The document discusses learner-centered theories of learning. It begins by defining learning and discussing the importance of understanding learning theories for teachers to better facilitate the learning process. It then outlines several learner-centered principles that provide a framework for understanding learners and the learning process, focusing on factors like cognition, motivation, individual differences, and context. The principles indicate learning is most effective when it is an intentional, meaningful process that accounts for social and developmental influences.
This learning module provides an overview of key concepts related to child and adolescent learners and learning principles. It is divided into four modules that cover basic concepts of human development, developmental theories, development at various stages, and learning theories. The first topic introduces the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles developed by the American Psychological Association, which are divided into cognitive/metacognitive, motivational/affective, developmental/social, and individual difference factors. The principles emphasize that learning is most effective when the learner constructs their own understanding, thinks strategically, and is influenced by environmental context. Future teachers are asked to consider how to apply each principle through classroom activities.
This document discusses educational assessment, including its purposes, principles, types, and methods of interpretation. Assessment is used to monitor student learning, evaluate teaching strategies and curriculum, and inform decisions to improve the educational process. It should be based on clear goals and standards, provide continuous feedback, and relate to what students are learning. Assessment data is gathered and analyzed to evaluate performance, identify strengths and weaknesses, and guide improvements.
Online Distance Education and Communities of Learners
from
TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING I BOOK
COPYRIGHT 2019
BY: PURITA P. BILBAO, ED D
MA. ASUNCION CHRISTINE V. DEQUILLA, PHD
DAISY A. ROSANO, PHD
HELEN B. BOHOLANO, LIB, ED D
Neo behaviorism (Facilitating Learning)Mary Mae Hero
This document discusses neo-behaviorism and two of its major theorists, Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. It summarizes Tolman's purposive behaviorism, including his concepts of cognitive maps, latent learning, intervening variables, and that reinforcement is not essential for learning. It then summarizes Albert Bandura's social learning theory, including concepts like observational learning, modeling, vicarious reinforcement, and the four conditions necessary for effective modeling.
This module discusses student diversity and challenges teachers to identify factors contributing to diversity, demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity, and develop teaching strategies that consider student differences. It identifies key factors of diversity as socioeconomic status, thinking/learning styles, and exceptionalities. The module encourages teachers to recognize that all students are unique and provides an activity to raise awareness of diversity in the classroom.
Facilitating Human Learning Module 1 & 2Rona Laureta
This document discusses metacognition and learner-centered psychological principles. It defines metacognition as awareness and understanding of one's own thinking and learning processes. There are three categories of metacognitive knowledge: knowledge of person variables, knowledge of task variables, and knowledge of strategy variables. The document also outlines 14 learner-centered psychological principles grouped into cognitive/metacognitive, motivational/affective, developmental/social, and individual differences factors that influence learning. Effective learners employ metacognitive strategies like self-monitoring and strategic thinking.
This document discusses multigrade classes, which are classrooms with two or more grade levels taught together. Multigrade classes exist due to necessities like remote locations with small student populations or shortages of teachers and buildings. Teachers in multigrade classes take on facilitator and planning roles. There are advantages like social interaction and individualized learning, but also challenges like needing more preparation and record keeping. Benefits are seen for learners, teachers, and communities by providing educational access in an efficient manner.
This learning module provides an overview of key concepts related to child and adolescent learners and learning principles. It is divided into four modules that cover basic concepts of human development, developmental theories, development at various stages, and learning theories. The first topic introduces the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles developed by the American Psychological Association, which are divided into cognitive/metacognitive, motivational/affective, developmental/social, and individual difference factors. The principles emphasize that learning is most effective when the learner constructs their own understanding, thinks strategically, and is influenced by environmental context. Future teachers are asked to consider how to apply each principle through classroom activities.
This document discusses educational assessment, including its purposes, principles, types, and methods of interpretation. Assessment is used to monitor student learning, evaluate teaching strategies and curriculum, and inform decisions to improve the educational process. It should be based on clear goals and standards, provide continuous feedback, and relate to what students are learning. Assessment data is gathered and analyzed to evaluate performance, identify strengths and weaknesses, and guide improvements.
Online Distance Education and Communities of Learners
from
TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING I BOOK
COPYRIGHT 2019
BY: PURITA P. BILBAO, ED D
MA. ASUNCION CHRISTINE V. DEQUILLA, PHD
DAISY A. ROSANO, PHD
HELEN B. BOHOLANO, LIB, ED D
Neo behaviorism (Facilitating Learning)Mary Mae Hero
This document discusses neo-behaviorism and two of its major theorists, Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. It summarizes Tolman's purposive behaviorism, including his concepts of cognitive maps, latent learning, intervening variables, and that reinforcement is not essential for learning. It then summarizes Albert Bandura's social learning theory, including concepts like observational learning, modeling, vicarious reinforcement, and the four conditions necessary for effective modeling.
This module discusses student diversity and challenges teachers to identify factors contributing to diversity, demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity, and develop teaching strategies that consider student differences. It identifies key factors of diversity as socioeconomic status, thinking/learning styles, and exceptionalities. The module encourages teachers to recognize that all students are unique and provides an activity to raise awareness of diversity in the classroom.
Facilitating Human Learning Module 1 & 2Rona Laureta
This document discusses metacognition and learner-centered psychological principles. It defines metacognition as awareness and understanding of one's own thinking and learning processes. There are three categories of metacognitive knowledge: knowledge of person variables, knowledge of task variables, and knowledge of strategy variables. The document also outlines 14 learner-centered psychological principles grouped into cognitive/metacognitive, motivational/affective, developmental/social, and individual differences factors that influence learning. Effective learners employ metacognitive strategies like self-monitoring and strategic thinking.
This document discusses multigrade classes, which are classrooms with two or more grade levels taught together. Multigrade classes exist due to necessities like remote locations with small student populations or shortages of teachers and buildings. Teachers in multigrade classes take on facilitator and planning roles. There are advantages like social interaction and individualized learning, but also challenges like needing more preparation and record keeping. Benefits are seen for learners, teachers, and communities by providing educational access in an efficient manner.
This document discusses principles of high quality assessment. It begins by emphasizing the importance of clearly defined learning targets in order for assessments to be precise and accurate. It then examines different types of learning targets, including cognitive targets, skills/competencies, and products/projects. Various assessment methods are explored, including written responses, rating scales, oral questioning and observation. Key properties of effective assessments are outlined, such as validity, reliability, fairness and practicality. Specific assessment tools are defined, like checklists and rating scales. The document provides a comprehensive overview of fundamental concepts for designing high-quality assessments.
The document outlines the key parts of an effective lesson plan, including objectives, subject matter and sources, materials, behavioral objectives, teaching aids and devices, procedure, and assignment. Objectives should specify goals and expected outcomes, can be general or specific. Subject matter and sources, necessary materials, and teaching aids should also be included. The plan should detail both teacher and pupil activities and assignments to ensure learning objectives are met.
Anothe presentation which can be your reference in making your report in your EDUC 7A classes (Developmental Reading) this is the chapter 3 which focuses on what is developmental reading at its stages and the skills you need to have for proficient reading and of course the problem most kids are facing in terms of reading.
MISOSA and e-IMPACT are alternative delivery mode systems that address issues of access and quality in education. MISOSA addresses overcrowding through off-site learning using self-instructional materials supervised by teacher facilitators. e-IMPACT enables complete levels through community learning centers and small group spaces using modular materials. e-IMPACT emphasizes community and student collaboration while MISOSA uses large classes and self-study. Both aim to develop independent learning, but e-IMPACT stresses intrinsic motivation and confidence more than MISOSA.
The document discusses metacognition, which refers to higher-order thinking involving awareness and control over one's cognitive processes during learning. Metacognition includes metacognitive knowledge about cognitive processes and strategies, as well as metacognitive regulation. It discusses key aspects of metacognitive knowledge like person, task, and strategy variables. While metacognition develops early in children, explicit teaching of metacognitive strategies is important. Expert learners are distinguished from novices by their deeper content knowledge and use of flexible, task-appropriate learning strategies as well as selective processing, monitoring, and control over their learning.
This module introduces topics on collaborative learning and distance education. It is designed to provide students opportunities to explore special topics related to their field of study based on perceived needs and faculty expertise. The first lesson defines collaborative learning and discusses its applications and advantages/disadvantages. The second lesson defines distance education and eLearning and compares distance learning to traditional classrooms. Students read various articles on the topics and answer reflection questions to synthesize their understanding.
Multigrade schools were the first type of schools in North America and the Philippines. In the late 1800s, one-room schoolhouses were common in North America before single grade classrooms were organized. Similarly, the earliest schools in the Philippines were multigrade due to factors like remote locations, teacher shortages, and lack of funding. Multigrade classrooms combine two or more grade levels and are used where enrolment does not support single grade classes. They provide an opportunity for student-centered, collaborative learning. The Philippines refers to multigrade classrooms as "combination classes."
Digital literacy refers to an individual's ability to find, evaluate, compose, and communicate information using digital technologies. It involves various competencies including using technology, navigating digital environments, communicating digitally, and participating in online communities. Developing digital literacy skills is important for students to succeed academically and professionally as technology continues to evolve. Some key aspects of digital literacy include critical thinking, online safety, collaboration, research skills, digital citizenship, and developing practical technology skills. Teachers can help students improve their digital literacy by integrating these concepts into classroom lessons and activities.
This document outlines 14 principles for learner-centered education. It discusses that learning is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experiences. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, and assume responsibility for their own learning. Learning is influenced by a variety of cognitive, motivational, developmental, social, and individual factors. The 14 principles aim to address the holistic needs of all learners.
Gagne's theory of instruction outlines nine instructional events that are meant to support different types of learning outcomes. The nine events are gaining attention, informing learners of objectives, stimulating recall of prior learning, presenting stimulus materials, providing guidance for learning, eliciting performance, providing feedback, assessing performance, and enhancing retention and transfer. Gagne also categorized five different types of learning outcomes - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills. Each learning outcome requires different instructional conditions and events.
The document discusses direct and indirect experiences in learning. It defines direct experiences as first-hand sensory experiences that form the foundation of learning. Indirect experiences involve observing, reading, or hearing about the experiences of others. The document recommends giving students opportunities for direct experiences, such as conducting experiments in the laboratory, to actively engage their senses and draw meaning from real-world experiences. This helps students learn concepts at a higher level of generalization and abstraction.
The Seven Philosophies of Education
Existentialism - Existentialism in education focuses on the individual, seeking out a personal understanding of the world.
Essentialism - Essentialism values the “essence” of each object. Essence refers to the attribute, or set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is, and must have.
Progressivism - Progressivism holds that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation.
Behaviorism - Behaviorism holds that behavior is shaped deliberately by forces in the environment and that the type of person and actions desired can be the product of design.
Constructivism - Constructivism claims that the learner actively constructs his or her own understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment, and reflecting on these interactions. For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with what the learner already knows. Therefore, the learner's previous experiences determine what can be learned.
Linguistic Philosophy - Linguistic philosophy is the view that philosophical problems could be solved (or dissolved) either by reforming language or by understanding more about the language that we presently use.
Perennialism - Perennialism is a normative educational philosophy according to which one should teach the things that are of everlasting relevance to all people everywhere and that the emphasis should be on principles, not facts.
Module 4 research in child and adolescent development - bhel and kevinsilvestre arenas
This document discusses research methods and their application in education. It begins by outlining the scientific method and its 5 steps. It then describes and compares 7 common research designs: case study, correlational study, experimental, naturalistic observation, longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential. It also lists and defines 5 common data gathering techniques. The document concludes by discussing ethical principles in educational research and the impacts of teacher involvement in research.
This document discusses multigrade classrooms in the Philippines. It notes that about 2/3 of public school classrooms are multigrade due to factors like remote locations, small student populations, and lack of resources. Multigrade classrooms are seen as an effective way to provide education for all children, though they have also received some negative perceptions. When implemented properly with teacher training and materials, multigrade classrooms can have advantages over single grade classrooms like helping both younger and older students learn, developing independence and social skills, and allowing teachers to better know their students.
Process oriented performance-based assessmentrenarch
Performance assessment involves observing and judging a student's demonstration of skills or competencies through tasks like creating a product, responding to a prompt, or giving a presentation. It emphasizes a student's ability to apply their knowledge and skills to produce their own work. Performance assessments typically require sustained effort over multiple days and involve explaining, justifying, and defending ideas. They rely on trained evaluators to score student work using pre-specified criteria and standards. While performance assessments integrate assessment with learning and provide formative feedback, they can be difficult to score reliably and require significant time from teachers and students.
This document discusses the history and uses of educational technology. It describes how educational technology has evolved from early civilizations using tools like hieroglyphics, to the modern era where computers, smart boards, and internet access are widely used in classrooms. The document outlines some advantages of educational technology, like keeping students engaged and providing access to information, but also notes disadvantages such as access to inappropriate content and risk of cyberbullying.
Social, Ethical and Legal Responsibilities in the Use of Technology Tools and...Reji Mae Sunot
Teachers must address several ethical issues related to technology use in the classroom, including academic honesty, electronic communications, social networks, and confidentiality. The document outlines the TECH SMART approach for teachers to take care of equipment, explore appropriate learning sites, understand copyright law and creative commons, prevent cyberbullying, consider self-image and netiquette online, properly cite sources, and create content thoughtfully as digital educators.
The document discusses different types of assessment used in teaching and learning. It describes traditional assessments like paper-and-pencil tests which measure lower-level skills, while authentic assessments focus on higher-order skills through realistic tasks. Formative assessment provides feedback during instruction, while summative assessment evaluates learning after instruction through exams. Norm-referenced assessment compares students to peers, and criterion-referenced assessment evaluates students against fixed standards. The document also contrasts contextualized versus decontextualized assessment and analytic versus holistic assessment approaches.
Learning Process, Training Climate, Development and Designing Training ModulesAshish Hande
This document discusses learning theories and domains of learning. It describes two major learning theories - behaviorism and cognitive theory. Behaviorism focuses on reinforcement and stimuli to shape behavior, while cognitive theory examines internal mental processes. It also outlines three domains of learning: the cognitive domain involves knowledge and intellectual skills; the affective domain encompasses attitudes, values and beliefs; and the psychomotor domain deals with physical skills and movements. Combining elements of different learning theories and targeting multiple domains can help create effective training programs.
This document discusses principles of high quality assessment. It begins by emphasizing the importance of clearly defined learning targets in order for assessments to be precise and accurate. It then examines different types of learning targets, including cognitive targets, skills/competencies, and products/projects. Various assessment methods are explored, including written responses, rating scales, oral questioning and observation. Key properties of effective assessments are outlined, such as validity, reliability, fairness and practicality. Specific assessment tools are defined, like checklists and rating scales. The document provides a comprehensive overview of fundamental concepts for designing high-quality assessments.
The document outlines the key parts of an effective lesson plan, including objectives, subject matter and sources, materials, behavioral objectives, teaching aids and devices, procedure, and assignment. Objectives should specify goals and expected outcomes, can be general or specific. Subject matter and sources, necessary materials, and teaching aids should also be included. The plan should detail both teacher and pupil activities and assignments to ensure learning objectives are met.
Anothe presentation which can be your reference in making your report in your EDUC 7A classes (Developmental Reading) this is the chapter 3 which focuses on what is developmental reading at its stages and the skills you need to have for proficient reading and of course the problem most kids are facing in terms of reading.
MISOSA and e-IMPACT are alternative delivery mode systems that address issues of access and quality in education. MISOSA addresses overcrowding through off-site learning using self-instructional materials supervised by teacher facilitators. e-IMPACT enables complete levels through community learning centers and small group spaces using modular materials. e-IMPACT emphasizes community and student collaboration while MISOSA uses large classes and self-study. Both aim to develop independent learning, but e-IMPACT stresses intrinsic motivation and confidence more than MISOSA.
The document discusses metacognition, which refers to higher-order thinking involving awareness and control over one's cognitive processes during learning. Metacognition includes metacognitive knowledge about cognitive processes and strategies, as well as metacognitive regulation. It discusses key aspects of metacognitive knowledge like person, task, and strategy variables. While metacognition develops early in children, explicit teaching of metacognitive strategies is important. Expert learners are distinguished from novices by their deeper content knowledge and use of flexible, task-appropriate learning strategies as well as selective processing, monitoring, and control over their learning.
This module introduces topics on collaborative learning and distance education. It is designed to provide students opportunities to explore special topics related to their field of study based on perceived needs and faculty expertise. The first lesson defines collaborative learning and discusses its applications and advantages/disadvantages. The second lesson defines distance education and eLearning and compares distance learning to traditional classrooms. Students read various articles on the topics and answer reflection questions to synthesize their understanding.
Multigrade schools were the first type of schools in North America and the Philippines. In the late 1800s, one-room schoolhouses were common in North America before single grade classrooms were organized. Similarly, the earliest schools in the Philippines were multigrade due to factors like remote locations, teacher shortages, and lack of funding. Multigrade classrooms combine two or more grade levels and are used where enrolment does not support single grade classes. They provide an opportunity for student-centered, collaborative learning. The Philippines refers to multigrade classrooms as "combination classes."
Digital literacy refers to an individual's ability to find, evaluate, compose, and communicate information using digital technologies. It involves various competencies including using technology, navigating digital environments, communicating digitally, and participating in online communities. Developing digital literacy skills is important for students to succeed academically and professionally as technology continues to evolve. Some key aspects of digital literacy include critical thinking, online safety, collaboration, research skills, digital citizenship, and developing practical technology skills. Teachers can help students improve their digital literacy by integrating these concepts into classroom lessons and activities.
This document outlines 14 principles for learner-centered education. It discusses that learning is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experiences. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, and assume responsibility for their own learning. Learning is influenced by a variety of cognitive, motivational, developmental, social, and individual factors. The 14 principles aim to address the holistic needs of all learners.
Gagne's theory of instruction outlines nine instructional events that are meant to support different types of learning outcomes. The nine events are gaining attention, informing learners of objectives, stimulating recall of prior learning, presenting stimulus materials, providing guidance for learning, eliciting performance, providing feedback, assessing performance, and enhancing retention and transfer. Gagne also categorized five different types of learning outcomes - verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills. Each learning outcome requires different instructional conditions and events.
The document discusses direct and indirect experiences in learning. It defines direct experiences as first-hand sensory experiences that form the foundation of learning. Indirect experiences involve observing, reading, or hearing about the experiences of others. The document recommends giving students opportunities for direct experiences, such as conducting experiments in the laboratory, to actively engage their senses and draw meaning from real-world experiences. This helps students learn concepts at a higher level of generalization and abstraction.
The Seven Philosophies of Education
Existentialism - Existentialism in education focuses on the individual, seeking out a personal understanding of the world.
Essentialism - Essentialism values the “essence” of each object. Essence refers to the attribute, or set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is, and must have.
Progressivism - Progressivism holds that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation.
Behaviorism - Behaviorism holds that behavior is shaped deliberately by forces in the environment and that the type of person and actions desired can be the product of design.
Constructivism - Constructivism claims that the learner actively constructs his or her own understandings of reality through interaction with objects, events, and people in the environment, and reflecting on these interactions. For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must conflict with what the learner already knows. Therefore, the learner's previous experiences determine what can be learned.
Linguistic Philosophy - Linguistic philosophy is the view that philosophical problems could be solved (or dissolved) either by reforming language or by understanding more about the language that we presently use.
Perennialism - Perennialism is a normative educational philosophy according to which one should teach the things that are of everlasting relevance to all people everywhere and that the emphasis should be on principles, not facts.
Module 4 research in child and adolescent development - bhel and kevinsilvestre arenas
This document discusses research methods and their application in education. It begins by outlining the scientific method and its 5 steps. It then describes and compares 7 common research designs: case study, correlational study, experimental, naturalistic observation, longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential. It also lists and defines 5 common data gathering techniques. The document concludes by discussing ethical principles in educational research and the impacts of teacher involvement in research.
This document discusses multigrade classrooms in the Philippines. It notes that about 2/3 of public school classrooms are multigrade due to factors like remote locations, small student populations, and lack of resources. Multigrade classrooms are seen as an effective way to provide education for all children, though they have also received some negative perceptions. When implemented properly with teacher training and materials, multigrade classrooms can have advantages over single grade classrooms like helping both younger and older students learn, developing independence and social skills, and allowing teachers to better know their students.
Process oriented performance-based assessmentrenarch
Performance assessment involves observing and judging a student's demonstration of skills or competencies through tasks like creating a product, responding to a prompt, or giving a presentation. It emphasizes a student's ability to apply their knowledge and skills to produce their own work. Performance assessments typically require sustained effort over multiple days and involve explaining, justifying, and defending ideas. They rely on trained evaluators to score student work using pre-specified criteria and standards. While performance assessments integrate assessment with learning and provide formative feedback, they can be difficult to score reliably and require significant time from teachers and students.
This document discusses the history and uses of educational technology. It describes how educational technology has evolved from early civilizations using tools like hieroglyphics, to the modern era where computers, smart boards, and internet access are widely used in classrooms. The document outlines some advantages of educational technology, like keeping students engaged and providing access to information, but also notes disadvantages such as access to inappropriate content and risk of cyberbullying.
Social, Ethical and Legal Responsibilities in the Use of Technology Tools and...Reji Mae Sunot
Teachers must address several ethical issues related to technology use in the classroom, including academic honesty, electronic communications, social networks, and confidentiality. The document outlines the TECH SMART approach for teachers to take care of equipment, explore appropriate learning sites, understand copyright law and creative commons, prevent cyberbullying, consider self-image and netiquette online, properly cite sources, and create content thoughtfully as digital educators.
The document discusses different types of assessment used in teaching and learning. It describes traditional assessments like paper-and-pencil tests which measure lower-level skills, while authentic assessments focus on higher-order skills through realistic tasks. Formative assessment provides feedback during instruction, while summative assessment evaluates learning after instruction through exams. Norm-referenced assessment compares students to peers, and criterion-referenced assessment evaluates students against fixed standards. The document also contrasts contextualized versus decontextualized assessment and analytic versus holistic assessment approaches.
Learning Process, Training Climate, Development and Designing Training ModulesAshish Hande
This document discusses learning theories and domains of learning. It describes two major learning theories - behaviorism and cognitive theory. Behaviorism focuses on reinforcement and stimuli to shape behavior, while cognitive theory examines internal mental processes. It also outlines three domains of learning: the cognitive domain involves knowledge and intellectual skills; the affective domain encompasses attitudes, values and beliefs; and the psychomotor domain deals with physical skills and movements. Combining elements of different learning theories and targeting multiple domains can help create effective training programs.
Learning is a process that takes time and involves acquiring new knowledge and skills through experience. There are different types of learning, including simple non-associative learning like habituation and sensitization, associative learning like classical and operant conditioning, and observational learning. Creating the right learning environment, ensuring students are motivated and ready to learn, and using positive reinforcement can help facilitate the learning process. Internal motivation that comes from an individual's own desire to learn tends to be more effective for learning than external motivation from rewards.
This document provides an introduction to learner-centered teaching and metacognition. It defines learner-centered teaching as an interactive process where the teacher facilitates and learners are active participants. It also defines metacognition as "thinking about thinking" and discusses the importance of teaching students how to learn. Specific strategies like TQLR and PQ4R are presented to help develop students' metacognitive skills.
The document discusses principles of adult learning for designing effective training programs. It defines key concepts like pedagogy, andragogy, and characteristics of adult learners. The document also outlines nine principles of adult learning, including recency, appropriateness, motivation, and active learning. It emphasizes that training should incorporate elements that recognize the special needs of adult learners and their different roles in the learning process.
This document provides information about Course 4 - Learning and Teaching from SNDT University's B.Ed. Part I program. It discusses key concepts related to learning and teaching, including definitions of learning, types of knowledge, Bloom's taxonomy, and concept mapping. The objectives are to help students understand concepts of learning, types of knowledge and processes of knowing, stages of teaching, and roles of a teacher.
This document provides an overview of learning theories and concepts. It discusses behaviorism, cognitivism, and social constructivism as theories of learning. It also outlines key concepts related to learning like the different types of learning, nature of learning theories, learner-centered principles, and cognitive and metacognitive factors that influence learning. Various instructional strategies that are learner-centered are also mentioned.
This document provides an overview of learning and development. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are five key principles of learning: participation, repetition, relevance, transference, and feedback. Learning involves four stages - stimulus, response, motivation, and rewards. Different types of learning capabilities are also outlined, including motor skills, attitudes, verbal information, cognitive strategies, and intellectual skills. Organizational learning improves employee satisfaction, retention, productivity and adaptability.
The document discusses the meaning and nature of learning. It defines learning as a change in behavior resulting from experience. Learning can occur through direct experiences, such as writing by practicing writing, or vicariously by observing others. The document outlines several definitions of learning provided by different scholars and discusses 10 key aspects of the nature of learning, such as learning being universal, continuous, and resulting in a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Kankshi Malavi is presenting on learning for her third semester BA module on Gateway to Psychology under Dr. Sunita Devi. The presentation defines learning as any relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience or practice. It discusses two types of behavior - natural behaviors that are inborn, and learned behaviors which develop through observation, teaching, or environmental stimuli. Finally, it outlines four common types of learning styles: visual, auditory, logical, and verbal learning.
ED 213-Foundation of Education(The Learning Process)- Atijon, Montajes.pptxRaianDuran
This document discusses learning outcomes and theories of learning. It begins by outlining the intended learning outcomes of understanding the background, definition, types, and theories of learning. It then provides definitions of learning as a change in behavior resulting from experience. The document discusses different types of learning, including cognitive, attitudinal, psychomotor, and four common styles - visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic. It also briefly outlines some other learning style types such as logical/analytical, social/linguistic, solitary, and nature learners.
1. The document discusses various theories of learning and motivation, including behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist perspectives. It describes concepts like classical and operant conditioning, observational learning, schema theory, and stages of cognitive development.
2. Key aspects of successful learning mentioned are that it should be goal-oriented, situated in social contexts, connected and cumulative, involve self-regulation and reflection, and be inclusive and supported.
3. Theories of motivation discussed include expectancy theory and choice theory. The document also covers concepts like metacognition, student diversity, and transfer of learning.
This document provides an overview of learning and development. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. There are five key features of learning: it involves change, not all changes reflect learning, learning is reflected in behavior, change occurs due to experience/practice, and practice must be reinforced. The importance of organizational learning is that it leads to increased job satisfaction, lower turnover, and greater productivity. Learning capabilities include motor skills, attitudes, verbal information, cognitive strategies, and intellectual skills. Principles of effective learning are participation, repetition, relevance, transference, and feedback. The learning process involves a stimulus, response, motivation, and rewards.
The document discusses the balanced approach to teaching, which aims to balance individual and societal needs, the outcomes of learning, and aspects of the past, present and future. It describes the basic concepts, characteristics, process for developing teaching-learning units, role of skills, use of subject matter, handling special behaviors, and evaluative criteria. Specifically, the balanced approach balances the needs of the individual child and society, focuses on knowledge, attitudes, skills and relationships, and considers the child's past experiences and future needs. It is flexible and disregards subject boundaries in favor of experiences determined by student needs.
This document discusses the importance of lesson planning for trainers and provides an overview of the learning process. It explains that lesson plans help ensure objectives are met, keep instructors organized, and serve as a guide for both instructors and backup instructors. It then discusses key aspects of learning including that it is an active process, comes from experience, and involves forming concepts and generalizations. The document emphasizes that meaningful experiences are important for effective learning.
MHR 6551, Training and Development 1 Course Learni.docxgertrudebellgrove
MHR 6551, Training and Development 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
1. Formulate different developmental approaches to training.
1.1 Create training activities based on a chosen theory.
2. Describe major training-related theories.
2.1 Discuss the primary tenets of a training theory.
2.2 Explain why a theory was chosen for a specific training situation.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
1.1
Unit Lesson
Article: “Teaching Nontraditional Adult Students: Adult Learning Theories in
Practice”
Article: “We Knew It All Along! Using Cognitive Science to Explain How
Andragogy Works”
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
2.1
Unit Lesson
Article: “Teaching Nontraditional Adult Students: Adult Learning Theories in
Practice”
Article: “We Knew It All Along! Using Cognitive Science to Explain How
Andragogy Works”
Fact Sheet: TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Learning Theories
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
2.2
Unit Lesson
Article: “Teaching Nontraditional Adult Students: Adult Learning Theories in
Practice”
Article: “We Knew It All Along! Using Cognitive Science to Explain How
Andragogy Works”
Fact Sheet: TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 11: Adult Learning Theories
Unit II PowerPoint Presentation
Required Unit Resources
In order to access the following resources, click the links below.
Chen, J. C. (2014). Teaching nontraditional adult students: Adult learning theories in practice. Teaching in
Higher Education, 19(4), 406–418. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=a9h&AN=94773613&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Hagen, M., & Park, S. (2016). We knew it all along! Using cognitive science to explain how andragogy works.
European Journal of Training and Development, 40(3), 171–190. Retrieved from https://search-
proquest-com.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/docview/2085704057?accountid=33337
Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy Center. (n.d.). TEAL Center fact sheet no. 11: Adult learning theories.
Retrieved from https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federal-initiatives/teal/guide/adultlearning
UNIT II STUDY GUIDE
Major Training Theories
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=94773613&site=ehost-live&scope=site
https://search-proquest-com.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/docview/2085704057?accountid=33337
https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federal-initiatives/teal/guide/adultlearning
MHR 6551, Training and Development 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Unit Lesson
Major Training Theories
The manner in which adults and children learn is different. Therefore, before embarking upon the design and
development of any training/development program, it is important to consider adult learning principles and
how adults learn bes.
Learning By Dr. Zafar Iqbal, Ph.D Education MEDIUFreelanced
This document discusses learning theories and how to increase learning. It defines learning and provides theories of learning like behaviorism, cognitivism, social learning theory, and multiple intelligences. It also outlines laws of learning including readiness, exercise, and effect. Finally, it suggests ways to incorporate learning theories into classroom practices and increase learning through activities that appeal to different learning styles and intelligences.
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FLCT - Chapter 1 - Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
1. Chapter 1: Learner-
Centered Theories of
Learning
BAAO COMMUNITY COLLEGE
San Juan, Baao, Camarines Sur
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
JESUS B. RANCES, LPT
Instructor, Baao Community College
2. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
When we hear the word, “learning,” the first
thing that comes to our mind is studying subject or
courses like mathematics, science, and language in
school. In a broader sense though, learning extends
much more beyond the confines of the classroom or
the school. People learn everyday of their lives in
various places and conditions.
Introduction
3. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The term “learning” and all other concepts
related to it, expectedly form a major part of the
experiences for you who are studying to become
teachers. As such, it is important for you to understand
the nature of learning because you play a major role in
the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding
learning-related concepts will enable you to better
develop teaching methodologies and other inventions
meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.
4. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The goal of education is to effect learning among
students and the population at large. Learning
connotes observed changes in a person as a result of
environmental events and interventions. The process
of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that as
students go up the educational ladder, developmental
changes in their personality are affected. This has to do
with improved and enhanced physical, emotional,
social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other
personality behaviors.
5. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
For a start, learning is generally defined as any
change in the behavior of the learner. The change can be
deliberated or unintentional, for better or for worse,
correct or incorrect and conscious or unconscious (Mayer
2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for
learning the change should be brought about by experience
or by interaction of the person with the environment. It is
not learning if the change is brought about by maturation
like getting taller or hair turning gray. Temporary changes
due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included as
example of learning.
LEARNING POINT: THE NATURE OF LEARNING
6. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
While the definition may generally connote change
either in the direction of the positive or negative, it should
be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it
means conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral
changes among learners in the positive direction. Thus, we
should be thinking about improving and enhancing
learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills and values,
quantitatively and qualitatively speaking. Toward this end,
we should look to the goals and objectives of education as
our guide to successfully effect the desired learning
outcomes.
7. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Learning is a process that brings together
persona and environmental experiences and influences
for acquiring, enriching or modifying ones knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views
(“Education,” n. d.).
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively
permanent change in behavior with behavior including
both observable activity and internal processes such as
thinking, attitudes, and emotions.
8. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Santrock (2012, p. 217) defined learning as a relatively
permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking
skills that comes about through experiences. Santrock goes
further to say that it is a long-term change in mental
representations or associations as a result of experiences. For
example, as a result of experience, children will change from
being unable to operate a computer into individuals who can.
However, not everything that an individual knows or is able to
do is the result of experiences. There are some things an
individual can do due to inherrited capacities. An example of
this is swallowing or blinking of the eyes. If, however, an
individual develops new methods of study, works harder to solve
problems, asks better questions, then these are learninh as a
result of experience.
9. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The definition of learning covers the following
elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not
necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experiences.
c. It does not include changes that are
physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue,
hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation and
association, presumably, it has basis in the brain.
10. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Woolfolk (2016) asserts that "learning occurs
when experience (including practice) causes a
relatively permanent change in an individual's
knowledge, behavior or potential for behavior." For
Ormrod (2015), "learning is a long-term change in
mental presentations or associations as a result of
experience."
11. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Learning is also defined as “any relatively
permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
practice and experience." From the definitions, learning
has three important elements; a) a change in behavior,
better or worse; b) change takes place through practice or
experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation);
and c) behavior change must be relatively permanent and
last for a fairly long time. All learning involve activities,
whether physical or mental. Activities learned by the
individual refer to types of learning, as for example, habits,
skills, facts ("Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and
Theories of Learning" n. d.).
12. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
There are types of learning resulting from
engagement or participation in classroom activities.
These types of learning are basic ingredients to success
in school. These are what school desire of students to
develop.
Types of Learning
13. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
It is a form of learning for one to
maintain and go through daily life activities as
for example, walking, running, driving,
climbing, and the like. These activities involve
motor coordination.
a. Motor Learning.
14. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
It involves the use of spoken language as
well as the communication devices used. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds are
tools used in such activities.
b. Verbal Learning.
15. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
A form of learning which requires the use
of higher-order mental processes like thinking,
reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two
processes; abstraction and generalization.
c. Concept Learning.
16. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
It is learning to differentiate between
stimuli and responding appropriately to these
stimuli. An example is being able to distinguish
the sound of horns of different vehicles like
bus, car, and ambulance.
d. Discrimination Learning.
17. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
It is learning principles related to
science, mathematics, grammar and the like.
Principles show the relationship between two
or more concepts, some examples of which are
formulas, laws, associations, correlations, and
the like.
e. Learning of Principles.
18. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
This is a higher-order thinking process.
This learning requires the use of cognitive
abilities - such as thinking, reasoning,
observation, imagination and generalization.
f. Problem Solving.
19. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Attitude is a predisposition which
determines and predicts behavior. Learned
attitudes influence one's behavior toward
people, objects, things or idea ("Learning
Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of
Learning" n. d.).
g. Attitude Learning.
20. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The nature of learning or the changes
occurring within an individual is difficult to visualize
and understand because it is an internal process.
Hence it is not easy to present, or explain in concrete
terms what this complex process is all about. Thus,
there is a need to look at theories of learning to
enable one to better conceptualize and
operationalize what learning is all about.
LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING
21. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex
concept, and it covers a wide range of activities
which cannot be explained with a limited framework.
This may be the reason why there is available wide
range of theories of learning, each propounding and
focusing on a particular perspective or view to
explain what learning is.
22. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
A learning theory is an organized set of principles
explaining how individuals acquire, retain, and recall
knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people
learn and why they learn. They also try to explain the
phenomenon of learning - its nature, and the conditions
under which learning best occurs. The explanations are,
however, considered as tentative. Be as it may, these
statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead, they
are well studied or seriously thought out, and in many
cases, the result of scientific study. These theories
especially guide teachers to have a better understanding
of how learning occurs and how learners learn
("Educational Learning and Learning Theories," n. d.).
23. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The term "learning" may mean differently to
different people and used differently by different
theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time,
definitions of learning shifted from changes that
occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to
changes in participation in on-going activities with
other individuals, to changes in a person's identity
within group. (Theories of Learning," n. d.).
24. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and
push for learner-centeredness in educational
practice, especially in curriculum development and
teaching methodology. This means that policy,
planning, and implementation of educational
practice should have the learner as its focus. It is
therefore expected that theories of learning and their
applications should be learner-centered.
LEARNING POINT: DEFINING "LEARNER-CENTERED"
25. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Learner-centered is the perspective that
focuses on individual learners - their heredity,
experiences, perspectives, background, talents,
interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on
learning - the best available knowledge about
learning and how it occurs, and about teaching
practices that are most effective in promoting the
highest levels of motivation, learning and
achievement for all learners.
26. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
For a better understanding of the term
learner-centered, following are learner-centered
principles, meant to provide a framework for
developing and incorporation new strategies and
designs of teaching,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning
process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily
internal and under the control of the learner.
27. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that
interact with the internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no
principle to be viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive,
metacognitive, motivational, affective, developmental,
social, and individual difference factor related to
learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but
to everybody involved in the educational system, as for
example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff and
guidance counsellors.
28. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Listed below are the learner-centered
psychological principles which provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is
and should be (Workgroup of the American
Psychological Association Board of Educational Affairs,
1997 cited in Santrock, 2011). Learner-centered does not
only refer to learner-characteristics, but also to the
beliefs, dispositions, and practices that are created by
teachers. To digress a little, principles are statements
that depict a general truth which have been established
through careful study.
29. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
1. Nature of the Learning Process. Learning
of complex subject matter is most effective when it is
an intentional process of constructing meaning from
information and experience.
2. Foals of the Learning Process. The
successful learner, over time, with support and
guidance can create meaningful, coherent
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge. The learner
can relate new information in meaningful ways.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
30. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
4. Strategic Thinking. The learner can create
and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex goals.
5. Thinking About Thinking. Higher-order
strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
6. Context of Learning. Learning is influenced
by environmental factors including culture
technology, and instructional practices.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
31. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
7. Motivational and Emotional Influences in
Learning. What and how much is learned is influenced
by the learner's level of motivation. Motivation to learn is
in turn influenced by the learner's emotional states,
beliefs, interests, goals and habits of thinking.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn. Learning is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal
choice and control.
9. Effects of Motivation in Effort. Acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without this motivation,
willingness to exert effort is unlikely, unless coerced.
Motivational and Affective Factors
32. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
10. Developmental Influences on Learning. As
individuals develop, they encounter different
opportunities and experiences, as well as constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when
differential within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional and social domains is taken into account.
11. Social Influences on Learning. Learning is
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
Developmental and Social Factors
33. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
12. Individual Differences in Learning. Learners
have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
13. Learning and Diversity. Learning is most effective
when differences in learners' linguistic, social, and
cultural backgrounds a re taken into account.
14. Standards and Assessment. Setting appropriately
high and challenging standards and assessing the learner
and learning progress - including diagnostic and
outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning
process.
Individual Differences Factors
34. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The above context describes the different
conditions under which learning best occurs. It
therefore behoves educational practitioners,
especially teachers to be creative, flexible and
innovative in their approaches and methodologies,
not only in teaching, but in dealing with their
students.
35. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered
instructional strategies which address learners' needs.
They are:
1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-
solving. It exposes learners to authentic life problems
that they meet in their daily lives. This approach involves
small-group efforts to identify problems and issues they
wish to tackle and explore, then identify materials and
resources to solve the problems. The teacher guides and
monitors the learners' problem solving efforts.
36. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
2. Essential Questions
Essential questions are asked of learners,
which perplex them. This is followed by other
questions, which motivate the students to explore
the questions and look for answers. The questions
cause the students to think, and provoke their
curiosity. These questions are creative. A "dull"
question, like "What is the effect of the People Power
Revolution in our political and economic life?" can
be translated into a more thought-provoking one
like, "Is the People Power Revolution still going on?"
37. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-
instruction approach. Teachers create the situation
where students explore and figure out things for
themselves. The guided discovery learning evolved
from discovery learning, where students still
construct their own understanding but with the
guidance of the teacher.
38. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Earlier on, the nature of theories of learning
has been discussed. It must be noted that there are
many theories of learning as a result of continuous
study and research, in search for the truth. It is the
dynamic nature of theories that enable us to
understand better a complex phenomenon, as
learning.
LEARNING POINT: THEORIES OF LEARNING
39. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Behaviorism is a world view that assumes the
learner is essentially passive, responding to
environmental stimuli. This perspective emerged in
the early 1900s through the research efforts of van
Pavlov and Edward Thorndike who made more
objective studies about learning as opposed to the
studies on learning which relied heavily on
introspection.
Behaviorism
40. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The learner starts off with a clean slate (i.e., tabula
rasa) and behavior is learned or shaped through positive
reinforcement. Both of these increase the probability that
the antecedent behavior will be repeated or will happen
again. Behaviorism advances the idea that when a cue or
stimulus In the environment is presented, the individual
makes a particular response to that stimulus.
Behaviorism contends that new behaviors or changes in
behaviors are acquired by associating stimuli and
responses. Thus association leads to changes in behavior.
Behaviorism is a world view that operates on the
principle of “stimulus-response” (S-R).
41. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
All behavior can be explained without the need to
consider the internal mental states or consciousness.
Behaviorism instruction, however, does not prepare
the learners for problem-solving which currently is
the skill being developed among learners for
survival. This is because behaviorism looks at the
learner as a passive learner. Learning is promoted by
environmental factors like reinforcement, feedback,
practice or repetition. ("Behaviorism," n.
d).
42. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
Following are the basic assumptions of behaviorism,
which many behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015. pp 52-
53).1
a. Principles of learning should apply equally to
different behaviors and to a variety of animal species.
This is on the assumption that humans and other
animals learn similar ways. Thus behaviorists-
researchers apply to humans what they have derived
from the studies of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most
objectively when the focus of study is on the stimuli and
responses. It is argued that stimuli and responses are
observable and measurable which contribute to
objectivity of studying learning.
43. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in
theoretical explanations. This thinking stemmed from the
argument that these internal behaviors cannot be directly
observed. Recently, however, there has emerged a thinking
propounded by neo-behaviorists that learning is better
understood if cognitive processes, be included as a factor, that
explains learning
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events.
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious (or
concise).
44. FACILITATING LEAR-CENTERED TEACHING – Chapter 1: Learner-Centered Theories of Learning
The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed
below: (Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September, 2012).
a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving of rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforces
l. Negative reinforcement
45. Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
The cognitive revolution in the late 1950s to 1960s
replaced behaviorism as the dominant paradigm for
learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box” and it is
necessary to open it for a better understanding of how
people learn. Mental processes such as memory, knowing,
problem-solving, reasoning and other such processes need
to be explored. People are seen not as programmed beings
that simply respond to environmental stimuli, as is
propounded in behaviorism. Cognitivism requires active
participation in order to learn and actions are seen as a
result of thinking Knowledge can be seen as schema or
symbolic mental constructions, thus learning is defined as
change in a learner’s schemata.
46. Changes in behavior are observed but this only indicates
what is going on in the learner’s head. The learner's mind is
compared to a computer which does a lot of processing of
the data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought of as
active learners, actively engaged in their learning: and
actively seeking ways to understand and process
information that they receive and relate this to what is
already known and stored within memory. Learning is
thought of as an internal process rather than simply
dealing with or responding to external stimuli. Learning
involves the reorganization of experiences, either by
attaining new insights or changing old ones. Thus, learning
is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory and
not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).
47. Examples and applications of the cognitive learning theory
(Kelly, September 2012)
a. Classifying or chunking information
b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something
known)
c. Providing structure (organizing lectures in efficient and
meaningful ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics
48. Social Constructivism
As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the
1970s and 1980s, it posits that learning is an active
constructive process. The learner himself constructs
knowledge. People actively construct or create their own
representation of objective reality. New information is
linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are
subjective. Learning is seen as an active contextualized
process of constructing knowledge instead of simply
acquiring it. Knowledge is based on the learners' personal
experiences and expectations of the environment and
where they continuously test these expectations through
social negotiations.
49. Each person may have a different interpretation and
construction of the knowledge process. The person is not a
blank slate but brings social and cultural factors to a
situation. It assumes that all knowledge is constructed
from the learner's previous knowledge regardless of how
one was taught. Thus, a simple task of listening to a lecture
involves active attempts to construct new knowledge and
not just absorbing what is being said in the lecture. Each
person generates knowledge based on his previous
experiences or knowledge. Thus, the individual develops
his own mental models to make sense of his experiences.
Thus, learning is adjusting to one's mental models to
accommodate new experiences.
50. The theory is about preparing the individual to
solve problems. Thus, the individual needs to have a
wide and significant base of knowledge upon which to
create and interpret ideas. It may be said that results
may not be the same because learners create their own
ideas and thus, may be unique to the individual
persons. So constructivism does not work which
results are expectedly fixed or consistent.
51. Following are some applications of social constructivism
(Kelly, September 2012).
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations
The applications of social constructivism show that
class activities which require the participation and
contributions of many learners in a task enables learning to
occur.
52. The table below presents some salient points about the
above-mentioned theories of learning considered as
basic to the further study of learning:
Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism
View of Knowledge Knowledge is a
repertoire of
behavioral responses
to environmental
stimuli.
Knowledge systems of
cognitive structures are
actively constructed by
leaners based on cognitive
structures.
Knowledge is constructed
within social contexts
through interactions with a
knowledge community.
View of Learning Passive absorption of
a predefined body of
knowledge by the
leaner. Promoted by
repetition and
positive
reinforcement.
Active assimilation and
accommodation of new
information to existing
cognitive structures
Discovery by leaners.
Integration of students into
a knowledge community.
Collaborative assimilation
and accommodation of
new information.
53. Behaviorism
Cognitive
Constructivism
Social Constructivism
View of
Motivation
Extrinsic,
involving positive
and negative
reinforcement.
Intrinsic, leaners set
their own goals and
motivate themselves to
learn.
Irtrinsic and extrinsic.
Learning goals and
motives are determined
both by learners and
extrinsic rewards
provided by the
knowledge community.
Implicationd for
Teaching
Correct behavioral
responses are
transmitted by
teachers and
absorbed by
students.
Teacher facilitates
learning by providing an
environment that
promotes discover and
assimilation/accomomo
dation.
Collaborative learning
is facilitated and guided
by the teacher. Group
work.
54. Thus far, the theories of learning presented
above are considered as forerunners of the study of
learning theories. Each theory projects its own points
and tries to relate specific factors along a particular
perspective to learning. It would be good, however, to
look at the other theories of learning that consequently
evolved following the basic theories (“Strengthening
Education,” n.d.).
55. 1. Social Learning Theory
This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who
works with both cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that
embrace attention, memory, and motivation. This theory
suggests that people learn within a social context and that
learning is facilitated through concepts like modeling,
observational learning and imitation. Bandura put forward
“reciprocal determinism” that holds the view that a
person’s behavior, environment and personal qualities all
reciprocally influence each other. He argues that children
learn from observing others as well as from model
behavior, which are process involving attention, retention,
reproduction, an motivation. The importance of positive
role modeling on learning is well-established.
56. Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education.
a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing
people.
b. Describing consequences of behavior can effectively
increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate
ones.
c. Modelling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching
new behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of
teaching new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors
and take care not to model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teacher should expose students to a variety of other
model to break down traditional stereotypes.
57. 2. Socio-constructivism
In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of
learning was further changed by the perspective of
‘situated cognition and learning.’ It emphasized the
significant role of context particularly social interaction in
learning. Criticism against the information-processing
between constructivist approach to cognition and learning
became stronger as the pioneer work of Leo Vygotsky as
well as anthropological and ethnographic research by
scholars like Barbara Rogoff and Jean Lave came to the
fore and gathered support. The essence of this criticism
was that the information-processing constructivism saw
cognition and learning as processes occurring within the
mind in isolation from the surroundings and interaction
with it.
58. Knowledge was considered as self-sufficient and
independent of the contexts in which it finds itself. In
the new view, cognition and learnings are understood
as interactions between the individual and a situation;
knowledge is considered as situated and is a product of
the activity, context, and culture in which it is formed
and utilized. This gave way to a new metaphor, for
learning as “’participation and social negotiation.”
59. Implications of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of
Education
a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to
engage in a group work or cooperative learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make
sure that each learner is able to make his contribution to
accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local
instructional materials which are familiar to the learners.
This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for
group discussions, and problem solving tasks.
60. 3. Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theories build on social and
constructivist theories of learning but situate experience at
the core of the learning process. They aim to understand
the manner in which experiences, whether first- or second-
hand motivate learners and promote their learning.
Therefore, learning is about meaningful experiences in
everyday life-that lead to a change in individual’s
knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is an influential
proponent of these theories suggesting that experiential
learning is “self-initiated” learning as people have a natural
inclination to learn; and they learn if they are fully involved
in the learning process.
61. Rogers put forward the following insights; a) learning
can only be facilitated; we cannot reach another
person directly; b) learners become more rigid under
threat; c) significant learning occurs in an
environment where threat to the learner is reduced to
a minimum; d) learning is most likely to occur and to
last if it is self-initiated. He supports a dynamic
continuous process or change where new learning
results in and affects learning environments.
62. Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of
Education
a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history
and experiences of the learners, which could serve as
inputs for related lessons. In so doing, students would feel
that they are involved in the learning process, because it is
their own experience which they are studying.
b. Teacher should make sure that they have a feel of
the experiences of the students, so that they are better able
to create an atmosphere for students that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies meant to facilitate
and guide students’ learning, so that they do not have to
always be the source of learning materials.
63. 4. Multiple Intelligences (MI)
This theory challenges the assumption in many learning
theories that learning is a universal human process that all
individuals experience according to the same principles.
Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence challenges the
understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single general
ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many
distinct intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial,
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal
ability, and naturalistic ability. This theory is speculative but
appreciated by teachers in broadening their framework of
developing skills, curriculum and testing. The MI theory
“requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional
materials and strategies, to make sure that the needs of students
with specific intelligences or abilities are addressed.
64. 5. Situated Learning Theory and Community of Practice
They draw from many of the learning ideas earlier presented.
These concepts were developed by Jean Lave and Ettiene Wenger.
Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not
situated. It emphasizes the relational and negotiated character of
knowledge and learning as well as the engaged nature of learning
activity for individuals involved. The theory further asserts that it is
within communities that learning occurs most effectively. Interactions
taking place within a community of practice, i.e. cooperation, problem
solving, building trust, understanding and relations-have the potential
to foster community social capital that enhances the community
members’ well-being. Sergiovanni reinforces the idea that learning is
most effective when it takes place in communities. Communities of
practice is not confined only to schools but to cover other settings like
workplaces and organizations. It seeks to understand both the
structure of communities and how learning occurs in them
(“Education,” n.d.).
65. According to McCarthy (1981,1987) the concept of
communities of practice is based on the following
assumptions:
a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon.
People organize their learning around social communities
where they belong. Therefore, schools are powerful
learning environment for students whose social
communities coincide with the school.
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities
that share values, beliefs, language and ways of doing
things. These are called communities of practice. Real
knowledge is integrated in the doing, social relations, and
expertise of these communities.
66. c. The process of learning and membership in a
community of practice are inseparable. Because
learning is intertwined with community membership,
it is what lets us belong to adjust our status in the
group.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice. It is
impossible to know without doing. By doing, we learn.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a
community creates the potential for learning. This is
because individuals learn from experiences of others.
67. 6. 21st Century Learning Skills
The study or exploration of 21st century learning or
skills emerged from the concerns about transforming the
goals and daily practice of learning to meet new demands
of the 21st century characterized as knowledge and
technology-driven. These are skills necessary for students
to master for them to experience school and life success in
an increasingly digital and connected age. Current
discussions about 21st century skills lead classrooms and
other environments to encourage the development of core
subject knowledge as well as media literacy, critical and
systems thinking. Group learning and use of thematic
projects involving inquiry-based collaborative work that
addresses world issues support the learning of the 21st
Century Skills. (Source: https://unesco.org/new/en)
68. Reference:
Brawner, Dalisay G., Facilitating Learner-Centered
Teaching. Quezon City, Manila, Philippines. Adriana
publishing Co., Inc.