Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015

Running head: TRANSFORMATIONAL LEARNING ADULTS IN CAREER TRANSITION 1
Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences
of Adult Community College Learners in Career
Transition
Kristen P. McKenna
Eastern Nazarene College
Presented to the faculty of Eastern Nazarene College in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Education in Higher Education Administration

TRANSFORMATIONAL LEARNING FOR ADULTS IN CAREER TRANSITION 2
Approval Page
Master of Educations in:
Higher Education Administration
We approve the Integrated Thesis of
(Kristen P. McKenna)
Thesis-Research Advisor:
(Elaine Ward, Ed.D.)
Date: ________________
Adult & Graduate Studies Research Committee Chair
____________________________________________ Date: _____________

RELEASE OF INFORMATION
Eastern Nazarene College Adult Studies Division
The Thesis is a result of your hard work and effort. This valuable outcome can benefit others as
they continue through the program. With your permission, and as the need arises, we wish to
make a clean copy of your work available to future adult learners and instructors as a sample.
Please consider carefully the confidentiality ramifications and complete the form below
indicating your instructions to the Adult Studies Division on the use of your thesis.
[X] May be used as a sample project for future adult learners and programs.
[ ] May be used as a sample project with author and firm name omitted. [ ] May not be
used as a sample project.
[ ] Must be kept in confidential files. (Please specify the reasons for such a request.) In the
instance where your company requires this, the instructions (on company letterhead and signed
by a manager) may be attached.
Name of Author: Kristen P. McKenna_______________ Class: _____________________
(Please Print)
Signed:_____________________________________ Date:________________________

Abstract
The overall purpose of this qualitative study is to explore if adult learners in career transition
experienced transformational learning through perspective transformation. The first charge of the
study is to determine if transformation took place within the framework of Mezriow’s Ten
Phases of Transformational Learning (TPTL) (Mezirow, 1978).The premise of this research is
adult community college learners in career transition who experienced perspective
transformation toward transformational learning did so because of positive factors and
characteristics of cultural and administrative practices at Bristol Community College(BCC) and
/or One Stop Career Center(OSCC). Since the Great Recession of 2008, there is an appeal from
employers, government and society to improve community college education and support
services for adults in career transition referred to the college from an OSCC. Unemployment
after 2008 is unlike any other modern period of unemployment for several reasons; fewer full
time jobs, wage stagnation, long-term unemployment and long term wage loss. Adults need to
better prepare to return to a more competitive workforce with future education. In addition to an
overview of workforce demands, this thesis will cover educational and developmental theory
focusing on transformational learning theory. The researcher will delineate methods and tools
used in the research to arrive at findings for future discussion and recommendations. The
findings support the premise by providing a better understanding of adult learners in career
transition and community college and OSCC partnerships. A findings discussion suggests areas
of future theory research and theory application to further strengthen our response to learner’s
and workforce policy needs. It concludes with the belief that transformational learning is
necessary for adult learner’s educational and economic needs as a matter of social justice.

Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Question 8
Research Question 12
Theoretical Framework with Similarities and Differences: 14
Defining Participant Criteria 16
Why is this Research Important? 18
Chapter 2: Literature Review 22
The First Study and Theory Revisions 23
Criticism 32
Variations in a Theory 36
Adult Education Theory Basis and Characteristics of Adult Learners 39
Adult Learner Development Theory 41
Career Development Theory 45
Great Recession of 2008 and Workforce Policy Changes 51
Community Colleges and TAACCCT 54
Higher Education Accountability for Workforce Needs 57
Chapter 3: Methodology 61
Overview of Research Design 61
Design Modifications 62
Participants 63
Measurement Tools 65

Data Collection Process 69
Data Analysis Procedure 71
Ethical Considerations 73
Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion 74
General Data Findings 75
Findings 85
Finding One 85
Finding Two 90
Finding Three 93
Finding Four 96
Limitations 97
Discussion 98
Recommendations 118
Survey Tool Design 119
Co Case Management Promising Practice 120
TL and Other Theory Application and Research 121
Non Rational TL Theory Research 123
Research Influences Policy Development 124
Concluding Thoughts 125
References 128

Appendix A 137
Appendix B 139
Appendix C 140
Appendix C p. 2 141
Appendix D 142
Appendix E 143

Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Question
The 21st century requires adults as learners and workers to be able to meet the challenges
of persistent technological innovations and a rapidly changing global economy with advanced or
“transformed critical thinking and problem solving skills” (Mezirow, 2009). The problems of our
post 2008 society are based on three intersecting variables, persistent unemployment, the need
for more educated adults with greater credentials and a call to action for higher education to meet
workforce demands. “Unemployment after 2008 is unlike any other modern period of
unemployment for several reasons; fewer full time jobs, wage stagnation, long-term
unemployment and long-term wage loss” (Farber H., 2011). With the need to serve more
unemployed adults and an analogous need to find more skilled, educated workers, it is evident
society needs to look at what community colleges and their workforce partners can do to increase
the individual success of each adult. Critical thinking needs to go hand-in-hand with the kinds of
skills and competencies that employers need like transferable skills of problem solving and
ability to use technology to locate information and syntheses information. Meanwhile, adults
need to earn credentials that lead to a sustainable wage. Adult learners, previously employed in
factory jobs like manufacturing, are returning to higher education to gain the knowledge and
skills needed for the newer knowledge-based economy. This is especially important in former
mill and factory cities like Fall River, New Bedford and Providence metro areas where
unemployment remains persistently high at 6.2% high with other communities in region. (US
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014)
Higher education faculty and staff need to help adult learners succeed and using
Transformational Learning (TL) theory will help faculty to teach adults in a way that develops

critical thinking and problem solving skills (Taylor, 2000). Although there are several definitions
of Transformational Learning Clark’s definition explains the full dimensions of TL with;
Transformational learning is defined as learning that induces more far-reaching
change in the learner than other kinds of learning, especially learning experiences
which shape the learner and produce a significant impact, or paradigm shift,
which affects the learner's subsequent experiences. (Clark, 1993, p. 47)
In the case of community college adult learners in career transition, subsequent
experiences can include, returning to school for a credential or college degree, being reemployed,
finding a new fulfilling career, transferring to a four-year institution and developing a sustainable
life with newfound skills and attitudes. Educators need to know what works, and what is
ineffective from actual adult learners experiencing career transition. One of the motivations for
this research is to see if adult learners are getting the support and instruction they need from their
point of view. This is especially true for the adults returning to education after a career transition
that has influenced their lives and their families lives. The focus population of this study is adult
learners referred by the community-based Bristol County or Greater New Bedford One Stop
Career Centers (OSCC), or adults receiving a combination of unemployment benefits (UI) and
tuition assistance and consequently independently enrolling in Bristol Community College.
Twenty nine (29) adult learners were OSCC clients and three were not OSCC clients and will be
referred to as non-OSCC adult learners in this thesis. Thirty five adult learners out of 142
learners completed baseline surveys. Nineteen individuals comprised of 15 adult learners and 4
faculty and counselors were interviewed. These adults are struggling to transform their skills in
order to be competitive in the high demand jobs of the future and they look to community
colleges and the workforce system to help them.

With a college degree, one earns more over a lifetime than those with a high school
diploma (Complete College America, 2015). Government leaders call on community college
specifically and workforce systems to prioritize this work as an economic imperative by
developing career pathways with more demand for pathways that lead to credentials and
employment. Community Colleges are open access institutions providing a variety of options for
returning adults. Therefore, adult learners can enroll in college credit academic courses to obtain
a certificate or two-year degree or enroll in a noncredit occupational certificate program often
leading to certification; licensure or an industry recognized credential. Additionally, they can be
placed in a developmental or remedial education course such as Language Arts, Math, English as
a Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) or Adult Basic Education (ABE) because they are basic
skills deficient or need to improve their language skills. More than ever, it is important for
community college educators and workforce partners to provide transformational learning,
retooling, career counseling and a variety of educational opportunities to every adult learner who
walks in the door.
The One Stop Career Center (OSCC) part of the workforce system is typically the
gateway that leads adult learners in career transition to the community college. They support
adult learners from the post-employment phase to the job placement phases, which includes co-
managing the adult learners while they are in school at the community college. Those in this
study are adult learners who are currently in career transition and are likewise connected with a
local career center to receive support including funding to return to school. Adult learners begin
the process of becoming a client of the OSCC prior to becoming a BCC adult student. They enter
the OSCC because they have lost a job, underemployed or are employed but need to change
careers. All the baseline survey responses participants are involuntarily unemployed or

underemployed. They are referred to as clients at OSCC but in this study they are called adult
learners in career transition because we are studying them as adult engaged in an educational
process at BCC as well engaged in a career counseling process at OSCC. The career-counseling
component and educational component adult learners experience can be concurrent or separate
depending on the individual adult learner’s goals and trajectory.
Adult learners begin an intake and eligibility process, which includes why and from
where were they were laid off, income analysis, assessment of current skills and abilities as well
an evaluation of their life circumstances (Kenney, 2015). The intensive intake and eligibility
evaluation process (Kenney, 2015) often begins in the OSCC environment and case management
of the client continues through the educational process until adult learners obtain employment or
transition out to further their academic work such as transferring to a four-year institution. For
the purposes of this study, the clients become adult learners at BCC and are often co-case
managed by BCC counselors and faculty and OSCC counselors and job placement specialists.
The adult learners will be placed in an appropriate academic or occupational training program
corresponding to their career goals, tested educational level and ability to adapt to the rigors of
the program (Kenney, 2015). Some adult learner’s life circumstances may contribute to
limitations that would affect their ability to attend full time or part time. The limitations can
include transportation, family responsibilities, health issues or financial needs that influence the
educational plan put forth. These factors are considered throughout the intake and evaluation
process because it is important to provide comprehensive support for adult learners and it
determines who will receive a training voucher (Kenney, 2015). Assessment of limitations are
important to assess because OSCC has performance accountability measures to meet. OSCC will

not provide funding to an adult learner with too many limitations. All of our leaners are
financially supported by the OSCC.
After the OSCC process began, adult learners enrolled at BCC for education to support
their career objectives. Therefore, this research will explore the effects of Transformative
Learning experiences of adult community college learners in career transition. Specifically, the
focus of this study is adult learners at Bristol Community College in Fall River, Massachusetts,
under a shared partnership of co-case management with the Bristol County and Greater New
Bedford OSCC’s. The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of collaboration between community
colleges and OSCC’s to support adult learners will provide the framework for a larger discussion
of policy and pedagogy for American community colleges.
Research Question
The overall purpose of this qualitative study is to examine whether or not adult learners
in career transition experienced transformational learning through perspective transformation.
The first charge of the study is to determine if transformation took place within the framework of
Mezriow’s Ten Phases of Transformational Learning (TPTL) (Mezirow, 1978). The TPTL are
phase 1:disorienting dilemma; phase 2: a self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame; phase
3: a critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural or psychic assumptions; phase 4: recognition
that one’s discontent and the process of transformation are shared and negotiated a similar
change; phase 5: exploration of options for new roles, relationships and actions; phase 6:
planning of a new course; phase 7: acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s
plan; phase 8: provisional trying of new roles; phase 9: building of competence and self
confidence in new roles and relationships; phase 10; a reintegration into one’s life on the basis of
conditions dictated by one’s perspective. Next, whether or not the adult learners experienced

perspective transformation leading to the true depth of transformational learning, what factors at
Bristol Community College (BCC) or the One Stop Career Center (OSCC) “characteristically
impeded or facilitated TL experiences” (Mezirow,1978, p. 1).
Perspective transformation is a change in a meaning structure(s) we use to define
ourselves. (Mezirow, 1978, p. 7). "Perspective transformation" has three dimensions:
psychological (changes in understanding of the self), convictional (revision of belief systems),
and behavioral (changes in lifestyle)” (McEwen, 2010-2011, p. 37). Perspective transformation
is a change in how we understand ourselves, revise our beliefs systems and as a result change our
behavior. In addition, these changes lead to transformative learning. This whole process is
initiated by a “disorienting dilemma” triggered by a life crisis – in this case, career transition
brought on by the loss of a job. The actions can be a “change in behavior or developing habit of
mind that indicate a deeper more meaningful transformation” (Mezirow, 1978). Although there
are several definitions of TL Clark’s definition explains the full dimensions of TL with;
which affects the learner's subsequent experiences. (Clark, 1993, p. 47)
In the case of community college adult learners in career transition, subsequent
experiences can include, returning to school, being reemployed, finding a new fulfilling career,
transferring to a four-year institution and developing a sustainable reality with newfound skills
and attitudes. In this exploration of transformational learning among adult learners in career
transition, data is gathered to determine the true depth of transformational learning. The
fundamental query is comprised of three questions; did adult learners experience

transformational learning though perspective transformation? Was TL within or related to the
framework an as laid out in Mezriow’s Ten Phases of Transformational Learning (TPTL)?
Lastly, if adult learners experienced perspective transformation, what factors at BCC or OSCC
“characteristically impeded or facilitated transformative learning experiences” (Mezirow, 1978,
p. 1) Factors and characteristics can include but are not limited to instructional environment and
methods, adult learner support services such as career counseling and coordination between
OSCC and BCC. The premise of this research is adult learners experiencing perspective
transformation which leads to transformational learning were influenced by positive factors and
characteristics of cultural and administrative practices at BCC and /or OSCC. A theoretical
framework, which includes TPTL guides the research question.
Theoretical Framework with Similarities and Differences:
This section is intended to give the reader an overview of TPTL and to discuss the
similarities and differences between the actual original study that produced the TPTL and this
thesis design. The theoretical framework for this study is grounded in Transformative Learning
Theory from Jack Mezirow’s initial 1978 study called Education for Perspective Transformation,
Women’s Re-entry Programs in Community Colleges. (Mezirow, 1978) He studied women in
community colleges who reentered education after a prolonged absence from education. Thirty-
six years later, this thesis will explore and build on the theory’s application to a specific group of
adult learners in the context of the local One Stop Career Centers and Bristol Community
College.
As stated earlier, TL includes ten phases of perceptive transformation (TPTL) that lead to
transformational learning. The context of Mezirow’s study varies from the context of this
research but both studies begin with adults returning to education after a disorienting dilemma

(Mezirow, 1978). The disorienting dilemma also known as phase one of TPTL is one of the
constants through many variations of the theory and is the catalyst for transformation. Mezirow
(1978) believed that “external events play a prominent role in precipitating a disorienting
dilemma that can lead to transformation” (p. 13). Involuntary job loss is just such an external
event leading to a subsequent disorienting dilemma.
The important difference between his 1978 study and this thesis lies in the fact that his
results are my theoretical framework. The participants in this study have a common disorienting
dilemma and his study the participants do not have the same disorienting dilemma. All the
participants of this study are experiencing the same disorienting dilemma of career transition
brought on by involuntary unemployment or underemployment, as opposed to multiple reasons
for his participant’s disorienting dilemmas. As discovered in Mezirow’s (1978) research, there
were many reasons why adult women attended reentry programs, where as the main motivation
for adults who attend BCC programs, was centered on career transition. Additionally this study is
conducted at one community college adding the career center co-case management partnership as
opposed to his study, which involved the singular and internal work of many community
colleges around the nation. The first major difference from the current study and his 1978
research is TPTL serves as the theoretical framework for this study applying them to a modern
context. His study of “Women’s’ Reentry Programs in Community Colleges” resulted in
defining the TPTL of transformational learning (TL) for the first time. This thesis focused on
both men and women whereas Mezirow’s (1978) study focused on only women at many
community college.
There are similarities between the two studies. Current events influenced the need for
both researchers to delve into their respective topics. For example, each study is influenced by

the social context of its time while conducting case study research with participants in a variety
of community college programs. The women’s movement of the 1970’s provides a historical
context for his study and the 2008 economic downturn and ensuing effects provided the
backdrop for this thesis. Additionally both studies focus on a “set of case studies” (Mezirow,
1978, p. 57) with mature adults reentering education and career development. Similarly in our
methods, Mezirow studied a variety of adult learners in different programs. The entire pool of
community college adult learners who met our criteria were considered because they represent
the essence of an open access academic institution mission with a range of learners in credit and
noncredit educational activities. The analysis of these participants was not on the type of
program they attended but that they reflect the groups of adult learners typically referred by the
OSCC. The researcher wanted to know if all adult learners in career transition over the age of 25
at Bristol Community Colleges are experiencing TL. Therefore, it became important to define a
participant criteria based on these parameters and not based on the program of study.
Defining Participant Criteria
The pool of adult learners includes adults (25 years and older) who are experiencing a
career transition and live in Bristol Community College’s region which predominantly includes
Bristol County Massachusetts, the south coast of Massachusetts including New Bedford and the
East Bay section of Rhode Island. For all these adult learners, the disorienting dilemma is they
are involuntarily under or unemployed which leads to the career transition. They fall into two
basic categories:
1. They are adult learners referred by the community-based Bristol County or Greater New
Bedford One Stop Career Centers (OSCC)

2. They are receiving a combination of unemployment benefits (UI), and tuition assistance
and have consequently independently enrolled in Bristol Community College.
The main reason for focusing on adults over 25, who are in career transition, directly relates
to the aftermath of the Great Recessions of 2008. This is when more adults were affected by
external events outside of the adult learners control (Mezirow, 1978, p. 13) resulting in
involuntarily job loss and requiring new skills, credentials and more education to succeed in the
workplace. Mezirow (1978) believed that external events play a prominent role in precipitating a
disorienting dilemma that can lead to transformation (p. 13). Involuntary job loss is such an
external event leading to a subsequent disorienting dilemma. According to Kenner and
Weinerman (2011), adult learners returning to school typically fall into certain groups like those
with academic deficiencies and/or returning from military service.
The majority of these adult learners require developmental coursework to refresh their entry
level collegiate skills, they are veterans returning from Afghanistan and Iraq who delayed their
education to serve in the armed forces (Kaputo, 2009), and maybe they are adults who have just
completed their GED and are moving onto higher education classes (Kenner, Weinerman, 2011,
p. 87).
These adult learners are coming back to community colleges for a variety of reasons and they
need more remediation and support because they have been out of school for a while and need to
reengage in the commitment required of formal learning. While Kenner and Weinerman’s
(2011) statement reflects 28% of the population in this study, the majority of adult learners we
see in this study are adult learners who have taken college courses or hold bachelors and/or
Masters degrees but need retooling to be competitive in a harsh job market. Adult learners with
some college experience represent (55%) of the adult learners who completed interviews.

One hundred and forty-two adult learners in career transition attended Bristol Community
College in the period between July 2013 and December 2014 (Oracle, 2011). This study
surveyed 37 adult learners and of the 37, interviewed 15 adult learners. The premise of this
research is that transformational learning was influenced by positive cultural and administrative
practices at BCC and /or OSCC. With these practices and support, adult learners in career
transition that started with a disorienting dilemma will cultivate perspective transformation,
ultimately leading to transformational learning.
Why is this Research Important?
Post 2008 society is based on three intersecting variables, persistent unemployment that
includes long term unemployment, the need for more educated adults with industry relevant
credentials and a call to action for higher education to mitigate the three intersecting variables of
the post Great Recession period of time.. Hence, this research attempts to explore what effects
transformational learning for adults in career transition and can it help mitigate these issues.
According to the National Association of Workforce Boards the number of American adults in
career transition accessing training WIA (Workforce Investment Act) services through One Stop
Career Centers increased by 234% since 2008 to 2011 (National Association of Workforce
Boards, 2011). For the south coast of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, the increase is
comparable to serving over 17,000 clients and “exceeding their planned service level by 37% in
one year“(Massachusetts Workforce Board Association, 2011, p. 7).
Farber goes on to say, “It is clear that the dynamics of unemployment in the Great
Recession are fundamentally different from unemployment dynamics in earlier recessions (p.
2).” He identifies three factors which are different from prior periods of heavy job loss. Long
term unemployment is greater, more workers regaining employment are only part time, regained

employment wages are 17.5 % less than prior to lay off earnings, over all long term earnings are
reduced by 11% (p. 28) and job loss rates are dramatically higher for less educated workers (p.
5).
More than ever, adults need to have credentials beyond a high school diploma to secure
jobs with a family-sustaining wage and labor market projections predict that by 2018, 63% of
jobs are expected to require some college education (US Department of Education Office of
Vocational and Adult Education, 2007). Massachusetts anticipates an even higher percentage of
postsecondary work than the national average with 70% of jobs requiring some college with the
emphasis on jobs in healthcare, finance, technology, education, and life sciences (Massachusetts
Department of Higher Education, 2014). With the need to serve more unemployed adults and an
analogous need to find more skilled, educated workers, it is evident society needs to look at what
community colleges and their workforce partners can do to increase the individual success of
each adult.
This study explores if OSCC clients and other unemployed adult learners experienced
perspective transformation which led to transformational learning at Bristol Community College
and if so what factors, characteristics or environment contributed to transformation for adults in
career transition. The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of collaboration between community
colleges and OSCC’s to support adult learners will provide the framework for a larger discussion
of policy and pedagogy for American community colleges.
Public higher education especially community colleges needs to help adult learners
achieve their career goals while supporting employer needs. To meet the demand for what, the
2014 Massachusetts “Vision Report, Degrees of Urgency” calls on higher education to recruit
and successfully graduate more adult learners (Massachusetts Department of Higher Education,

2014, p. 4). The report points out that there are adult learners who have attended college before
but never got a credential and while attending they struggled more than young adults.
Seventeen percent of all Massachusetts residents aged 25–65 have some college
credits but no degree. Once enrolled or re-enrolled, adult learners persist in their
studies and earn degrees at lower rates than younger adult learners, most likely
due to competing family and job related pressures. (Massachusetts Department of
Higher Education p. 16)
Transformational Learning Theory applied to counseling and educational settings will
support learners in a way that helps adult learners overcome this challenge. Overcoming these
challenges will benefit many stakeholders such as higher education but especially help the
workforce and the economy tied to their success. Hence since 2008, there are many government
or private foundation reports like “A Better Measure of Skills Gap” (2011) and “Accelerating
Opportunities for Career Pathways” (2013) that discuss the need to improve college educational
and support services for adults in career transition who have been referred to the college from a
career center. Most notable is the 2009 President’s Council of Economic Advisers report on,
“Preparing the Workers of Today for the Jobs of Tomorrow”. Critical to the report’s findings and
suggested actions, is the need to improve community college services for adult learners in career
transition. With recommended actions, the counsel calls on community college and workforce
systems to prioritize this work as an economic imperative. Additionally the concept of career
pathways fuels the debate with more demand for pathways that leads to credentials and
employment. As a result of the President’s Council Report funding was appropriated;
$500 million in Trade Adjustment Assistance Community College Career
Training (TAACCCT) grants were awarded to community colleges around the

country for targeted training and workforce development to help economically
disadvantaged workers who are changing careers. The grants support partnerships
between community colleges and employers to develop programs that provide
career pathways to good jobs, including building instructional programs that meet
specific industry needs. (US Department of Labor, 2011)
Massachusetts was a recipient of one such grant and it became known as the
Massachusetts Community College Workforce Development Transformation Agenda
(MCCWDTA) or Transformation Agenda. With financial backing for this national initiative, the
stakes are higher than ever before and the need to succeed is greater. So we have to ask
ourselves, what factors and characteristics of cultural and administrative practices at BCC and /or
OSCC will make an impact on the learners and ultimately the economy as we strive to create
opportunity for families to earn a living wage? The research will investigate the experience of
the OSCC adult learners and provide data for further discussion on what is transformational to
adult learners both in terms of their experience on the campus and with the help of the One-Stop
Career Center (OSCC). Furthermore, it is important for practitioners and policy makers to
understand what issues adults are undergoing as they go through the process of becoming
unemployed, retraining and seeking reemployment from the adult learners/clients perspective. It
will lead to greater understanding of the problem, and hopefully, better decisions about how to
support individuals returning to the workforce so that more people return and are not left as the
long term unemployed. As of February 6, 2015 the number of long-term unemployed (those
jobless for 27 weeks or more) was essentially unchanged from prior months at 2.8 million in
January 2014. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015)

The social and economic ramifications of long term unemployed speak to the
researcher’s need to have a truer understanding of the gaps to affect change which ultimately
improves the lives of the individual, their families and the communities in which they live.
Earning a living wage is by far the most important factor to the success of an individual and their
family and increasing numbers of adults are falling into the desperate situation of no hope for the
future when they cannot find gainful employment. Unemployed adults in a career transition
context are sheathed in a myriad of challenges and yet strong and vital. The researcher proposes
that education is the key and transformational learning is a necessary component. Then, it is
intended that this research will shed some more light on the practice of transformational learning
and generate new questions and more understanding about perspective transformation in the
context adult learners in career transition.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
To explore the effects of Transformative Learning (TL) experiences of adult learners in
career transition, this traditional (Jesson, 2011) literature review draws from studies of
Transformational Learning Theory (TLT) as first identified and described by Jack Mezirow from
his pivotal 1978 study “Education for Perspective Transformation Women’s Reentry Programs
in Community Colleges.” It will provide a comprehensive overview of the theory, to include the
Ten Phases of Transformational Learning (TPTL), and three basic elements of meaning schemas,
critical reflection and rational discourse. It also covers modifications like adding authentic
relationships, variations and criticisms of the theory over the last 37 years. The literature review
will also provide an overview of relevant adult education theory, adult learner development
theory and career development theory especially as it relates to TL theory. A deeper

understanding of adult education theory, especially TL theory is necessary to flesh out the factors
and characteristics that help adult learners learn and prepare for careers in the 21st century.
The two overarching themes in the literature review include: (1) establishing a foundation
in TL theory, adult learner developmental theory and career development theory research, and
(2) a discussion of economic and workforce imperatives such as greater expectations for
community college staff, to help adult workers in career transition. The aim of this literature
review to is to explore the connection between theory, research and policy to affect adult
education practices to prepare adults in career transitions. By using TPTL as a framework it
helps the investigator to examine the phases adult learners may go through and it provides a
foundation of research as the basis for the premise of this research.
The First Study and Theory Revisions
According to Kitchenham (2008), Mezirow (1978) first used the term transformation in
his study of U.S. women returning to postsecondary study or the workplace after they had been
out of the workforce or education for a period of time (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 104).” Mezirow
(1978) was commissioned by the US Department to Education which was interested in
addressing the needs of U.S. women who were resuming their education or were considering
employment after an extended period of time out of university or the workforce, respectively.
He conducted a qualitative study to “identify factors that characteristically impede or facilitate
women’s progress in the re-entry programs” (Mezirow, 1978, p. 3). The study began in 1975 and
it investigated 12 re-entry college programs with 83 women over three years. The 12 programs
represented a diverse population from New York/New Jersey San Francisco and Washington
State.

After the initial study, “He conducted a nationwide telephone survey of 24 on-site
programs in 11 states” (Kitchenbam, 2008). Based on their findings, Mezirow (1978a, 1978b)
concluded participants had undergone a “personal transformation” and within that
transformation, Ten Phases of Transformational Learning (TPTL) occurred, (Table 1).
Mezirow’s Ten Phases of Transformative Learning(TPTL)
Phase 1 A disorienting dilemma
Phase 2 A self-examination with feelings of guilt or shame
Phase 3 A critical assessment of epistemic, sociocultural, or psychic assumptions
Phase 4 Recognition that one’s discontent & the process of transformation are shared &
negotiated a similar change
Phase 5 Exploration of options for new roles, relationships, and actions
Phase 6 Planning of a course of action
Phase 7 Acquisition of knowledge and skills for implementing one’s plans
Phase 8 Provisional trying of new roles
Phase 9 Building of competence and self-confidence in new roles and relationships
Phase 10 A reintegration into one’s life on basis of conditions dictated by one’s
perspective
TABLE 1 TPTL - Ten Phases of Transformational Learning (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 105)
TPTL serves as a theoretical framework for this study delineating the stages one may
experience in career transition and a foundation for why perspective transformation may occur.
Perspective transformation" has three dimensions: psychological (changes in understanding of
the self), convictional (revision of belief systems), and behavioral (changes in lifestyle)”
(McEwen, 2010-2011, p. 37). Focusing on the disorienting dilemma, his study identifies an event

or situation that causes women to look for solutions to their disorienting dilemma through
education. The learner characteristics in the 1978 study are identified by the women’s initial
status, motivation or frame of mind as they embark on the reentry experience. He makes the
point that these women are not conventional learners because they all have the common
experience of a disorienting dilemma. They fall into six learner designations, “threshold learners,
self- aware, work-wise learners, study-wise leaners, career-wise, emancipated and
transformational” (Mezirow, 1978, pp. 12-15).This is important because some participants in this
study may exhibit the qualities of “workwise learners” (p.15), who have significant work
experience.
In the introduction to this thesis, the reader gains an understanding of the differences and
similarities between Mezirow’s 1978 study and this thesis study. The context of Mezirow’s
study varies from the context of this research but both studies begin with adults returning to
education after a disorienting dilemma (Mezirow, 1978). The disorienting dilemma also known
as phase one of TPTL is one of the constants through many variations of the theory and is the
catalyst for transformation. Mezirow (1978) believed that external events play a prominent role
in precipitating a disorienting dilemma that can lead to transformation (p. 13). Involuntary job
loss is such an external event leading to a subsequent disorienting dilemma. Thirty-six years
later, this thesis will explore and build on the theory’s application to a specific group of adult
learners in the context of the local One Stop Career Centers and Bristol Community College.
Interestingly enough his 1978 social context time resembles aspects of this current economic
time. Hodge says; “his theory portrays the individual as operating in an increasingly conscious
and critical relationship within social context” (2014, p. 166). The importance of conducting
research that responds to a current trend or a new phenomenon has implications beyond the

research itself, it can inform educators, and policy makers helping them to make decisions that
are research based and well thought out solutions. (Taylor, 2012)
In Mezirow’s (1978) study, women develop consciousness about themselves and the
world around at that time. Adults in career transition realize there is an implicit connection
between education, employment and economics. There is an important connection between “the
context of the learner’s situation and the learner’s understanding of the context which is
influenced by the way they make meaning” (Hodge, 2014). Meaning is based on a learners’
meaning schema (context) and meaning perspective (understanding). (Taylor, 2012). A change in
one’s meaning schema leads to a change in meaning perspective which is central to the theory at
that time. A change in meaning perspective is also relevant to our adult learners in 2015.
Perspective transformation becomes more defined year’s later as Mezirow’s (1978) theory
evolves. Kitchenham (2008) states:
Central to the perspective transformation and, therefore, the three types of
learning are the meaning perspective and the meaning schema. A meaning
perspective refers (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 110) to the structure of cultural and
psychological assumptions within which our past experience assimilates and
transforms new experience whereas a meaning scheme is “the constellation of
concept, belief, judgment, and feeling which shapes a particular interpretation
(Mezirow, 1985, p. 21).”
Early on, researchers like Kuhn (1962), Freire (1970) and Habermas (1971) influenced
Mezirow (1978) to develop the concept of the meaning schema further. Kuhn’s 1962 work
served as a basis for transformative learning after he determined the concept of paradigms, which
are also meaning schemas. (Mezirow, 1985, 1991) Certain paradigms are accepted until someone

else comes along with a different meaning perspective and changes it. For example, early
civilizations thought the earth was flat until Galileo and others disproved it and concluded the
earth is a sphere. Those scientists shared a common set of problems and common set of solutions
or common meaning perspectives.
Habermas (1971) contributed to the meaning perspective with his three of domains of
learning, technical, practical and emancipatory (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 109) that effect meaning
schemas. Technical includes task-oriented concrete skills, practical involves social expectations
and conventions, while emancipatory is “introspective as a learner self reflects and experience
self-knowledge” (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 109). Technical learning may be important to adults
developing concrete skills like using technology, which is also something that workforce policy
promotes. Changes to meaning perspectives whether technical, practical or emancipatory evolve
out of adult’s abilities to critically reflect on what they know and what they need to know.
Paulo Freire’s (2008) advocated that adult learners develop a critical awareness and
consciousness so they can take action against the oppressive elements of reality (Freire, 2008).
His influence has a great deal of impact, because it focuses on the lack of free thought
encouraged be traditional education systems and he advocated that “transformational theory
should focus on developing a consciousness that has the power to transform reality” (Freire,
2008). Merging critical reflection, discourse and action are central to Freire’s (1970)
consciousness and undoubtedly aids Mezirow’s (1978) formation of TL based in critical
reflection and rational thinking (Kitchenbam, 2008, p. 108). Freire’s version of TL will be
discussed in more detail later in the literature review.

FIGURE 1.Summary of Mezirow's Theory by year and salient element
(Kitchenham, 2008, p.110)
The figure 1 (Kitchenham , 2008) is a longitudinal assessment of the theories many
influences year and salient element (p. 110).After meaning schemas and perspective, critical
reflection is the second element that is import to TL in adult learners. Taylor (2012) working
with Mezirow (2009), but also critical of his theory, explains one of the main elements, critical
reflections, of Mezirow’s theory.
Critical reflection refers to questioning the integrity of assumptions and beliefs
based on prior experience. It often occurs in response to an awareness of a
contradiction among our thoughts, feelings, and actions. In essence, we realize

something is not consistent with what we hold to be true and act in relation to our
world. (Taylor, 2006, p. 9) “Reflection is the perceptive process by which we
change our minds, literally and figuratively. It is the process of turning our
attention to the justification for what we know, feel, believe and act upon”
(Mezirow, & Taylor, 2009, p. 12)
In TPTL, Phase 3, a critical assessment of epistemic, socio cultural or psychic
assumptions, implies that a process of critical reflection should occur at this point, but a process
of reflection may happen at any point after disorienting dilemmas. Therefore, and it is hard to
assess when one is able to engage in critical reflection or if a person can engage in deep and
meaningful critical reflection.
The third element is the concept of rational discourse and for purposes of this thesis an
evolving theme relevant to adult learners returning to education. According to Taylor (2006),
rational discourse is the essential medium through which transformational learning is promoted
and developed (p. 10). Discourse in transformative learning rests on the following five
assumptions; it is rational only as long it meets the conditions necessary to create understanding
with another and it is to be driven by objectivity. “All actions and statements are open to
question and discussion while understanding is arrived through the weighing of evidence and
measuring insight and strength of supporting arguments” (p. 10) Finally the primary goal is to
promote mutual understanding among others. Critical reflection of meaning schemas and
perspective grows out of rational discourse, if one has met the assumptions listed. Mezirow
(1991) believes meaning schemas and meaning structures are transformed because of “rational
discourse that critically challenges assumptions explicit in TPTL” (Mezirow, 1991). This is

important to our study because our research is attempting to ascertain if the adult learners in this
situation experience these elements within the TPTL which leads to TL.
Several years after the initial study, the TPTL structure was enhanced when he added an
eleventh phase: altering present relationships and forging new relationships. (Kitchenbam, 2008,
p. 109). Furthermore, in 1991 he changed the 11th phase to renegotiating relationships and
negotiating new relationships and placed it between the original phase 8 and phase 9. The new
phase reflected the importance of critical reflection and constructivist learning theory (2008, p.
113), because it is important for adults to construct their own meaning in relationship to their
own context which includes relationships. Education is a social context where relationships can
be important for adult learners returning to school. Changing the TPTL, also responded to
criticism’s asserting a lack of analysis of adult learner relationships on TL covered in this
chapter.
In 2000, Mezirow (1978) adopts the idea that “meaning perspectives are frames of
reference with two dimensions; habits of mind and their resulting viewpoints” (Taylor, 2012,
p.83). A frame of reference is contextually based on the learner’s tendencies and disposition
along with the assumptions they carry with them in a given situation. Adults carry with them the
assumption that they need to work and it will be important to see how they react to a change in
their meaning perspective. Throughout his work, Mezirow (1978) strives to describe each of his
elements in hopes that concrete terminology will resonate with educators and counselors.
Another development in Mezirow’s (1978) theory involves the role of counseling and
learner support. Oddly, Mezirow‘s 1978 study discovered gaps in counseling and instructional
support. Less than one third of the 288 programs studied had counselors on staff and yet he was
able to identify perspective transformation. (Mezirow, 1978, p. 47) Mezirow spent years trying

to pinpoint exactly what was important about counseling and learner support. To that end, he
identifies authentic relationships as one of the six elements necessary to fostering transformative
learning. The six elements named in 2009 are experience, critical reflection, dialogue, holistic
orientation, appreciation for context and authentic relationships with students” (Mezirow, &
Taylor, 2009, p.290). These authentic relationships very crucial to adult learners and in the
interview, process; adult learners cited relationships with staff as crucial. “Fostering
transformative learning in the classroom depends to a large extent on establishing meaningful,
genuine relationships with students (Cranton, 2013, p. 5). Taylor (2009) found that “establishing
positive and productive relationships with others is one of the essential factors in a
transformative experience” (p. 12). “It is through building trusting relationships that learners
develop the confidence to deal with learning on an affective level, where transformation at times
can be perceived as threatening and an emotionally charged experience” (pp. 12-13). Authentic
relationships is a salient factor in this research, even if it is not explicit in the TPTL, it is part of
the fabric of returning adult learners educational context.
It is important to note, TL theory is complicated because it continues to change with
further research. At times it is confusing but continued analysis and progression of this theory
creates opportunities for other researchers to include their viewpoint. Whereas authentic
relationships is now an indisputable element, critical reflection and rational discourse are two
elements which continue to breed controversy. For some practitioners the idea of a
transformational learning process rooted in rational discourse and critical reflection may not be
relevant to the low skilled adult learners in adult education programs. It does not take into
account other non-national ways of viewing and learning or the effect of individual’s

relationships with peers, family members or faculty. These are areas of criticism discussed in the
next section devoted to an overview of criticisms that are relevant to this study.
Criticism
No literature review would be complete without an analysis of the theory’s criticism and
particularly the criticisms that affect this research. As a consummate educator and academic,
Mezirow (1978) was open to critiques, revisions, and variations. He spent his life searching for a
true definition of his theory and many researchers have taken on the same charge. Areas of
criticism are mainly critical of a lack of individual and historical context, relying too heavily on
only rational discourse with an absence of affective learning or spirituality (Taylor, & Snyder,
2012, p. 48). Also, ignoring the meaning of relationships and constructs of social recognition
(2012, p. 49) as well as how the construct of power is ignored in Mezirow’s(1978) design to
“creating conditions for discourse free from epistemic, sociocultural and psychic distortions”
(Pietrykowski, 1996, p. 94).
Overall, Taylor (2012), in the Handbook of Transformational Learning, is critical of the
way TL Theory is studied in general and he advocates for less reliance on Mezirow’s (1978)
initial study framework and his specific research and development of the TL. Taylor (2012) says
there should be more consideration for extending beyond traditional contexts such as formal
education, delving into the creative, spiritual and emotional areas of transformation while
developing a terminology and a process to adequately capture the process of transformation. (pp.
48-50).
Clark and Wilson (1991) criticize his theory in two main areas. Context and rational discourse as
it relates to context. First they say, “He implies that this learning conforms to universal principles
that apply across all contexts” (1991, p. 76). The lack of historical, socio-cultural and

biographical context is a major problem with the 1978 study. The women in the study were
mostly middle class existing in a patriarchal society and each women had a biographically
history which was largely ignored. (Clark, 1991, p. 77) To that end, “reason cannot exist
independently of contextual contingencies” (Clark, & Wilson, 1991, p. 90), and “rational
discourse is a communal process” (p. 89) based on inherit structures or meaning schemas that an
individual in a certain context or with certain histories can apply. There are assumptions about
individual contexts with Mezirow’s (1978) work that need further clarification especially as it
relates to an individual’s history and cognitive abilities. Mezriow(1978) says “rational discourse
occurs when we set aside bias and prejudice and personal concerns to arrive at consensus”
(Mezirow, 1995, p. 53) Additionally if rational discourse can only happen in those
circumstances, it leaves out “divergent voices, human qualities and values” (1991, p. 82) of
specific human beings and communities.
Similarly, rational discourse and critical reflection requires a mature level of cognitive
functioning. Therefore, Merriam (2004) wonders “is a rather high level of cognitive functioning
a prerequisite for transformational learning” (Merriam, 2004, p. 61). TL theory is predicated on
critical reflection and rational discourse. Adult learners come into an educational environment
with all kinds of cognitive and educational backgrounds. They may not be able to participate in
rational discourse at a high level for a variety of reasons, like “maturity, education deficits,
safety, health, economic security or lacking emotional intelligence” (Merriam (2004), 2004, p.
65). Merriam (2004) feels there should be more study in this area to expand TL theory to include
more “connected, affective and intuitive dimensions” (p. 67). Moreover, even with cognitive
challenges adults experiencing a disorienting dilemma (Mezirow, 1978) like unemployment will
experience transformation in some manner. In addition, Merriam (2004) has the same concerns

as Clark (1991) and Wilson (1991) when she does not see the likelihood of having “ideal
conditions” for rational discourse. Factors such as not having the right information, all the
information, free from self-deception, having an equal opportunity to participate and a myriad of
emotional factors (Merriam, 2004, pp. 62-63) are “never fully realized in practice” (Mezirow,
2000, p. 14).” Having worked with many different adult learners in a variety of settings, the
researcher knows it takes more than the ability to have a rational argument at a high level of
cognition to bring about change. This is where habits of mind come into play and adults succeed
because they have certain characteristics beyond the rational or cognitive. No classroom
environment is indicative of “ideal conditions which is another reason why criticism have
validity toward this thesis. Furthermore, Taylor (2012) acknowledges that there is no
understanding of affective elements in TL theory with a complete “lack of attention to racial,
political factors that affect individuals differently” (Taylor, & Snyder, 2012, pp. 37-55). Taylor
and Snyder’s suggest to further TL theory by doing more field work and deep research, with a
variety of primary sources because that is where theory comes from, and how we can learn best
(2012, p. 48).
The classroom is a traditional source for primary research and educators know learning is
not done in an individual vacuum. So scholars like Chin, (2006) Nohl (2009) and Scott (2003)
after their research wonder why the social nature of learning is largely ignored in Mezirow’s
(1978) TL theory. Chin (2006) believes there is significance in relationships while Nohl (2009)
introduces the concept of social recognition (2009) he witnessed as a major component of TL.
Moreover, Scott (2003) observes “transformative learning is at the intersections between the
personal and the social, whereas a transformation is a reciprocal process” (Scott, 2003). Certain
questions arise such as, is transformation as much a product of individual change as of group

acceptance of change? And will learners experience transformation if there is no social support
or recognition” (Taylor, & Snyder, 2012, p. 49)? The social connection has significance in this
study because adult learners respond to group interaction and study groups as effective
classroom methods and environments.
In addition, to social support from one’s peers, there is support of faculty and staff that
must be considered. The differences between faculty support and peer support lies in the concept
of power. Adult learners do not necessarily feel that they are on the same footing as the teacher
and yet they know how they like to learn. Younger adult learners simply do not have as much
worldly experience to compare with older adults but there is a hierarchy in the classroom
environment. Pietrykowski (1996) points out that Mezirow (1978) does not pay enough attention
to the “pervasive role of power in adult learning processes and TL should seek to understand the
deep structures of power that govern our lives” (Pietrykowski, 1996, p. 94). Communication for
rational discourse or critical reflection must be an atmosphere that supports the freedom to learn.
Mezirow (1978) elected to in cooperate Habermas (1971) ideal speech situation which is creating
emancipated learners engaged in communication free of distortions. (1996, p. 94) But like many
of the critical claims cited, it is short cited to think that these conditions can be created when
there are other salient variables. “Power structures especially, real or perceived, are the most
corruptive and distorting of all the epistemic, sociocultural and psychic biases” (Kitchenbam,
2008, p. 108).
Taylor (2012) has studied TL Theory extensively and his criticisms are also looking to
the future of the TL research. Taylor (2012) hopes that research will take on new dimensions that
get away from the original TPTL, rational discourse and critical reflection as Mezirow (1978)
describes it (Mezirow, 2009). A call for more understanding of non-rational TL, study in

different environments and contexts, understanding the aspects of relationships and how they
affect TL. Peers, teachers, counselors and families at home all have some effect on an
individual’s TL and yet the research has not given us many answers to those questions. (Taylor,
& Snyder, 2012, pp. 47-48). Also, cultural influences which affect TL were not considered in
this study and is an area for further development both in understanding it from the learner point
of view and how staff respond to multiculturalism and TL. Ukpokodu (2009) worked with
educators to “foster transformative learning in a multicultural education.” (p. 1) and the need was
clear. This study was not structured around the student’s ethnicity or culture and the researcher
wonders what impact that may have. While TL theory is not as expanded at Taylor (2012) hoped,
other educational theorists such as Freire (1970), and Clark (2012) have adapted TL Theory to
embody different elements such as political, and non-cognitive.
Variations in a Theory
Mezirow (1978) was not the only educational research to explore TL in the 1970’s and
80’s. Freire (1970) influenced our understanding of Transformational Learning theory.
Researchers such as Freire (1970), furthered their understanding of Mezirow’s (1978) basic
premise of critical reflection to evolve into consciences–raising forms of transformational
learning theory. While there are a variety of new perspectives on TL, this literature review can
only focus on a few, and it is important to mention Clark’s(2012) narrative focus as non-
cognitive knowing(Clark, 2012) in TL Theory because her definition in the introduction
resonates with the author. Newer variations and perspectives will also be disused in the literature
review to establish more recent research but let’s start with the main variations that spring
boarded from Mezirow’s(1978) original study.

Paulo Freire worked in South America in the 1970’s. His work influences Mezirows’
(1970) work. Freire’s (1970) work introduces the idea of adult learners developing a critical
perspective but with one major difference. Freire’s (1970) work is rooted in literacy–based adult
education and a focus on supporting social change with “freedom from oppression” and
developing critical consciousness (Dirkx, 1998, p. 3). His work in the United States with
community based organizations such as The Highlander School is the basis for social-
educational movements to bring about the type of transformational learning needed in
community- based school and adult education centers from around the country. Emancipatory
learner is a key goal for Freire and Mezirow. (Pietrykowski, 1996) However, Freire’s (1970)
definition of TL asks for more than Mezirow’s original definition of TL which is
“Transformative Learning is the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or
revised interpretation of the meaning of one’s experience in order to guide future action"
(Mezirow, 1978). Freire’s (1970) process of critical consciousness similar to critical reflection is
a process to include one’s self and outside ones’ self. “Critical consciousness refers to a process
in which learners develop the ability to analyze and pose questions, “take action in the social
political cultural and economic context that influence, and shape their lives” (Dirkx, 1998, p. 3).
Freire (1970) “saw the teacher as a facilitator of the group learning process and the teacher and
student relationship were horizontal” (Mezirow & Taylor, et al 2009, p. 245). Teaching adults in
transition especially mature adults involves an understanding of classroom dynamics, and just as
Pietrykowsi (1996) said, the notion of power is crucial to recognize (p.94). Freire (1970)
considered the social context in his research and application.
Clark (2012) internalizes TL. Her explanation of Transformational Learning lays out a
description in sync with the adult learner’s paradigm when they are faced with job loss.

which affects the learner's subsequent experiences. (Clark, 1993)
It also describes more than the cognitive rational focus Mezirow (1978) had theorized
about and expanded on over years of study. Her focus is on the “embodied narrative of
transformation” (Taylor, 2012, p. 435) where as the “disorienting dilemma” begins a process of
change that cannot be explained but a person is different afterwards in ways they and others can
recognize” (Clark M., 1993, p. 47). As part of a story or narrative, one can develop different
meaning schemas stemming out of a single event and the life-altering event resounds in ways
that unexplainable. Clark points out at “different points in one’s life, one realizes that a “certain
story is meant to be lived out” (p. 436). For example, as one ages one knows the possibility of
more serious illness is greater and afflictions like arthritis can take their toll after a certain age,
but one learns to live with it and redefine one’s narrative; in essence, it transforms our meaning
schema to accommodate the issue or to challenge the issue with a new perspective. The
researcher sees the story of unemployment and career transition as an embodied narrative that
proposes perspective changes in surface ways and under the surface as well. TL is more than the
cognitive and the rational; it has deeper dimensions for adult learners and implications of adult
learning theory development.
Correspondingly, Rachel (2002) proposes that “TL theory is the new andragogy”
applying a theory of, what is learning? Which is different” than Knowles (1986) framework of
“how to teach adults not what is happening in their learning” (Rachel, 2002). Transformational

Learning Theory is transforming adult education theory both with the exponential growth of the
theory and emerging perspectives. It takes,
“The basic premise of andragogy to new levels. It recognizes adult complexities
influenced by the individual affective personality, their surroundings, cognition,
relationships and even spiritual dimensions to probe at a better understanding of
how to teach adult learners (Rachal, 2002).
Therefore, in the spirit of progressive education (Dewey, 1916) and recognizing the need
to advance the human condition while mitigating the tension between individual versus
societal change, TL theory may be the new andragogy. If it continues to expand our
thinking about adult learning. Taylor hopes its evolution will bring a more unified theory
(2012, p. 17) that helps educators and professional apply Theory to their practice in the
tradition adult education theory has tried to do. The evolution of TL as it applies to this
research is also more than a guide to teaching adults but what factors and characteristics
of their career transition experience effect teaching adult learners effectively.
Adult Education Theory Basis and Characteristics of Adult Learners
In this section, we briefly cover the beginnings of adult education theory development
while focusing on adult learner characteristics and needs which include, readiness to learn, goal
oriented and clarity of purpose. Adult education theory or andragogy is the mother of all adult
education theories and the springboard for which TL and other adult learning theories have
evolved out of an effort to help educators gain more understanding of the way adults learn as
opposed to children. Malcolm Knowles (1986), American educator associated with the post-
World War II progressive or popular education movement, used the term andragogy to describe
the process of adult learning. He is credited with recognizing that adults learn differently from

children; popularizing the first notion of andragogy, study of adult learning (Smith, 2002, p. 4)
Knowles acknowledges adult learning is different because of the role of self–direction, which is
an element of motivation for adults and is a key to adult learner progress (p.6). Characteristics of
adult learning include self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and
motivation to learn” (p. 7). Readiness to learn is part of TPTL, implied in Phase 5 with an
exploration of options for new roles, relationship s and actions. When adult learners see
themselves as students, they are more likely persistent and adult education theory research
supports this concept which is important to this research.
Additionally, one of the basic tenets of adult learning theory is that adults tend to be goal-
oriented (Knowles, 1975), seeking to use their learning to achieve specific outcomes. Based off
this idea, Comings, Parrella and Soricone (1999) studies adults over a period of time and those
adult learners who were able to clearly identify their learning goals were much more likely to
persist than those who either mentioned no specific purpose or simply said that they were
learning for themselves (Comings, Parrella, and Soricone, 1999). Kallenbach (2009) and Nash
(2009) say:
Where clarity and transparency are lacking, students are often confused about the
purpose of instruction, and how it supports their academic goals.” ‘Clarity of
Purpose’, needs to connect to the curriculum and ongoing counseling in order for
the program to meet the test of relevance in the learners’ eyes (Nash, 2009, p. 68).
So much adult educational theory has been built off the very concepts Knowles (1986)
laid out especially the characteristics of adult learners. This serves as a foundation for theory
development and practice. Adult educators seek the answer to the question how to help adult
learners be successful and more importantly how to help them develop into transformed thinkers

(Mezirow, 2009). “Clarity of purpose, needs to connect to the curriculum and ongoing
counseling in order for the program to meet the test of relevance to the learners” (Nash, 2009, p.
68).This becomes important when we look at why adults may not succeed. Adult Learning
theory goes hand-in-hand with adult learner development theory especially in the circumstances
of adults in career transitions, the basis of this study.
Adult Learner Development Theory
At that time of the initial study, Mezirow (1978) did not link his research to recognized
adult learner development research of the time. In fact, he did not want the “metaphor of
psychological developmental stages to be super imposed on his learner characteristics or
designations” (Taylor, 2006). However, there are a plethora of adult learner development
theories, which overlap, codify and contradict TPTL. There are too many to go into significant
detail about but many involving stages and phases of adult learner development that are
reminiscent of the stages and phases adult education theory particularly TL theory have. Adult
Transition Theory and constructivist development theory are covered in this literature review
because of their applicability to the adult learners in career transition.
Adult transition development theory is the most relevant adult learner development
theory linked to adults in career transition. The process, described by Schlossberg’s (1984)
transition theory is” one of reaction over time, moving in, moving through and moving out of the
transition” (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, Renn, 2010, p. 218). Counseling Adults in Transitions
is the work of Schlossberg (1984), Anderson (1984) and Goodman (1984). Their theory is an
integrative theory useful in combination with a deeper understanding of cognitive and
psychosocial theories. Schlossberg believed,” a need to develop a framework that would
facilitate an understanding of adults in transition and aid them in connecting to the help they

needed to cope with the ordinary and extraordinary process of living “ (Anderson, Goodman,
Schlossberg, 1984, p. vii). Her stages are defined by what is the transition, “an event or
nonevent; did something happen or did something that was supposed to happen not happen”
(Anderson et al, 1984) Meaning is based on the type of transition, the context and the impact.
The theory explains the “process of reaction, dealing with, moving in and out of the transition as
it relates to the ability of one to cope with it which is based on their assets and liabilities”
(Anderson et al, 2006). The variables of, what is the situation, personal and demographical self-
characteristics and psychological resources affect the transition as well as support systems and
inherent strategies in place. The context of those decisions and “the discrete or concurrent stages
of moral, psychosocial and cognitive development determine their transition process” (Anderson
et al, 1984). The “process of reaction over time” (Evans et al., 2010), is very applicable to adult
learning in a career transition. It is interesting that the movement is almost a metaphor for the
unemployed workers from the beginning of the process of unemployment, through retraining and
hopeful on to reemployment. Assets and liabilities of adult learner characteristics will have
influence on how adults will handle career transition.
Anderson et al (2006) research focuses on adults in transition and saliency and self-
efficacy are major components of adult career transition. (Anderson, 2006, pp. 154-155,160).
Because adults have multiple roles of worker, parent, wife, daughter citizen etc., each role has a
level of importance, a ranking or order. “Saliency is the level of importance one role may be to a
person” (Anderson et al, 2006, p. 155). Self-efficacy, the belief that one’s actions will have
impact on one’s environment (Anderson, 2006, p. 160), plays a major role in the success of an
adult learner. Schlossberg (1984) and her colleagues cite self-efficacy work of Bandura (1996)
and Barbaranelli (1996):

Our self-efficacy defines us because our beliefs influence our goals and
commitment to those goals. Research indicates that a high or low level of self-
efficacy influences motivation, perseverance in the face of challenges, successes
and failures and how one copes with stress and depression. (Bandura, 1996, p.
1206).
The role of self-efficacy, self-esteem and salience are aspects of adult attributes that have
significance on how adults succeed or fail. Adults who possess these attributes have assets and
not liabilities. Saliency and self-esteem are evaluated in career counseling theory and application
to adults in career transition, which is covered in the next section. Adult learner development
theory practiced in tandem with educational practice supports the ways adults participated in
their own learning while constructing their own meaning in and out of the classroom. The aim is
holistic, learner-centered and hopefully transformational.
The second adult learner developmental theory that influences this study is constructivist
development theory. Developmental psychologist Robert Kegan (1994) took Piget’s (1937)
constructivist stages of child development into adult practice with his constructivist development
theory through what he describes as orders of consciousness. (Kegan, 1994) He describes orders
or levels of cognitive ability constructed through developing meaning. Adults can progress
through these levels with bridges (Kegan, 1994). As he said, “Bridges can be constructed to help
adult learners toward the gradual accomplishment of higher level reasoning overtime” (Kegan,
1994).Transformation is not about adding more information to someone’s brain but changing the
vessel (Traylor, 2010) that holds the information. One “changes one’s vessel” while constructing
meaning which then necessitates the need to change the level, thus permeating a higher level of

consciousness. Kegan (1994) says, this is when true transformation for the adults, within one’s
own context, occurs.
Criticisms of TL theory have pointed out that Mezirow (1978) did not consider the
surrounding biographical context and relationships of the individual. His presentation is that
perspective transformation is personal (Kitchenham, 2012). In his work, Kegan(1994) analyzed
adult learners going back to school and those adults who experienced transformation experienced
it in all areas of their lives so transformation not only bridges orders of consciousness in the
classroom, but in a persons’ life. He says:
What makes school transformational for adults is that it creates a bridging
environment, but it does not only in the intentionally fabricated, temporary and
“rented” world of school itself: it also reaches into the preexisting, ongoing real
world of the adult learner’s relational field and seeks to make it a part of the
bridging environment. (Kegan, 1994, p. 294)
Family and friends are drawn into the process of transformation and in turn, their support
is essential to the success of adult learners. Conversely, unemployed adults gaining skills and
employment have a tremendous impact on relationships as they stand to benefit from this type of
progress. Kegan(1994)’s constructivist developmental approach to adult development and
learning resonates with this researcher in that it has provided some answers to understanding the
situation of the “whole” adult learner. An important dimension of transformational learning is a
holistic learner-centered approach to instruction. Kegan(1994) says, “Developmentally conscious
educators will not only teach in ways that expect and reward adult learners’ capacities to
demonstrate higher stage ways of thinking and acting but will also find ways of meeting adult
learners at their level” (Kegan., 1994, p. 178). Therefore, Kegan (1994)’s ideas add substance to

the research, suggesting a process and strategy to address learners where they are, whether it is
his orders of consciousness or Mezirow’s (1978) TPTL.
Another interesting aspect of Kegan(1994)’s work is his understanding of the changing
societal and cultural context, and the need for higher-level critical thinking skills or transformed
learning as Mezirow(1978) said, is imminent. Kegan (1994) predicted, “The information
highway we plan for the next century may geometrically increase the amount of information, the
ways it can be sent, and the number of its recipients” (Kegan, 1994, p. 5). Given our need to
synthesize all of the information, the researcher wonders how it will affect our ability to
negotiate the challenges adult learners in transition are already facing and what transformational
learning strategies are therefore needed. Adults now change jobs more than ever before, so what
we can learn from those who help adults transition from unemployment to employment.
Learning theory and developmental theory reinforce the concept that holistic support for learners
and learner-centered education are critical to adult success.
Career Development Theory
Adult learner development theories such as those already mentioned enable us to
understand the adult learner experience in a career transition or a disorienting dilemma in a
clinical or educational context. Counselors’ knowledge of self-efficacy, transitioning and
bridging led the investigator to uncover a completely underutilized disciple in education, that of
Career Development Theory. Therefore, to round out the literature review, exploration of
transition phases, career stages, career maturity and career adaptability are essential. The theories
and practices used by vocational and career counselors as well as human resources and
management professionals, especially in the situation of job loss, are important to recognize
within educational contexts.

Especially in recent years, adults are reinventing their work selves to fulfill a multitude of
positions within a lifetime, because Americans no longer work for the same employer for thirty
years or more years. According to the US Department of Labor, “baby boomers held an average
of 11 jobs in a lifetime with half of those jobs between the ages of 18-25. It is projected
millennials will hold more than 20 jobs across the span of their working years 18-65” (2014).
After 2008, older adults also find themselves changing careers defined as a mid-life career
change. Aptly, midlife career changes describes the adult learners in this thesis study. Walker
(2000) counsels adults in mid-life and suggests that there are strategies adults can use to become
employed in a new career.
The key is to understanding the phenomenon of transitions and one’s own nature.
Transition is divided into three phases: beginning, middle and end... Adults
respond differently in those phases based on their own biases. Understanding
these natural bias not only helps with the career transition but also helps people
make the right career choices. (Walker, 2000, pp. 16-19)
The transitions phases are described in terms of a persons’ preference for one stage over
the other. “Beginnings people thrive on planning and organizing and they love starting projects
and often handle career transition well.” (Walker, 2000, p. 16). “Middles people thrive on
stability, security and routine” (p. 16).They are often considered the backbone of the company
and they carry out orders not usually initiating new ideas. “They have a hard time with career
transition” (p. 16). Finally, ending people like closure. “They never lose sight of a goal and can
be counted on to get the job done and transition is a minor bump in the road when there is more
work to be done” (p. 17). While these are generalizations and individuals can possess traits from
all three categories, it is interesting to look at this self-reflective activity as a counseling strategy

with to deal with adults in a mid-life career change. It can also be a way for learners to evaluate
how they approach the commitment of education for a career. Walker (2000) also points out that
age is an asset when evaluating oneself, because one has a long work history to assess areas of
strength and weakness. (p. 18)
Trained counselors have a special lens through which they view the adult in a career
related disorienting dilemma. Super (1983) is the preeminent psychologist and researcher in the
area of career stages, career maturity and adaptability. “Career Maturity has been defined as the
individual’s ability to make appropriate career choices, including awareness of what is required
to make career decisions and the degree to which one’s choices are both realistic and consistent
over time. “(Crites, 1978). Super (1983) helps teens and adults in career guidance stating that;
An effective career development model brings out the fact that readiness for
vocational and related career decision making requires 1) a sense of autonomy,
time or future perspective, and self-esteem, 2) a commitment to work or to self-
actualizing career in terms of work salience. (Super, 1983, p. 567)
Using a Developmental Assessment Model (Super, 1983, p. 559) he explores and tests career
maturity and career adaptability, which is especially appropriate for adults in career transition.
There are five components of career maturity, “plan fullness, exploration, information about
work norms and occupations, decision-making and reality orientation” (Super, 1983, p. 557).
Two important factors that have been mentioned are work salience and self-esteem related to
self-efficacy. In the plan fullness component, self –esteem is evaluated. High self-esteem
indicates one has faith in one’s abilities to develop a career plan, using the skills they have and/or
through the capability of learning to move forward in a career. Work salience or work readiness
is necessary to be able to make decisions, component four of career maturity. Super (1983) and

Nevill (1984) found “work salience was perhaps the important determinate in career
adaptability” (1984, p. 200). Adult learners who consider work salient, one of their major roles,
are more likely to be successful and adaptable. The concept of salience transcends adult learner
development theory and career development theory, which is important in our application of
theory to adults in career transition who have recently become involuntarily unemployed. In
considering, “factors and characteristics which imped or facilitate transformational learning”
(Mezirow, 1978), career adaptability is a factor to consider especially for assessing counseling
used in the research.
Career counselors help adults reinvent themselves by assessing career maturity and career
stages. The seven stages of one’s career are exploration, personnel assessing, analysis, decision–
making, and planning, implementation or development and life and work management. (Dubois,
2000, p. 47) Maturity components are different because it is an assessment of one’s abilities.
Stages are about the process of defining one’s career path, path development, and how to
negotiate one’s life in and out of the path. (p. 45) Career adaptability is implicit in all the stages
but especially in the decision–making stage.
Career adaptably is a central theme in the studies of Ebberwein (2004), Krieshok (2004),
Ulven (2004) and Prosser (2004). Referred through the OSCC, Ebberwein (2004) et al surveyed,
forty-eight (48) Midwestern laid-off workers to determine how adults handle career transition
(2004). Results showed three themes, “adaptive responses, contextual challenges and insights
into transition” (Ebberwein et al, 2004, p. 297). All the respondents indicated they had anger,
depression, denial and a host of emotional reactions similar to the “stages of grief” (Kübler-Ross,
1969) and implied in the TPTL especially phases 2-4. However, all those that were adaptable had
hope as well. Another aspect of adaptability is to have a healthy sense of urgency, but the

patience to be plan full thus envisioning one’s self s in a new career (Ebberwein, 2004, pp. 297-
298). Career Mature respondents set realistic goals and plan the steps to achieve career changes.
Sixty seven percent (67%) of the respondents to their survey indicated it was very important to
gain more education or learn new skills. Several participants reported their skills were outdated
and they understood the rapidly changing needs of the work force (p. 304) Education was part of
their plan.
Contextual challenges of the participants relate to a lack of financial resources, family life
and interaction with the employer in the process of termination. Those that were adaptable were
able to handle the transition better especially if they had buffers in place like another person
contributing to the household, supportive relationships and good communication with the
employer. Ebberwein (2004) et al found that respondents appreciated when the employer
communicated effectively and frequently and that they offered career counseling and outpatient’s
service (p. 301). Additionally, they felt counselors need to have a holistic approach to career
counseling to best help workers. One respondent said, “People don’t understand that in career
transition, it is the whole person. It is the family, the friends, social and employment”
(Ebberwein, et al, 2004, p. 302). Ebberwein et al’s research is significant to this research
because it deals with the same population, and an exploration of other similar research helps us
to determine if some of the main points like good employer communication are relevant. It
represents a nexus of theory and application.
Additionally, adults in career transitions are going through multiple “metaphases” within
the phases of being laid off often to include a period of adjustment like pre termination. Job loss
is like any loss it requires adjustment and strategies for coping. Davis (2009) says,

For many people today, there are two major phases of job loss. The first one is
relatively new, and although it can be helpful, it brings new problems, too. I call it
the "pre-termination" phase. In past years, it was common for firings to be swift
and merciless, but more and more companies are now providing a transition
period. This is the period beginning with advance notification of job termination
and ending with the actual job loss. It can last from a few weeks to several
months. It often involves job retraining and outplacement services, which are
provided by the company (Davis, 2009)
Adults in Ebberwein(2003) et al study found transition services along with
straightforward, clear communication from the employer within a period prior to the last day of
work, to be helpful and important to their ability to handle job loss. One of the reasons for pre
terminations is the a result of the Warn Act of 1988 which will be discussed later in the chapter,
but essentially it mandates employers give notification 60 days before laying off more than 50
workers (US Department of Labor, 1988). All of the workers in this thesis research were
provided advanced notice due to the WARN Act.
Some participants of the study indicated, “They saw the lay off as an opportunity and
they hoped to develop a new career”. Schlosberg (2006) says, “Often when counselors counsel
adults in transition, one of the first tasks for the counselor is to uncover hope or to help create or
instill hope. When people have hope, they realize that their situation can change” (p. 110).
Optimism also signals a person who has the ability to change his life through his own efforts,
displaying self-efficacy, and adaptability.
Career Development concepts such as transition phases, career phases, career maturity
and career adaptability are taken into consideration as part of the research, but also for utilization

in counseling and educational practices. These disciplines seem to be practiced in isolation when
they can be shared to improve human development in any context. Consequently using all these
theories to create a new perspective in educational theory amidst the changing landscape of
workers lives and career transitions, could be helpful to education and career professionals who
prepare workers for the challenges they face in a new paradigm.
Great Recession of 2008 and Workforce Policy Changes
Fast forward to 2015, this study responds to the movement of more adults into career
transition after the financial crisis of 2008. This period in time is without a doubt the most
financially unstable for Americans since the great depression. In the week of Oct 3, 2014 a CBS
news poll reported thirty four percent (34%)of voters thought the economy still ranks as the most
important issue for Americans when deciding who to cast their votes for in November” (CBS
Polling Report Inc., 2014), and government officials and politicians are falling all over
themselves to find the answer.
The majority of the literature review covered theory that may be relevant to actual
circumstance and so to understand the relationship of workforce to education and provide a
context for understanding adult learners in career transition services, this section lays out policy,
legislation, workforce report findings and accountability. Historically, workforce needs and
educational implications have always had a relationship. The Higher Education Act (HEA) of
1965 and The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) of 1998 laid out parameters for post-secondary
school education. In 2010, Gainful Employment rules amend the HEA Act to include more
accountability for loan making at post-secondary institutions. The rule states:
In order to receive federal adult learner aid, the law requires that most for-profit
programs, regardless of credential level, and most non-degree programs at non-

profit and public institutions, including community colleges, prepare adult
learners for gainful employment in a recognized occupation. These regulations set
the standards for gainful employment programs to remain eligible to accept
federal adult learner aid grants and loans (US Department of Education, 2013).
A summary of WIA is broken up into to five titles in areas pertaining to education and
workforce agencies. Title I authorizes the new Workforce Investment System that funds OSCC.
Title II reauthorizes Adult Education, literacy programs and “Title III amends the Wagner-
Peyser Act to require employment service/job service activities become part of the "One-Stop"
system (OSCC) and establishes a national employment statistics initiative” (US Department of
Labor, Employment and Training Administration, 2014). Finally, Title IV reauthorizes the
Rehabilitation Act program for special populations (disabled, Native Americans etc.) and Title V
contains general provisions to include authority for state unified plans relating to several
workforce development programs, state incentive grants such as the Perkins Vocational
Education Act. In July 2014, WIA was amended to include performance-based funding and
accountability under the Workforce Investment and Opportunity Act (WIOA). The rule changes
will affect adult learner’s ability to receive training and education in periods of unemployment
and higher education will be more accountable to tax payers. It remains to be seen the impact of
the new law, but policy makers are looking to educators for workforce solutions.
Other employment services for adults in career transitions under WIA for OSCC pertain
to operations, guidance and funding under the US Employment and Training Administration
(ETA), part of Department of Labor. OSCC’s work cooperatively with employers and
educational institutions to support unemployed workers or any adult in career transition under
legislation enforced under ETA. One example of this legislation is the WARN (Worker

Adjustment and Retraining Notification) Act of 1988 also help protect workers with advance
notice the opportunity to get advanced warning and career counseling services through OSCC.
WARN Act:
Offers protection to workers, their families and communities by requiring
employers to provide notice 60 days in advance of covered plant closings and
covered mass layoffs. This notice must be provided to either affected workers or
their representatives (e.g., a labor union); to the State dislocated worker unit; and
to the appropriate unit of local government." (US Department of Labor,
Employment and Training Administration, 2014)
In a planned process the OSCC works with the employer laying off workers to assist in
occupational counseling guidance and other support while they negotiate with a local educational
institution for future training opportunities for the laid off workers. The One Stop Career Center
(OSCC) part of the workforce system is typically the gateway that leads adult learners in career
transition to the community college. As described in chapter one, they support adult learners
through the post-employment phase to the job placement phases, which includes co-managing
the adult learners while they are in school at the community college.
The intersection of post Great Recession unemployment, workforce policy and legislation
along with regional employment statistics relates to the adult learners in this study because it
directly effects their circumstances and prospective educational journey. According to the
National Association of Workforce Boards the number of American adults in career transition
accessing training WIA (Workforce Investment Act) services through One Stop Career Centers
increased by 234% between 2008 and 2011 (National Association of Workforce Boards, 2011).
For the south coast of Massachusetts and RI the notable increase is comparable serving over

17,000 clients and “exceeding their planned service level by 37% in one year. “ (Massachusetts
Workforce Board Association, 2011, p. 7) Additionally data from Farber’s 2011 research,
Showed a record high rate of job loss, with almost one in six workers reporting
having lost a job in the 2007-2009 period. The consequences of job loss are also
very serious during this period with very low rates of reemployment, difficulty
finding full-time employment, and substantial earnings losses. (Farber, 2011, p.
abstract)
Even in other countries, researchers study the effects of a global recession to determine
the aftermath of a severe period of unemployment. Romanian researchers Bordea (2014) and
Pellegrini (2014) in their 2014 research explore the relationship between unemployment, stress,
anxiety and depressions only to determine there is a direct correlation. (p. 398). They also found
that adults with less education experienced more anxiety and depressions than those with higher
levels of education (p. 407).
This study explores whether or not OSCC clients and other unemployed adult learners
experienced perspective transformation and transformational learning at Bristol Community
College and if so what factors, characteristics or environment contributed to transformation for
adults in career transition. The effectiveness or ineffectiveness of collaboration between
community colleges and OSCC’s to support adult learners provides the framework for a larger
discussion of policy and pedagogy for American community colleges. The discussion continues
with a look at more recent initiatives from the Obama administration.
Community Colleges and TAACCCT
In 2009, the President’s Council of Economic Advisers report on, “Preparing the Workers
of Today for the Jobs of Tomorrow.” Critical to the report’s findings and suggested actions is the

Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015

Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked

Viewers also liked (18)

Similar to Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015

Similar to Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015 (20)

Exploration of Transformational Learning Experiences of Adult Community College Learners in Career Transition KMcKenna 2015