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Running Header: THE FACE OF THE MESSAGE
The Face of the Message: How Emoticons Change the Way we Communicate
Kaitlin Muccino, Jacey Hunter, and Ty Quillon
University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown
Abstract

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In an increasingly technologically dependent world, computer-mediated communication
(CMC) is often utilized for interactions. While CMC is convenient and efficient, it lacks face-to-
face interaction between users; thus potentially making message meanings difficult to perceive.
With an increased usage of CMC in today’s society, indicators of emotions have a large
importance for these interactions. Emotion icons, also known as emoticons, fill the face-to-face
interaction void and allow users to gain a sense of understanding that would normally
accompany social interactions done in a face-to-face encounter. Using the framework of speech
act and politeness theory, the study explores emoticons’ influence on CMC. The purpose of this
study is to examine the relationship between the placement of emoticons within a text message
and the effect it has on an individual’s understanding of the true meaning of the message.
Introduction

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Throughout the years, it is becoming ever clearer that text messaging and other forms of
computer mediated communication are becoming more popular with the current generations.
Since text messaging and other online forms of communication do not convey verbal cues such
as facial expressions, gestures and other non-verbal cues, like face to face communication does,
individuals have found a way to combat this with the creation of what we call today
“emoticons.” SMS, or as we know it today, text messaging, was developed in 1984 by a Finnish
engineer but was not actually tested until 1992 by a man named Neil Papworth (Emily, 2012).
The first SMS, short message service was sent in December 1992 from a personal
computer to a cellular device (Mobile Pronto, 2010). Emoticons were created even before text
messaging was made popular. According to Krohn (2004), emoticons were originally created by
Scott E. Fahlman in 1982. He achieved this by posting a “smiley face” on a bulletin board
system on Carnegie Mellon University (Krohn, 2004).
Many studies focusing on emoticons through computer-mediated communication have
been conducted (Krohn, 2004; Dresner & Herrings, 2010; Rezabek, Conchenour, 1998). Much
of the research has focused on mediums such as email and instant messaging but lacks a focus on
text messaging. Results of these types of studies have found effects of emoticons on different
generations, as only textual meaning instead of emotional meaning, and what frequency and
variety as well as users of emoticons have on society and interactive textual communication
(Krohn, 2004; Dresner & Herring, 2010; Rezabek & Cochenour, 1998).
In today society, technological communication is becoming an increasingly viable source
of interpersonal interaction. The use of social media, texting and instant messaging is quickly
surpassing face-to-face exchanges. Without this face to face interaction in communication
between individuals, the message can be misconstrued, leaving the true intent of the message

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unknown. The integration of emoticons through texting has been created in order to assist in
avoiding these misunderstandings. These sources of facial cues work in tandem with this new
digital age. If used effectively, emoticons can enhance the message at hand by providing a form
of nonverbal feedback.
This research will examine the use of emoticons and the possible effects on an
individual’s perception, and how placement of the emoticons in a message itself affect an
individual's understanding of the true meaning of a message.
Literature Review
Emoticons
Emoticons are “[…] textual representations of facial expressions conveying the writer's
emotional state, such as happy, angry, and sad” (Park, Baek, Cha, 2014, p. 337). When used in
tandem with text based messages, it provides context clues for the receiver of the message, in
order to understand the subtle subtext of the intended message received. The utilization of
Emoticons can “[…] supplement the lack of nonverbal cues in text-based CMC […]” as well as
“[…] augment the relational meaning of messages” (Park, Baek, Cha, 2014, p. 334). By using
emoticons, the sender hopes to be able to send a clear and distinct message to the receiver of
what they are actually trying to say. This can vary from culture to culture, and also on the type of
emoticon that an individual uses.
Park, Beak, and Cha (2014) uncover some interesting developments with how vertical
and horizontal emoticons are used in different countries, with Twitter being the medium at which
it is used. They found that “[…] horizontal emoticons are favored in countries with
individualistic cultures while vertical emoticons are favored in countries with collectivistic
cultures” (Park, Baek, Cha, 2014, p. 344). This show how different countries tend to focus on

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different part of the emoticons, whether it is the mouth with horizontal emoticons, or the eyes
with vertical emoticons. This helps understand emoticons even more, because it is a tool used in
several different countries, with several different styles associated with it.
Emoticons are also widely identifiable. Huber and Dindia (2009) found that “[…] 99% of
the participants reported having seen or used an emoticon when either sending or receiving an
instant message” (Huber, Dindia, 2009, p. 20). They also found that “[…] participants were in
overwhelming agreement on the meaning of graphic emoticons […]” (Huber, Dindia, 2009,p.
20). This shows that emoticons, in today’s society, are not only easily recognizable, but that they
are used to a great extent. While a major limitation from Huber and Dindia’s (2009) study is the
small sample size, it is arguable that emoticons are an integral part of Computer Mediated
Communication (CMC).
Emoticons fill in the gaps that CMC leaves a user, because there is “[…] a natural lack of
the paralinguistic due to spatial separation.” (Garrison, Ramely, Thomas, Wierszewski, 2011, p.
114). The use of Emoticons also varies between age groups, especially for those born before
computers even existed. Krohn (2004) discusses issues associated with the different generations,
their communication styles, and the need to adapt to the computer age. He expresses that the use
of emoticons are similar to people use of non-verbal communication only that emoticons seem to
be “intentional” uses of non-verbal communication (Krohn, 2004, p. 322). So the use of
emoticons provides an intentional cue to the message being sent, as to avoid any
misunderstanding or confusion.
Krohn (2004) also states that older generations are not as easily adapted to electronic
communication as the younger generations, describing it as “second nature” for Millennials, or
those who have been born after 1980, like the generation Xer’s (Krohn, 2004, p. 326). While

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emoticons are relatively new to “Traditionalists” and “Baby-Boomers”, it has become an integral
part of the lives of the younger generation (Krohn, 2004, p. 325-326). This shows that emoticons
are useful and timely, as they are used by a variety of individuals, allowing for completeness of
understanding, and an increase in effective CMC.
Emoticons, Texting, and Computer MediatedCommunication
Computer-mediated communication or as it might be seen in text, CMC, has rapidly been
integrating itself into the daily lives of individuals. Kindred and Roper (2004) describe this type
of communication as socioemotional and directed at group maintenance and interpersonal
relationships (Kindred, Roper, 2004). It is often used on platforms such as chat, instant
messaging (IM), email messages, text messages, bulletin board postings, and blogs (Dresner,
Herring, 2010),. Rezabek & Cochenour (1998) argue that “CMC can be much more involved
than mere sending and receiving of messages, CMC is commonly referred to as electronic mail
or e-mail” (p. 201). Because of the lack of face-to-face communication in today’s society, we
compensate by the use of what we call “emoticons.” An alternative study, also mentions that
CMC users often incorporate emoticons as visual cues to augment the meaning of textual
electronic messages (Rezabek, Conchenour, 1998). Researchers, Skovholt, Grønning, and
Kankaanranta (2014) mention in their study, “emoticons are perceived as providing support to
written communication, in the same way that visual and body language support face-to-face
communication” (p. 781)
Although emoticons in computer mediated communications such as texting, emailing,
instant messaging and much more are usually looked at in a positive light and are considered to
be beneficial, when it comes to the means of communicating, some argue that the emoticon
misrepresents a nonverbal function in interactive textual communication (Dresner & Herring,

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2010). Many would disagree that society is becoming more dependent on CMC and that it takes
away from the conventional face to face communication. Krohn (2004) alludes to this by saying
“CMC lacks the traditional nonverbal dimensions of human communication such as facial
expressions, gestures, body positions, personal distance, vocal variety, and eye contact”. (p. 322)
Despite the fact that there are two contrasting views on emoticons and computer
mediated communication, it is quite obvious that further research needs to be applied to this
subject. Rezabek and Cochenour (1998) examined the frequency, variety, and users primarily
involving emails sent through the listserv Globaled 93’, which is an email list management
software. More specifically, their study found that with frequency of emoticons, out of three-
hundred and forty-nine postings on the listserv, only eight contained emoticons and out of those
eight message, only one message contained two emoticons (Rezabek & Cochenour, 1998).
Rezabek and Cochenour (1998) also found that when examining variety, the most used emoticon
was the traditional “smiley face”. The final variable that the study looked at, users, showed that
five people at one of the universities examined, sent seventeen out of the fifty-one messages
containing one or two emoticons (Rezabek & Cochenour, 1998). Rezabek and Cochenour looked
at other listservs which included: the Association for Educational Communication and
Technology, SEMOIS-L (visual and verbal semiotics), Training and Development Discussions,
and USENET, a set of newsgroups that occurred before internet (Rezabek & Cochenour, 1998).
While Rezabek and Cochenour examined variety, frequency, and users, they did not look at
perceptions. A differing study done by researchers Dresner & Herring (2010), examined
emoticons used in public and private emails, public support forums, and chat rooms. According
to Dresner & Herring (2010), “factors such as user demographics, topic of discussion, and
communication setting (e.g., work, school, or recreation) also appear to influence emoticon use”

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(p. 261). Moreover, these same researchers found that women tend to use emoticons more than
men (Dresner & Herring, 2010). They conclude their study by saying:
[...]The account presented here suggests that emoticons that indicate pragmatic
illocutionary force are parts of text, on a par with, for example, punctuation marks. If
emoticons expand the definition of text, what about the facial expressions they mimic -
should they, too, be considered linguistic behavior? (p.264)
These studies and other studies examined have in common the focus on emoticons in the setting
of email, chat rooms but all fail to examine emoticons through text message, which is the focus
of the proposed study.
Speech Act Theory and Politeness Theory
The frameworks of speech act and politeness theory are analytical concepts of linguistics.
First presented by the English philosopher J. L. Austin (1962), the speech act theory stems from
the basic idea that a speaker is performing a social action when they choose to say something
(Skovholt, Gronning, & Kankaanranta, 2014). Austin (1962) examined the differences between
the two types of utterances, “constatives” and “performatives” (Skovholt et al. 2014). A key
observation made by Austin (1962) is in regards to the concomitant acts: locutionary,
illocutionary and perlocutionary (Dresner & Herrings, 2010). The locutionary act is the basic
production of a linguistic expression and refers to the determinate sense and reference of an
utterance (Dresner & Herrings, 2010; Skovholt et al. 2014). An illocutionary act is the intended
action performed through the production of the locution (Dresner & Herrings, 2010). The
perlocutionary act refers to the effect that it brought to the audience (Skovholt et al. 2014). Searle
(1969) further developed the theory, adding five categories of speech acts. These include
directives, expressives, representatives, commissives, and declarations (Skovholt et al. 2014).

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These illocutionary acts create the question of how a competent language user learns to
produce speech acts with a given force, and how they correctly ascribe the force to other
people's’ utterances (Dresner & Herrings, 2010). Dresner and Herrings (2010) state that we learn
these practices in the same way that we tend to learn other social conventions; and once
mastered, allows the justification of judgments with respect to these practices. With regards to
emotions, it becomes difficult to fully code all speech acts. While few moods are syntactically
encoded within language, there is no perfect fit between their use and the illocutionary force that
is typically associated (Dresner & Herrings, 2010). With the expansion of computer-mediated
communication, the use of illocutionary force associated with messages becomes increasingly
difficult to standardize (Dresner & Herrings, 2010).
According to the framework of the politeness theory, analyzing language coincides with
discovering how social relationships themselves are conducted (Skovholt et al. 2014). In order to
shape a fully universal model of how social relations are constructed linguistically, it is
important to take “face” into consideration and understand self-image when participating in
interactions (Skovholt et al. 2014). When considering face, there are two types of wants: to be
unimpeded, associated with negative face, and the want to be approved of, associated with a
positive face (Skovholt et al. 2014). Participants share a mutual interest in maintaining each
other’s face within social interactions. So the question now arises that with computer-mediation
communication, where does face fit into the interactions. Having shared “face” helps individuals
interpret messages. This is where the use of emotion icons or “emoticons” becomes important to
the world of computer-mediated communication. In accordance with the literature review, the
research question for this proposed study is:

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RQ: “For college students, what is the relationship between the placement of emoticons
within a text message and the effect it has on an individual’s understanding of the true meaning
of the message?”
Methodology
Sampling
The sample for this study is a convenience sample. The fifteen participants were
communication students selected from the communication department at the University of
Pittsburgh at Johnstown. The ages of the students ranged from eighteen to twenty-three.
Research Design
Researchers will put copies of the study at each seat before participants enter the room.
Participants will arrive and sit at the seat of their choosing. Each study will be labeled with a
random number. Participants will begin by answering eleven pre-test questions. After they have
completed this pre-test, participants will then move on to the actual study. This study consists of
twelve screenshots of text messages, three text messages pertaining to each emotion being tested.
These screenshots will be generated by the researchers. These screenshots include emoticons at
the end of the message. Along with the screenshot, students will also answer two open ended
questions and two likert-type questions pertaining to each message. Researchers are measuring
four emotions which include happy, sad, angry, and flirty. Participants will have approximately
thirty minutes to complete the questionnaire. Researchers will stay in the testing room with
participants. When they have completed their survey, they will then place it in a bin located at
the front of the room.
Discussion
Limitations

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With this type of research and study, there are many limitations to be encountered. The
first major limitation is that the participants are not actually experiencing the act of text
messaging, and experiencing the message as it happens, they are only answering questions about
screenshots of messages. A second limitation is that researchers did not establish the relationship
between sender and receiver. While testing certain emotions, researchers did not test for all
emoticons and did not test every emotion. A fourth limitation to be recognized is that not every
participant is used to using a smartphone and some may not even be used to using a cell phone in
general. A fifth limitation included in this study is that the text messages being shown to
participants only include emoticons at the end of the message.
Future research
While there are numerous limitations pertaining this study, they are limitations that can
be applied in future research. Since the study is a convenience sample, to make the study more
generalizable, students from multiple universities and even multiple age ranges could be
included and a larger amount of participants can also be tested. Furthering of this study can also
include the relationships of the sender and receiver. Since this study only focused on the
perception of the emoticon in the message, future research could include the measuring of other
variables which could include frequency and variety of emoticons. Furthermore, a major
limitation mentioned that could be utilized and applied in future research would be having
participants actually send the messages themselves and experience the message as its happening.
This aspect of the study could potentially change results and help participants understand the
context of the message.
Implications

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There are several implications in association with this study. One major implication that
is being conveyed, is that the emotions placed in a given text message will enhance the message
for the user. Through the use of an emoticons’, the user will be able to better understand the
specifics of the message, and secure a better mutual understanding between the user and the
sender. Another implication of this study is that the perception of the user will be influenced by
the emoticon in the given message. By placing an emoticon of specific emotional conveyance,
the user will be able to better decipher what is actually being said by the sender. CMC is by
nature vague and potentially confusing. This study has the potential to make vital steps towards
understanding the perception of users and senders, and better extend the communication
spectrum as a whole.
References
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Oxford University Press

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Dindia, K., & Huber, J. (2009). The influence of emoticons on message interpretation in instant
messages. Conference Papers -- National Communication Association, 1, 1-34
Dresner, E., & Herring, S. C. (2010). Functions of the nonverbal in cmc: Emoticons and
illocutionary force. Communication Theory, 20(3), 249-268.
Garrison, A., Remley, D., Thomas, P., & Wierszewski, E. (2011). Conventional faces:
Emoticons in instant messaging discourse. Computers & Composition, 28(2), 112-125.
Kindred, J., & Roper, S. L. (2004). Making connections via instant messenger (IM): Sudent use
of IM to maintain personal relationships. Qualitative Research Reports In
Communication, 5, 548-54.
Krohn, F. B. (2004). A generational approach to using emoticons as nonverbal communication.
Journal of Technical Writing & Communication, 34(4), 321-328.
Park, J., Baek, Y., & Cha, M. (2014). Cross-cultural comparison of nonverbal cues in emoticons
on twitter: Evidence from big data analysis. Journal of Communication, 64(2), 333-354.
Rezabek, L. L., & Cochenour, J. J. (1998). Visual cues in computer-mediated communication:
Supplementing text with emoticons. Journal of Visual Literacy,18(2), 201-215.
Searle, J. (1969). Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge, UK:
University Press.
Skovholt, K., Grønning, A., & Kankaanranta, A. (2014). The communicative functions of
emoticons in workplace E‐ Mails. Journal of Computer‐ Mediated Communication,
19(4), 780-797.
Textually.org: Happy bday! SMS txt msgs turn 20. (n.d.). textually.org: happy bday! SMS txt
msgs turn 20. Retrieved October 26, 2014, from textually.org/textually/archives/201

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The history of SMS text messaging. (n.d.). The history of SMS text messaging. Retrieved October
26, 2014, from http://www.mobilepronto.org/en-us/the-history-of-sms.html
Research Protocol
Principal Investigators: Kaitlin Muccino, Ty Quillon, Jacey Hunter
● When participants arrive, hand them two copies of the informed consent form.

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Script: Please read through this informed consent form and sign at the bottom. The second copy
is yours to keep. If you have any questions please feel free to ask at any time. If you would like
to discontinue your participation in this study, you may do so at any time.
● Participants will be handed randomly assigned numbers and be seated in the room.
● The study materials will already be placed at every seat
Script: Welcome, thank you for participating in this study. In front of you we have placed the
survey you will be asked to be complete. The survey contains text message screenshots involving
text and emoticons in hypothetical relationships. Emoticons are textual representations of facial
expressions conveying the writer's emotional state, such as happy, angry, and sad. Along with
these screenshots, we have also given you a questionnaire to complete. This questionnaire is
separated into three parts. In the first section you will be asked to circle the answer that best
corresponds to the questions provided. The second section will contain screenshots of messages
containing emoticons, and will ask you to respond to short answer questions regarding these
screenshots. Lastly you will be asked to circle the answer that best describes your overall
perceptions of the quality of the interaction of the message, and the competence of the sender.
There are no right or wrong answers.The survey should take approximately thirty minutes to
complete. Upon completion, please place the survey in the bin at the front of the room. If you
have any questions while taking the survey, do not hesitate to ask a researcher.
● At this point, we will stay with participants in the room to take the survey. When all
participants have left, all questionnaires will be collected from the bin.
University of Pittsburgh Johnstown
INFORMED CONSENT FORM for RESEARCH
Title of study: The Face of the Message: How Emoticons Change the Way we Communicate
Principal Investigator: Kaitlin Muccino, Ty Quillon, Jacey Hunter

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What are some general things you should know about this study?
You are being asked to participate in a research study. Your participation in this study is
voluntary. You have the right to be a part of this study, to choose not to participate or to stop
participating at any time without penalty. The purpose of this study is to gain a better
understanding of a certain topic or issue. You are not guaranteed any personal benefits from
being in this study. Research studies also may pose risks to those that participate. In this consent
form you will find specific details about the research in which you are being asked to participate.
If you do not understand something in this form it is your right to ask the researcher for
clarification or more information. A copy of this consent form will be provided to you. If at any
time you have questions about your participation, do not hesitate to contact the researchers
named above.
What is the purpose of this study?
The purpose of this study is to examine how people use emoticons in text messaging.
What will happen if you take part in this study?
If you agree to participate in this study, you will be assigned a participation number and given a
survey to complete, several questions associated with emoticons and their usage in pre-
constructed text messages. This survey is predicted to take no more than 30 minutes.
Risks
There are no anticipated risks or discomforts associated with your participation in this study.
Benefits
There are no direct benefits for your participation in this study. However, you may become more
aware or your ability to interpret computer mediated communication through emoticon usage.
Information gained in this study will be used to better understand one’s perception of emoticon
usage within computer mediated communication.
Confidentiality
All information collected for this study will be kept confidential. You will NOT be asked for any
personal information, including but not limited to, your address, sexual orientation, religious
affiliation, or ethnicity. While your age will be asked, it will not be explicitly or individually
mentioned or recorded. No reference will be made in written or oral reports that could link you to

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the study. Data will be stored securely in electronic files on the researchers computers and be
password protected. The computers will be kept in researchers possession at all times and not be
made available to any outside affiliate.
Compensation
You will not receive any type of compensation for participating.
What if you have questions about this study?
If you have any questions at any time about the study or procedures, you may contact the
researchers, Kaitlin Muccino (KMM200@pitt.edu), Ty Quillon(TRQ4@pitt.edu), Jacey Hunter
(JLH237@pitt.edu), or the primary investigator Patty Wharton-Michael (Wharton@pitt.edu).
Consent to Participate
I have read and understand the above information. I have the opportunity to print and keep a copy of this
form. I agree to participate in this study with the understanding that I may choose not to participate or to
stop participating at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which I am otherwise entitled. By
completing the checklists, I give my consent to participate in this study.
PRINT NAME:_________________________________
SIGNATURE: __________________________________ DATE:____________________
WITNESS SIGNATURE:_________________________ DATE:_____________________
Kaitlin Muccino, Ty Quillon, Jacey Hunter
Dr. Wharton-Michael
Communication Research Methods

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Emoticon Questionnaire
Please circle the number/option that best fits your answer.
1. I am a: Female Male
2. How old are you?
18-19 20-21 22-23 24+
3. What is your average yearly income?
$0-$20,000 $21,000-$41,000 $43,000- $63,000 $63,000+
4. Do you own a cell phone?
Yes No
5. Is your cell phone considered a smart phone?
Yes No
6. If you do own a cell phone, how often do you use it?
Daily Every Other Day Weekly Monthly
7. How often do you send emoticons via text messaging?
0-3 times a day 4-6 times a day 7-9 times a day 10+ times a day

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8. If you have a cell phone capable of sending emoticons, have you ever sent them in a
message?
Yes No
9. With your cell phone, do you communicate with others who use emoticons?
Yes No
10. Do you believe that you are capable of interpreting the meaning of any given
emoticon(s)?
Yes No
11. Do you feel that emoticons are an effective substitute for face to face social cues?
Yes No

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Below are screenshots of text messages. Please look over each picture and answer the
questions
provided
below, there are no
right or wrong
answers.

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Questions for this picture are provided on the next page:
List 4-6 adjectives that you feel would describe the emotion that the sender is trying to
convey through the message:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____
List 4-6 adjectives that describe how you feel while reading this message1:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____
For the following questions, please circle the number that best corresponds to your :
1. How effective do you feel the sender was in using emoticons?:
(Not effective at all) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Very effective)
2. How effective were the emoticons in enhancing the overall quality of the message?:
( Not effective at all) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (Very effective)

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ions for this picture are provided on the next page:
____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
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____
List 4-6 adjectives that describe how you feel while reading this message:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____

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