It allows glucose production from substrates like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.
(3) Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like glucagon and insulin via their effects on the enzyme phosphofructokinase-2, which controls levels of the important regulator fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. High levels of this inhibitor
Glycolysis.pptx
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The liver plays a key role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose levels. Glycolysis occurs through three phases: 1) energy investment where glucose is phosphorylated, 2) splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules, and 3) energy generation where ATP is produced from the breakdown of the three-carbon molecules. The pathway generates 2 ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions and up to 8 ATP per glucose under aerobic conditions using shuttle pathways to further oxidize NADH in the mitochondria.
Metabolism of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptx
This document provides an overview of glycolysis. It begins by defining glycolysis as the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It then discusses the specific reactions of glycolysis in three phases: the energy investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate glucose, the splitting phase where a 6-carbon molecule splits into two 3-carbon molecules, and the energy generation phase where ATP is produced. Key points include that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP net per glucose molecule under anaerobic conditions, or up to 8 ATP net per glucose under aerobic conditions when the NADH produced is further oxidized in the mitochondria. The document also notes some regulation and applications of glycolysis.
GLUCONEOGENESIS in animals for veterinarians.pdf
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs primarily during periods of fasting or low blood glucose. The document outlines the major substrates used, including amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It also describes the three bypass reactions needed due to thermodynamic barriers: 1) conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate, 2) dephosphorylation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and 3) dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate. Hormonal and substrate-level regulation of the process is also discussed.
Glycolysis - Glucose oxidation
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated pathways that break down and synthesize glucose, respectively. Key enzymes in each pathway are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones to ensure the pathways do not operate simultaneously. Insulin promotes glycolysis by activating phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis by inducing phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Substrate cycles like the Cori cycle couple the pathways and allow for signal amplification between tissues like muscle and liver.
Glycolysis tca
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate through a series of 10 steps. It occurs in the cytosol and produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The key regulatory steps are catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria to further oxidize and produce more ATP aerobically. The citric acid cycle generates ATP, reduces NAD+ and FADH2, and provides intermediates for other biosynthetic pathways like gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and amino acid synthesis. Regulation occurs mainly through citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and alpha-
Lecture-2 on CHO Metabolism.pdf
Metabolim of fructose and Galactose
Fructosuria
Hereditary Fructose intolerance
Galactosira
Lactose intolerance
Monosaccharide mal-absorbtion
Carbohydrate metabolism-1 (1).pdf
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism and glycolysis. It defines metabolism as the sum of chemical reactions in cells, and classifies pathways as catabolic (breaking down molecules) or anabolic (building molecules up). Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, capturing energy as ATP. It occurs in two phases: first investing energy to phosphorylate intermediates, then generating a net of two ATP per glucose. Key steps include hexokinase phosphorylation of glucose, phosphofructokinase committing glucose to the pathway, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase's oxidation reaction.
Carbohydrate metabolism b.pharm
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is the first step in carbohydrate metabolism. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes like hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. The regulation ensures glucose is used for energy when needed but directed to storage or other pathways when not. Excess pyruvate can be reduced to lactate under anaerobic conditions, allowing glycolysis to continue via NAD+ regeneration. Lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver via Cori's cycle and reconverted to glucose or fed into the citric acid cycle.
Gluconeogenesis
This PPT contains content of Gluconeogenesis, Steps involved in Gluconeogenesis, (Gluconeogenesis from Pyruvate, Gluconeogenesis from lactate, Gluconeogenesis from amino acids, Gluconeogenesis from glycerol, Gluconeogenesis from Propionate), Regulation and significance of Gluconeogenesis
Glycolysis- An over view
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in two phases, with the first phase priming the pathway by producing intermediate molecules and consuming 2 ATP per glucose. The second phase yields a net production of 2 ATP per glucose by oxidizing intermediate molecules and harnessing the energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. A key regulatory step is the initial phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, which traps glucose inside cells. Glycolysis is versatile in that it can function aerobically or anaerobically depending on oxygen availability.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate materials to maintain blood glucose levels during periods without food intake. It takes place primarily in the liver and involves bypasses of three irreversible steps in glycolysis. Precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids are converted to pyruvate and then glucose. The pathway requires energy in the form of 6 ATP molecules to synthesize one glucose molecule from two pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis is important for supplying glucose to tissues like the brain and helps maintain normal blood sugar through processes like the Cori cycle.
glycolysis-140509234543-phpapp01.pdf1234
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net yield of two ATP, two NADH molecules, and two hydrogen ions per glucose molecule degraded.
Glycolysis
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
glycolysis and its phase and pathway regulations
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis partially oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
Glycolysis
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
Glycolysis | Pathway of Glycolysis |
Metabolism involves chemical reactions that occur in living systems. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in 10 steps, with 3 stages: energy investment, splitting of glucose, and energy generation. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule under anaerobic conditions, and up to 8 ATP under aerobic conditions when the electron transport chain is involved. Key enzymes that regulate glycolysis include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defects
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
More Related Content
Similar to Gluconeogenesis ppt gate notes pptx.pptx
Gluconeogenesis - The Pathway and Regulation
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs mainly during periods of fasting and involves converting substrates like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids into glucose. The pathway overcomes three thermodynamic barriers of glycolysis through smaller successive steps. Regulation occurs through allosteric control of enzymes, hormonal control of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate levels, and transcriptional control of key genes like PEPCK and FOXO1. Together these mechanisms help direct carbon fluxes towards gluconeogenesis or glycolysis based on energy demands.
gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway by which organisms synthesize glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This occurs mainly in the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidneys. While some steps are reversible versions of glycolysis, three irreversible steps of glycolysis are bypassed. Specifically, pyruvate is converted to oxaloacetate then phosphoenolpyruvate through carboxylation and decarboxylation reactions requiring ATP and GTP. This generates free glucose which is an important control point, as glucose-6-phosphate is typically further processed rather than released as free glucose except in a few tissues.
Gluconeogensis its regulation by Benish Akhtar
(1) Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources in the liver and kidney. It occurs through essentially the reverse of glycolysis, with 3 key regulated steps.
(2) Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake when glycogen stores are depleted. It allows glucose production from substrates like lactate, glycerol, and amino acids.
(3) Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like glucagon and insulin via their effects on the enzyme phosphofructokinase-2, which controls levels of the important regulator fructose 2,6-bisphosphate. High levels of this inhibitor
Glycolysis.pptx
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. The liver plays a key role in monitoring and stabilizing blood glucose levels. Glycolysis occurs through three phases: 1) energy investment where glucose is phosphorylated, 2) splitting of a six-carbon molecule into two three-carbon molecules, and 3) energy generation where ATP is produced from the breakdown of the three-carbon molecules. The pathway generates 2 ATP per glucose under anaerobic conditions and up to 8 ATP per glucose under aerobic conditions using shuttle pathways to further oxidize NADH in the mitochondria.
Metabolism of Carbohydrate - Part-II.pptx
This document provides an overview of glycolysis. It begins by defining glycolysis as the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate with production of ATP. It then discusses the specific reactions of glycolysis in three phases: the energy investment phase where ATP is used to phosphorylate glucose, the splitting phase where a 6-carbon molecule splits into two 3-carbon molecules, and the energy generation phase where ATP is produced. Key points include that glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces 2 ATP net per glucose molecule under anaerobic conditions, or up to 8 ATP net per glucose under aerobic conditions when the NADH produced is further oxidized in the mitochondria. The document also notes some regulation and applications of glycolysis.
GLUCONEOGENESIS in animals for veterinarians.pdf
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It occurs primarily during periods of fasting or low blood glucose. The document outlines the major substrates used, including amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It also describes the three bypass reactions needed due to thermodynamic barriers: 1) conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate, 2) dephosphorylation of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, and 3) dephosphorylation of glucose-6-phosphate. Hormonal and substrate-level regulation of the process is also discussed.
Glycolysis - Glucose oxidation
Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are reciprocally regulated pathways that break down and synthesize glucose, respectively. Key enzymes in each pathway are regulated by allosteric effectors and hormones to ensure the pathways do not operate simultaneously. Insulin promotes glycolysis by activating phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis by inducing phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Substrate cycles like the Cori cycle couple the pathways and allow for signal amplification between tissues like muscle and liver.
Glycolysis tca
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose to pyruvate through a series of 10 steps. It occurs in the cytosol and produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The key regulatory steps are catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. Pyruvate can then enter the citric acid cycle in the mitochondria to further oxidize and produce more ATP aerobically. The citric acid cycle generates ATP, reduces NAD+ and FADH2, and provides intermediates for other biosynthetic pathways like gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis, and amino acid synthesis. Regulation occurs mainly through citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and alpha-
Lecture-2 on CHO Metabolism.pdf
Metabolim of fructose and Galactose
Fructosuria
Hereditary Fructose intolerance
Galactosira
Lactose intolerance
Monosaccharide mal-absorbtion
Carbohydrate metabolism-1 (1).pdf
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism and glycolysis. It defines metabolism as the sum of chemical reactions in cells, and classifies pathways as catabolic (breaking down molecules) or anabolic (building molecules up). Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, capturing energy as ATP. It occurs in two phases: first investing energy to phosphorylate intermediates, then generating a net of two ATP per glucose. Key steps include hexokinase phosphorylation of glucose, phosphofructokinase committing glucose to the pathway, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase's oxidation reaction.
Carbohydrate metabolism b.pharm
Glycolysis is the pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP. It occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and is the first step in carbohydrate metabolism. Glycolysis is tightly regulated by enzymes like hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase. The regulation ensures glucose is used for energy when needed but directed to storage or other pathways when not. Excess pyruvate can be reduced to lactate under anaerobic conditions, allowing glycolysis to continue via NAD+ regeneration. Lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver via Cori's cycle and reconverted to glucose or fed into the citric acid cycle.
Gluconeogenesis
This PPT contains content of Gluconeogenesis, Steps involved in Gluconeogenesis, (Gluconeogenesis from Pyruvate, Gluconeogenesis from lactate, Gluconeogenesis from amino acids, Gluconeogenesis from glycerol, Gluconeogenesis from Propionate), Regulation and significance of Gluconeogenesis
Glycolysis- An over view
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in two phases, with the first phase priming the pathway by producing intermediate molecules and consuming 2 ATP per glucose. The second phase yields a net production of 2 ATP per glucose by oxidizing intermediate molecules and harnessing the energy to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. A key regulatory step is the initial phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, which traps glucose inside cells. Glycolysis is versatile in that it can function aerobically or anaerobically depending on oxygen availability.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate materials to maintain blood glucose levels during periods without food intake. It takes place primarily in the liver and involves bypasses of three irreversible steps in glycolysis. Precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids are converted to pyruvate and then glucose. The pathway requires energy in the form of 6 ATP molecules to synthesize one glucose molecule from two pyruvate. Gluconeogenesis is important for supplying glucose to tissues like the brain and helps maintain normal blood sugar through processes like the Cori cycle.
glycolysis-140509234543-phpapp01.pdf1234
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net yield of two ATP, two NADH molecules, and two hydrogen ions per glucose molecule degraded.
Glycolysis
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
glycolysis and its phase and pathway regulations
1) Glycolysis is a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP in the process.
2) The reactions are divided into two phases: the preparatory phase requires ATP investment to phosphorylate glucose, and the payoff phase generates a net production of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
3) Overall, glycolysis partially oxidizes one glucose molecule to produce two pyruvate molecules, along with a net gain of two ATP per glucose molecule.
Glycolysis
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
Glycolysis | Pathway of Glycolysis |
Metabolism involves chemical reactions that occur in living systems. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in 10 steps, with 3 stages: energy investment, splitting of glucose, and energy generation. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule under anaerobic conditions, and up to 8 ATP under aerobic conditions when the electron transport chain is involved. Key enzymes that regulate glycolysis include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Similar to Gluconeogenesis ppt gate notes pptx.pptx (20)
Recently uploaded
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defects
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
3D Hybrid PIC simulation of the plasma expansion (ISSS-14)
3D Particle-In-Cell (PIC) algorithm,
Plasma expansion in the dipole magnetic field.
Sharlene Leurig - Enabling Onsite Water Use with Net Zero Water
Sharlene Leurig - Enabling Onsite Water Use with Net Zero WaterTexas Alliance of Groundwater Districts
Presented at June 6-7 Texas Alliance of Groundwater Districts Business MeetingEWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptx
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
bordetella pertussis.................................ppt
Bordettela is a gram negative cocobacilli spread by air born drop let
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptx
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
在线办理(salfor毕业证书)索尔福德大学毕业证毕业完成信一模一样
学校原件一模一样【微信：741003700 】《(salfor毕业证书)索尔福德大学毕业证》【微信：741003700 】学位证，留信认证（真实可查，永久存档）原件一模一样纸张工艺/offer、雅思、外壳等材料/诚信可靠,可直接看成品样本，帮您解决无法毕业带来的各种难题！外壳，原版制作，诚信可靠，可直接看成品样本。行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备。十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，包您满意。
本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原。
1:1完美还原海外各大学毕业材料上的工艺：水印，阴影底纹，钢印LOGO烫金烫银，LOGO烫金烫银复合重叠。文字图案浮雕、激光镭射、紫外荧光、温感、复印防伪等防伪工艺。材料咨询办理、认证咨询办理请加学历顾问Q/微741003700
【主营项目】
一.毕业证【q微741003700】成绩单、使馆认证、教育部认证、雅思托福成绩单、学生卡等！
二.真实使馆公证(即留学回国人员证明,不成功不收费)
三.真实教育部学历学位认证（教育部存档！教育部留服网站永久可查）
四.办理各国各大学文凭(一对一专业服务,可全程监控跟踪进度)
如果您处于以下几种情况：
◇在校期间，因各种原因未能顺利毕业……拿不到官方毕业证【q/微741003700】
◇面对父母的压力，希望尽快拿到；
◇不清楚认证流程以及材料该如何准备；
◇回国时间很长，忘记办理；
◇回国马上就要找工作，办给用人单位看；
◇企事业单位必须要求办理的
◇需要报考公务员、购买免税车、落转户口
◇申请留学生创业基金
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically young
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
原版制作(carleton毕业证书)卡尔顿大学毕业证硕士文凭原版一模一样
原版纸张【微信：741003700 】【(carleton毕业证书)卡尔顿大学毕业证】【微信：741003700 】学位证，留信认证（真实可查，永久存档）offer、雅思、外壳等材料/诚信可靠,可直接看成品样本，帮您解决无法毕业带来的各种难题！外壳，原版制作，诚信可靠，可直接看成品样本。行业标杆！精益求精，诚心合作，真诚制作！多年品质 ,按需精细制作，24小时接单,全套进口原装设备。十五年致力于帮助留学生解决难题，包您满意。
本公司拥有海外各大学样板无数，能完美还原海外各大学 Bachelor Diploma degree, Master Degree Diploma
1:1完美还原海外各大学毕业材料上的工艺：水印，阴影底纹，钢印LOGO烫金烫银，LOGO烫金烫银复合重叠。文字图案浮雕、激光镭射、紫外荧光、温感、复印防伪等防伪工艺。材料咨询办理、认证咨询办理请加学历顾问Q/微741003700
留信网认证的作用:
1:该专业认证可证明留学生真实身份
2:同时对留学生所学专业登记给予评定
3:国家专业人才认证中心颁发入库证书
4:这个认证书并且可以归档倒地方
5:凡事获得留信网入网的信息将会逐步更新到个人身份内，将在公安局网内查询个人身份证信息后，同步读取人才网入库信息
6:个人职称评审加20分
7:个人信誉贷款加10分
8:在国家人才网主办的国家网络招聘大会中纳入资料，供国家高端企业选择人才
Applied Science: Thermodynamics, Laws & Methodology.pdf
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths Forward
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/Thornton ESPP slides UK WW Network 4_6_24.pdf
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Recently uploaded (20)
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defects
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defects
3D Hybrid PIC simulation of the plasma expansion (ISSS-14)
3D Hybrid PIC simulation of the plasma expansion (ISSS-14)
Sharlene Leurig - Enabling Onsite Water Use with Net Zero Water
Sharlene Leurig - Enabling Onsite Water Use with Net Zero Water
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptx
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptx
bordetella pertussis.................................ppt
bordetella pertussis.................................ppt
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptx
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptx
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically young
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically young
Applied Science: Thermodynamics, Laws & Methodology.pdf
Applied Science: Thermodynamics, Laws & Methodology.pdf
aziz sancar nobel prize winner: from mardin to nobel
aziz sancar nobel prize winner: from mardin to nobel
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths Forward
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths Forward
Basics of crystallography, crystal systems, classes and different forms
Basics of crystallography, crystal systems, classes and different forms
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...
Gluconeogenesis ppt gate notes pptx.pptx
- 1. Learning Biology With Sudarshan Sudarshan Mandal M.Sc in Zoology(Banaras Hindu University) Qualified in Net Ls,Gate,IIT jam ,Bhu Pet,Wbset
- 3. Definition • Gluconeogenesis is a major regulatory process in the liver and kidneys by which noncarbohydrate substrates; namely glycerol, lactate, propionate, and glucogenic amino acids; are converted to glucose 6-phosphate (Glc-6-P), and then to either free glucose or glycogen
- 4. Site • The liver and kidneys are the major organs containing the full complement of gluconeogenic enzymes (i.e., pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, fructose 1,6- bisphosphatase, and glucose 6-phosphatase) • It occurs in all animal ,plants ,fungi and micro- organism.
- 6. Reaction of Gluconeogenesis • Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis are not identical pathways running in opposite directions,although they do share several steps . • 7 out of 10 enzymatic reactions of gluconeogenesis are reverse of glycolytic reaction. • Three reactions of glycolysis are esentially irreversible .
- 9. Reaction of Gluconeogenesis • Three irreversible steps are – 1.Conversion of glucose 6 phosphate catalyzed by hexokinase. 2.The conversion of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6 bis phosphate by PFK-1. 3.The conversion of phosphoenol pyruvate by pyruvate kinase.
- 10. Reaction of Gluconeogenesis • These three reactions are characterized by a large negative free energy change ,where as other glycolytic reaction have ΔG near 0. • In Gluconeogenesis these irreversible steps are bypassed by a separate set of enzymes.
- 11. Reaction of Gluconeogenesis conversion of Pyruvate to PEP • Pyruvate can not be converted directly to PEP. The conversion requires two reactions that serve to bypass irreversible step of glycolysis. • Pyruvate is first transported from the cytosol into mitochondria or is generated from alanine within mitpchondria by transamination.
- 12. Reaction of gluconeogenesis • Then pyruvate carboxylase ,mitochondrial enzyme that requires the coenzyme biotin,converts pruvate to oxaloacetate. • Pyruvate+Hco3-+ATP oxaloacetate+ADP+Pi
- 13. Reaction of gluconeogenesis • Oxaloacetate cannot directly cross the inner mitochondrial membrane. Therefore, it is converted to malate or to aspartate, which can cross the mitochondrial membrane and be reconverted to oxaloacetate in the cytosol. • Oxaloacetate is decarboxylated by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase to form phosphoenolpyruvate. This reaction requires GTP.
- 14. Reactions of Gluconeogenesis • Phosphoenolpyruvate is converted to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by reversal of the glycolytic reactions.
- 15. Reactions of Gluconeogenesis Conversion of 1,6 BP to F-6 P • Second bypass reaction. • Fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate is converted to fructose-6-phosphate in a reaction that releases inorganic phosphate and is catalyzed by fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. • The highly exergonic irreversible reaction is catalyzed by Fructose 1,6bisphosphatase.
- 16. Reactions of Gluconeogenesis (Conversion of G-6 P to Glucose) • Third bypass. • Glucose-6-phosphate releases inorganic phosphate, which produces free glucose that enters the blood. The enzyme involved is glucose 6-phosphatase.
- 17. Net requirements to make one glucose molecule • Thus, the net requirements to make one glucose molecule are: • Two pyruvate. • Four ATP and two GTP. • Two NADH. • Six H2O •
- 18. Significance • Gluconeogenesis is needed to meet the demands for plasma glucose between meals, which then becomes particularly important as an energy substrate for nerves, erythrocytes, and other largely anaerobic cell types. Failure of this process can lead to brain dysfunction, coma, and death.