This document by Dr. Deepankar Choudhury provides an overview of geotechnical earthquake engineering, focusing on the causes and effects of earthquakes. It covers topics such as the movement of tectonic plates, elastic rebound theory, and methods for measuring earthquakes using various scales. Additionally, it discusses the depth of earthquake foci, predicting earthquakes, and historical advancements in seismology.

1. Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering
by
Dr. Deepankar Choudhury
Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400 076, India.
Email: dc@civil.iitb.ac.in
URL: http://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~dc/
Lecture - 5

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Module – 3
Engineering Seismology

3. What is Earthquake ?
• An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's
crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquake is also known as a quake,
tremor or temblor.

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What causes an Earthquake?
Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic
plates that float on the fluid-like interior of the
Earth. Earthquakes are usually caused by
sudden movement of earth plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of weakness in the
surface of the Earth,sometimes the plate
boundary itself

5. Why an earthquake occurs?
• The earth's crust (the outer layer of the planet) is made up of several
pieces, called plates.
• The plates under the oceans are called oceanic plates and the rest
are continental plates
Earthquakes usually
occur where two plates
are running into each
other or sliding past
each other.
An image of the world's plates and their boundaries.

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Where do Earthquakes occur?
Plate boundaries
Faults

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Release of Accumulated energy

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Rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy. When the
strain in the rocks exceeds their strength, breaking will occur
along the fault. Stored elastic energy is released as the
earthquake. Rocks “snap back” or rebound to their original
condition.
Elastic Rebound Theory

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Foreshocks and aftershocks
Adjustments that follow a major earthquake
often generate smaller earthquakes called
aftershocks
Small earthquakes, called foreshocks, often
precede a major earthquake by days or, in some
cases, by as much as several years

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Study of Earthquakes
 The study of earthquake waves,
Seismology, dates back almost 2000
years to the Chinese Seismographs,
instruments that record seismic
waves. The first seismograph called
Di-Dong-Di was invented by Cheng
Heng (132 A.D.).

11. • Device used to measure an earthquake is called
‘seismograph’
• The seismograph has three main devices, the Richter
Magnitude Scale, the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale,
and the Moment-Magnitude Scale.
• First invented in 132 AD, the Dragon
Jar was the first instrument for
determining the direction of an
earthquake.
• Chang Heng, a Chinese scientist,
developed the Dragon Jar.
How Are Earthquakes Measured?

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The ancient Chinese seismograph consist of
a special vase that had eight sculpted
dragons mounted around the vase in eight
primary directions. Each dragon held in its
mouth a metal ball. When the ground
shook, some of the balls would fall from
the mouths of the dragons into the waiting
mouths of the sculpted frogs to show how
the ground had moved.

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The energy released during the earthquake
travels as waves
Modern Seismograph can measure the
intensity and duration of these waves in
different directions.
Seismogram is visual record of arrival time
and magnitude of shaking associated with
seismic wave, generated by a seismograph.
Earthquake Waves

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Modern
Seismograph
(Horizontal)

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Modern Seismograph (Vertical) (courtesy: NICEE, IITK)

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Seismogram

18. How Are Earthquakes Measured?
A Typical seismograph A typical seismogram
Modern Seismograph

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seismographic stations around the
World work together to
record earthquake location
determine earthquake strength
Location and Intensity of Earthquake

20. • The magnitude of most
earthquakes is measured on
the Richter scale, invented
by Charles F. Richter in
1934.
How Are Earthquakes Measured?
Charles Richter studying a
seismogram
• The Richter magnitudes are
based on a logarithmic scale
(base 10).

21. • Another way to measure the
strength of an earthquake is
to use the Mercalli scale.
Invented by Giuseppe
Mercalli in 1902.
• This scale uses the
observations of the people
who experienced the
earthquake to estimate its
intensity.
How Are Earthquakes Measured?
Giuseppe Mercalli

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Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the ground
Surface. The depth can also be calculated from seismograph
records
Earthquake foci are described as:
Shallow: less than 70 km depth
Intermediate: 70 - 300 km depth
Deep: 300 - 700 km depth
90% of earthquake foci are less than 100 km deep
Large earthquakes are mostly at < 60 km depth
No earthquakes occur deeper than 700 km
Earthquake Depth

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Predicting Earthquakes
Strange Animal Behavior
stress in the rocks causes tiny hairline fractures to form, the cracking of
the rocks evidently emits high pitched sounds and minute vibrations
imperceptible to humans but noticeable by many animals.
Foreshocks
unusual increase in the frequency of small earthquakes before the main
shock
Changes in water level
porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain
Seismic Gaps
based of the chronological distribution of major earthquakes