Ethnic rural urban psy
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This document discusses psychology as it relates to different populations in Bangladesh. It covers ethnic psychology, focusing on ethnic identity development and providing services to ethnic groups. It also discusses rural psychology, including challenges to mental health in rural areas. Finally, it examines urban psychology and how explosive urban growth has shaped human behavior.
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Ethnic rural urban psy
- 1. PsychologyPsychology in Bangladeshin Bangladesh • Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology • Rural PsychologyRural Psychology • Urban PsychologyUrban Psychology Friday, February 2, 2018Friday, February 2, 2018 Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 2. Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology Those human groups that entertain aThose human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descentsubjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or ofbecause of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories ofcustoms or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration; conversely, itcolonization and migration; conversely, it does not matter whether or not an objectivedoes not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exists (Max Weber).blood relationship exists (Max Weber). An ethnic group is "a type of cultural collectivity, one thatAn ethnic group is "a type of cultural collectivity, one that emphasizes the role of myths of descent and historicalemphasizes the role of myths of descent and historical memories, and that is recognized by one or more culturalmemories, and that is recognized by one or more cultural differences like religion, customs, language, or institutions”differences like religion, customs, language, or institutions” Kabir, SMS et al. (2016).Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (SociologyBangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher,of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher,
- 3. Roots in Social PsychologyRoots in Social Psychology Ethnic Identity emerged in social psychology out of “SocialEthnic Identity emerged in social psychology out of “Social Identity Theory”. Social identity theory posits that belongingIdentity Theory”. Social identity theory posits that belonging to social groups (e.g. religious groups or occupational groups)to social groups (e.g. religious groups or occupational groups) serves an important basis for one’s identity.serves an important basis for one’s identity. The collective identity framework has been related toThe collective identity framework has been related to ethnic identity development, particularly in recognizing theethnic identity development, particularly in recognizing the importance of personal identification of ethnicity throughimportance of personal identification of ethnicity through categorical membership.categorical membership. Collective identity also includes evaluation of one’s category.Collective identity also includes evaluation of one’s category. A behavioral component of collective identity recognizesA behavioral component of collective identity recognizes that individuals reflect group membership through individualthat individuals reflect group membership through individual actions, such as language usage, in respect to ethnic identity.actions, such as language usage, in respect to ethnic identity. Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 4. Roots in Developmental PsychologyRoots in Developmental Psychology An individual faces a specific developmental crisis atAn individual faces a specific developmental crisis at each stage of development.each stage of development. In adolescence, identity search and development areIn adolescence, identity search and development are critical tasks during what is termed the ‘Identity versuscritical tasks during what is termed the ‘Identity versus Role-confusion’ stage.Role-confusion’ stage. Identity confusion occurs when individuals fail toIdentity confusion occurs when individuals fail to achieve a secure identity, and lack clarity about theirachieve a secure identity, and lack clarity about their role in life.role in life. Jean Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development isJean Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development is a multidimensional model. Phinney's three stagea multidimensional model. Phinney's three stage progression are -progression are - Unexamined Ethnic IdentityUnexamined Ethnic Identity Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology SYED MD. SAJJAD KABIRSYED MD. SAJJAD KABIR UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONGUNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). BangladesKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Banglades (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Pub(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Pub 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar,978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 5. Psychological Services to Ethnic PopulationsPsychological Services to Ethnic Populations Psychological service providers need a socio-cultural framework toPsychological service providers need a socio-cultural framework to consider diversity of values, interactional styles, and culturalconsider diversity of values, interactional styles, and cultural expectations in a systematic fashion. They need knowledge andexpectations in a systematic fashion. They need knowledge and skills for multicultural assessment and intervention, includingskills for multicultural assessment and intervention, including abilities to-abilities to- recognize cultural diversity;recognize cultural diversity; understand the role that culture and ethnicity/race playunderstand the role that culture and ethnicity/race play in the socio-psychological and economic development ofin the socio-psychological and economic development of ethnic and culturally diverse populations;ethnic and culturally diverse populations; understand that socioeconomic and political factorsunderstand that socioeconomic and political factors significantly impact the psychosocial, political andsignificantly impact the psychosocial, political and economic development of ethnic and culturally diverseeconomic development of ethnic and culturally diverse groups;groups; help clients to understand/maintain/resolve their ownhelp clients to understand/maintain/resolve their own socio-cultural identification; and understand the Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). BangladeshKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesh (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publ(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publ 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, D978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, D smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 6. Psychological Services to Ethnic PopulationsPsychological Services to Ethnic Populations The focus of mental health research issues has included-The focus of mental health research issues has included- The impact of ethnic/racial similarity in theThe impact of ethnic/racial similarity in the counseling process.counseling process. Minority utilization of mental health services.Minority utilization of mental health services. Relative effectiveness of directed versus non-Relative effectiveness of directed versus non- directed styles of therapy.directed styles of therapy. The role of cultural values in treatment.The role of cultural values in treatment. Competency in skills for working with specificCompetency in skills for working with specific ethnic populations.ethnic populations. Ethnic PsychologyEthnic Psychology Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). BaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Ba (Sociology of Bangladesh). Pro(Sociology of Bangladesh). Pro 978-984-8794-69-2, Bangla978-984-8794-69-2, Bangla smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 7. Rural PsychologyRural Psychology In greater perspective, the concept of "rural"In greater perspective, the concept of "rural" embraces a wide-ranging set of variables thatembraces a wide-ranging set of variables that includes geography, topography, populationincludes geography, topography, population distribution, economic systems, and cultural factors.distribution, economic systems, and cultural factors. There are two relatively consistent variablesThere are two relatively consistent variables found across rural populations: poverty and inabilityfound across rural populations: poverty and inability to pay urban fees for services.to pay urban fees for services. In rural communities, the availability ofIn rural communities, the availability of employment is limited and younger people frequentlyemployment is limited and younger people frequently leave to find work.leave to find work. Upward of 15 percent of adult rural residentsUpward of 15 percent of adult rural residents ir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwair, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa ciology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:ciology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: -984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; kabir218@gmail.comkabir218@gmail.com
- 8. Mental Health in Rural AreasMental Health in Rural Areas Mental health is commonly defined as successful mentalMental health is commonly defined as successful mental functioning resulting in productive activities, fulfillingfunctioning resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships with other people, and the resilient ability torelationships with other people, and the resilient ability to adapt, change, and cope with challenging situations.adapt, change, and cope with challenging situations. Sound mental health is characterized by clear thinking,Sound mental health is characterized by clear thinking, effective communication skills, continued learning, emotionaleffective communication skills, continued learning, emotional growth, adaptability, and a sense of self-worth.growth, adaptability, and a sense of self-worth. Mental health is important for individual mastery, familyMental health is important for individual mastery, family and community health, general well-being, and productivity.and community health, general well-being, and productivity. Psychosocial influences affecting mental health includePsychosocial influences affecting mental health include stressful life events, childhood abuse or domestic violence,stressful life events, childhood abuse or domestic violence, poverty, cultural factors, social isolation, racism, prejudice,poverty, cultural factors, social isolation, racism, prejudice, Rural PsychologyRural Psychology Friday, February 2, 2018Friday, February 2, 2018 Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:
- 9. Mental Health in Rural AreasMental Health in Rural Areas Rural residents have higher levels of depression,Rural residents have higher levels of depression, substance abuse, domestic violence, incest, and childsubstance abuse, domestic violence, incest, and child maltreatment than residents of urban areas.maltreatment than residents of urban areas. Up to 40% of mentally ill individuals in rural areas have aUp to 40% of mentally ill individuals in rural areas have a co-morbid substance use disorder.co-morbid substance use disorder. Rural residents have higher rates of completed suicide thanRural residents have higher rates of completed suicide than their urban peers.their urban peers. Women who experience domestic violence are more likely toWomen who experience domestic violence are more likely to experience a wide variety of chronic health problems thanexperience a wide variety of chronic health problems than urban women.urban women. Rural women face particular pressures impacting theirRural women face particular pressures impacting their mental health, including increased risk for abuse, heightenedmental health, including increased risk for abuse, heightened Rural PsychologyRural Psychology 016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa desh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:desh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; comcom
- 10. Urban PsychologyUrban Psychology Urbanologist Kingsley Davis (1973) documents theUrbanologist Kingsley Davis (1973) documents the breath-taking shift into cities, which have shownbreath-taking shift into cities, which have shown explosive growth in four distinctive ways-explosive growth in four distinctive ways- (a)(a) Cities are growing in number.Cities are growing in number. (b)(b) They are growing in size, as existingThey are growing in size, as existing cities continue to expand.cities continue to expand. (c)(c) They are growing in density, with theThey are growing in density, with the development of new building materials anddevelopment of new building materials and other technologies.other technologies. (d)(d) They are growing in urbanization or theThey are growing in urbanization or the percentage of each nation's population whichpercentage of each nation's population whichFriday, February 2, 2018Friday, February 2, 2018 Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Sam (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, I(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, I 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1 smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 11. Urban psychology might be most concisely stated by elaborating the tenUrban psychology might be most concisely stated by elaborating the ten statements about urban life -statements about urban life - OriginsOrigins: Humans have lived in large cities for less than 0.4 percent: Humans have lived in large cities for less than 0.4 percent of their history on the planet.of their history on the planet. GrowthGrowth: Even the largest ancient and medieval cities were small and: Even the largest ancient and medieval cities were small and fragile by modern standards.fragile by modern standards. SizeSize: No insect or animal species collects in communities nearly as: No insect or animal species collects in communities nearly as large as modern human cities that top one million.large as modern human cities that top one million. TrendsTrends: Throughout modern history, cities have ineffably grown: Throughout modern history, cities have ineffably grown around the plan- et, and in every way - number, size, density,around the plan- et, and in every way - number, size, density, permanence, and the percentage of the population they contain.permanence, and the percentage of the population they contain. UbiquityUbiquity: While the urban nations of the West become even more: While the urban nations of the West become even more urbanized, the least urban nations of Africa and East Asia are theurbanized, the least urban nations of Africa and East Asia are the Urban PsychologyUrban Psychology Friday, February 2, 2018Friday, February 2, 2018 Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:
- 12. ParadoxParadox: At the same time people voice negative views of city life: At the same time people voice negative views of city life (anti-urbanattitudes), people are also pouring into cities in record(anti-urbanattitudes), people are also pouring into cities in record numbers (pro-urban behavior).numbers (pro-urban behavior). DensityDensity: With the invention of light-weight new high-rise: With the invention of light-weight new high-rise construction materials and other technologies (such asconstruction materials and other technologies (such as transportation, communications, elevators), cities are now sheddingtransportation, communications, elevators), cities are now shedding any past limits in size and density.any past limits in size and density. UrbanologyUrbanology: Though several behavioral sciences are part of modern: Though several behavioral sciences are part of modern urbanology, psychology is conspicuous by its near-total absence.urbanology, psychology is conspicuous by its near-total absence. Homo urbanusHomo urbanus: Though "Homo urbanus" is clearly the person of the: Though "Homo urbanus" is clearly the person of the future, what little behavioral research has been done on usfuture, what little behavioral research has been done on us urbanites to date finds cities strongly shaped us on all levels - oururbanites to date finds cities strongly shaped us on all levels - our outward behavior, inner personality, personal values, interpersonaloutward behavior, inner personality, personal values, interpersonal relations.relations. Urban PsychologyUrban Psychology SYED MD. SAJJAD KABIRSYED MD. SAJJAD KABIR UNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONGUNIVERSITY OF CHITTAGONG Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN:(Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;978-984-8794-69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com
- 13. Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). BangladesherKabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh).Samajtattwa (Sociology of Bangladesh). Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794-Protik Publisher, ISBN: 978-984-8794- 69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100;69-2, Banglabazar, Dhaka-1100; smskabir218@gmail.comsmskabir218@gmail.com Friday, February 2, 2018Friday, February 2, 2018 QuestionsQuestions AnswersAnswers 1313
- 14. Than k You Than k YouKabir, SMS et al. (2016).Kabir, SMS et al. (2016). Bangladesher SamajtattwaBangladesher Samajtattwa 1414
Editor's Notes
- Ethnic group is one of the types of human social collectivity, named identity-groups, based on some shared quality of social behavior, thought, or feeling. One of the main problems for social scientists is the specification of its difference from or relation to other social collectivities such as nation, people, society, tribe, minority, race, or class. Ethnic phenomena offer various definitions and characterizations; some even suggest differentiations or substitutions within the term itself. The classic definition of ethnic group, Max Weber describes it as one of "those human groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of similarities of physical type or of customs or both, or because of memories of colonization and migration; conversely, it does not matter whether or not an objective blood relationship exists. Yinger defines ethnic group as "a segment of a larger society whose members are thought, by themselves or others, to have a common origin and to share important segments of a common culture and who, in addition, participate in shared activities in which the common origin and culture are significant ingredients." For Anthony Smith an ethnic group is "a type of cultural collectivity, one that emphasizes the role of myths of descent and historical memories, and that is recognized by one or more cultural differences like religion, customs, language, or institutions”. Ethnic identity development includes self-categorization in, and psychological attachment toward, an ethnic group(s). Ethnic identity is characterized as part of one’s overarching self-concept. Development of ethnic identity is described as a process of the construction of identity over time, due to a combination of experience and actions of the individual and includes gaining knowledge and understanding of in-group(s), as well as a sense of belonging to an ethnic group(s). Ethnic identity is sometimes interchanged with, held distinct from, or considered as overlapping with racial identity. This disagreement in the distinction (or lack thereof) between these concepts may originate from the incongruity of definitions of race and ethnicity, as well as the historic conceptualization of models and research surrounding ethnic and racial identity. The concept of racial identity is often misunderstood and can have several meanings which are derived from biological dimensions and social dimensions. Race is derived from an individual's physical features, gene pools, and character qualities. The social construction of racial identity can be referred as a sense of group or collective identity based on one's perception that he or she shares a common heritage with a particular racial group. Racial identity is a surface-level manifestation based on what we look like yet has deep implications in how we are treated. Generally, group level processes of ethnic identity have been explored by social science disciplines, including sociology and anthropology. In contrast, ethnic identity research within psychology usually focuses on the individual and interpersonal processes. Within psychology, ethnic identity is typically studied by social, developmental and cross-cultural psychologists. Models of ethnic development emerged in both social and developmental psychology, with different theoretical roots.
- Ethnic Identity emerged in social psychology out of “Social Identity Theory”. Social identity theory posits that belonging to social groups (e.g. religious groups or occupational groups) serves an important basis for one’s identity. Membership in a group(s), as well as one’s value and emotional significance attached to this membership, is an important part of one’s self-concept. One of the earliest statements of social identity was made by Kurt Lewin, who emphasized that individuals need a firm sense of group identification in order to maintain a sense of well-being. Social identity theory emphasizes a need to maintain a positive sense of self. Therefore in respect to ethnic identity, this underscores affirmation to and salience of ethnic group membership(s). In light of this, affirmation of ethnicity has been proposed to be more salient among groups who have faced greater discrimination, in order to maintain self-esteem. There has also been research on family influences, such as cultural values of the family. Also, specific aspects of parenting, such as their racial socialization of youth, can contribute to the socialization of adolescents. Relatedly, collective identity is an overarching framework for different types of identity development, emphasizing the multidimensionality of group membership. Part of collective identity includes positioning oneself psychologically in a group to which you share some characteristic(s). This positioning does not require individuals to have direct contact with all members of the group. The collective identity framework has been related to ethnic identity development, particularly in recognizing the importance of personal identification of ethnicity through categorical membership. Collective identity also includes evaluation of one’s category. This affective dimension is related to the importance of commitment and attachment toward one’s ethnic group(s). A behavioral component of collective identity recognizes that individuals reflect group membership through individual actions, such as language usage, in respect to ethnic identity.
- Identity becomes especially salient during adolescence as recognized by Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. An individual faces a specific developmental crisis at each stage of development. In adolescence, identity search and development are critical tasks during what is termed the ‘Identity versus Role-confusion’ stage. Achievement of this stage ultimately leads to a stable sense of self. The idea of an achieved identity includes reconciling identities imposed on oneself with one’s need to assert control and seek out an identity that brings satisfaction, feelings of industry and competence. In contrast, identity confusion occurs when individuals fail to achieve a secure identity, and lack clarity about their role in life. James Marcia elaborated on Erik Erikson’s model to include identity formation in a variety of life domains. Marcia’s focus of identity formation includes two processes which can be applied to ethnic identity development: an exploration of identity and a commitment. Marcia defines four identity statuses which combines the presence or absence of the processes of exploration and commitment: Identity diffusion (not engaged in exploration or commitment), identity foreclosure (a lack of exploration, yet committed), moratorium (process of exploration without having made a commitment), and identity achievement (exploration and commitment of identity). Researchers believe and have frequently reported that older individuals are more likely to be in an achieved identity status than younger people. Evidence shows that increasing age and a wide range of life experiences helps individuals develop cognitive skills. This combination of age, life experiences, and improved cognitive skills helps adolescents and young adults find their authentic selves. Adolescents with strong commitments to their ethnic identities also tend to explore these identities more than their peers. Jean Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development is a multidimensional model, with theoretical underpinnings of both Erikson and Marcia. In line with Erikson's identity formation, Phinney focuses on the adolescent, acknowledging significant changes during this time period, including greater abilities in cognition to contemplate ethnic identity, as well as a broader exposure outside of their own community, a greater focus on one's social life, and an increased concern for physical appearance. Phinney's three stage progression are - Unexamined Ethnic Identity: Prior to adolescence, children either give ethnicity little thought (related to Marcia's diffuse status) or are assumed to have derived their ethnic identity from others, rather than engaging in personal examination. This is related to Marcia's foreclosed identity status. Knowledge of one's ethnicity is "absorbed", which reflects the process of socialization. Broadly, socialization in the context of ethnic identity development refers to the acquisition of behaviors, perceptions, values, and attitudes of an ethnic group(s). This process recognizes that feelings about one’s ethnic group(s) can be influenced by family, peers, community, and larger society. These contextual systems or networks of influence delineate from ecological systems theory. These systems influence children’s feelings of belonging and overall affect toward ethnic group(s). Children may internalize both positive and negative messages and therefore hold conflicting feelings about ethnicity. Socialization highlights how early experiences for children are considered crucial in regards to their ethnic identity development. Ethnic Identity Search: During the onset of adolescence, there is a questioning of accepted views of ethnicity and a greater understanding of ethnicity in a more abstract sense. Typically this stage is in characterized as being initiated by a significant experience that creates heightened awareness of ethnicity, such as discrimination. Engagement in some form of exploration includes an interest in learning more about one's culture and actively involving oneself in activities such as talking with others about ethnicity, reading books on the subject, and thinking about both the current and future effects of one's ethnicity. This stage is related to Erikson's ‘Identity versus Role-confusion’, and Marcia's moratorium. Ethnic Identity Achievement: This stage is characterized by clarity about one’s ethnic identity. The achievement phase includes a secure, confident, and stable sense of self. Achievement also is characterized as a realistic assessment of one's in-group(s) in a larger social context. In essence, the individual has internalized their ethnicity.This stage is related to Erikson's achieved identity, and identity achievement of Marcia. Identity achievement is also related to social identity theory in that this acceptance replaces one's negative ethnic self-image. Although achievement represents the highest level of ethnic identity development, it should be noted that Phinney believes reexamination can occur depending on experiences over time. Research reveals ethnic identity development is related to psychological well-being. Ethnic identity has been linked with positive self-evaluation and self-esteem. Ethnic identity development has also been shown to serve as a buffer between perceived discrimination and depression. Specifically, commitment of an ethnic identity may help to abate depressive symptoms experienced soon after experiencing discrimination, which in turn alleviates overall stress. Researchers posit commitment to an ethnic identity group(s) is related to additional resources accumulated through the exploration process, including social support. Ethnic identity development has been linked to happiness and decreased anxiety. Specifically, regard for one’s ethnic group may buffer normative stress. Numerous studies show many positive outcomes associated with strong and stable ethnic identities, including increased self-esteem, improved mental health, decreased self-destructive behaviors, and greater academic achievement. In contrast, empirical evidence suggests that ethnic identity exploration may be related to vulnerability to negative outcomes, such as depression. Findings suggest this is due to an individual’s sensitivity to awareness of discrimination and conflicts of positive and negative images of ethnicity during exploration. Also, while commitment to an ethnic group(s) is related to additional resources, exploration is related to a lack of ready-access resources. Studies have found that in terms of family cohesion, the closer adolescents felt to their parents, the more they reported feeling connected to their ethnic group. Given the family is a key source of ethnic socialization, closeness with the family may highly overlap with closeness with one’s ethnic group. Resources like family cohesion, proportion of same-ethnic peers, and ethnic centrality act as correlates of within-person change in ethnic identity, but it is only on the individual level and not as adolescents as a group.
- Psychological Services to Ethnic Populations There is increasing motivation among psychologists to understand culture and ethnicity factors in order to provide appropriate psychological services. This increased motivation for improving quality of psychological services to ethnic and culturally diverse populationsis attributable, in part, to the growing political and social presence of diverse cultural groups in the larger society. New sets of values, beliefs, and cultural expectations have been introduced into educational, political, business, and healthcare systems by the physical presence of these groups. The issues of language and culture do impact on the provision of appropriate psychological services. Psychological service providers need a sociocultural framework to consider diversity of values, interactional styles, and cultural expectations in a systematic fashion. They need knowledge and skills for multicultural assessment and intervention, including abilities to- recognize cultural diversity; understand the role that culture and ethnicity/race play in the sociopsychological and economic development of ethnic and culturally diverse populations; understand that socioeconomic and political factors significantly impact the psychosocial, political and economic development of ethnic and culturally diverse groups; help clients to understand/maintain/resolve their own sociocultural identification; and understand the interaction of culture, gender, and sexual orientation on behavior and needs.
- Likewise, there is a need to develop a conceptual framework that would enable psychologists to organize, access, and accurately assess the value and utility of existing and future research involving ethnic and culturally diverse populations. Research has addressed issues regarding responsiveness of psychological services to the needs of ethnic minority populations. The focus of mental health research issues has included- The impact of ethnic/racial similarity in the counseling process (Acosta & Sheenan, 1976; Atkinson, 1983; Parham & Helms, 1981); Minority utilization of mental health services (Cheung & Snowden, 1990; Everett, Proctor, & Cartmell, 1983; Rosado, 1986; Snowden & Cheung, 1990); Relative effectiveness of directed versus nondirected styles of therapy (Acosta, Yamamomoto, & Evans, 1982: Dauphinais, Dauphinais, & Rowe, 1981; Lorion, 1974); The role of cultural values in treatment (Juarez, 1985; Padilla & Ruiz, 1973; Padilla, Ruiz, & Alvarez, 1975; Sue & Sue, 1987); Appropriate counseling and therapy models (Comas-Diaz & Griffith, 1988; McGoldrick, Pearce, & Giordino, 1982; Nishio & Blimes, 1987); Competency in skills for working with specific ethnic populations (Malgady, Rogler, & Constantino, 1987; Root, 1985; Zuniga, 1988). The Guidelines represent general principles that are intended to be aspirational in nature and are designed to provide suggestions to psychologists in working with ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations. Psychologists educate their clients to the processes of psychological intervention, such as goals and expectations; the scope and, where appropriate, legal limits of confidentiality; and the psychologists' orientations. Whenever possible, psychologists provide information in writing along with oral explanations. Whenever possible, the written information is provided in the language understandable to the client. Psychologists are cognizant of relevant research and practice issues as related to the population being served. Psychologists acknowledge that ethnicity and culture impacts on behavior and take those factors into account when working with various ethnic/racial groups. Psychologists seek out educational and training experiences to enhance their understanding to address the needs of these populations more appropriately and effectively. These experiences include cultural, social, psychological, political, economic, and historical material specific to the particular ethnic group being served. Psychologists recognize the limits of their competencies and expertise. Psychologists who do not possess knowledge and training about an ethnic group seek consultation with, and/or make referrals to, appropriate experts as necessary. Psychologists consider the validity of a given instrument or procedure and interpret resulting data, keeping in mind the cultural and linguistic characteristics of the person being assessed. Psychologists are aware of the test's reference population and possible limitations of such instruments with other populations. Psychologists recognize ethnicity and culture as significant parameters in understanding psychological processes. Psychologists, regardless of ethnic/racial background, are aware of how their own cultural background/experiences, attitudes, values, and biases influence psychological processes. They make efforts to correct any prejudices and biases. Psychologists' practice incorporates an understanding of the client's ethnic and cultural background. This includes the client's familiarity and comfort with the majority culture as well as ways in which the client's culture may add to or improve various aspects of the majority culture and/or of society at large. Psychologists help clients increase their awareness of their own cultural values and norms, and they facilitate discovery of ways clients can apply this awareness to their own lives and to society at large. Psychologists seek to help a client determine whether a 'problem' stems from racism or bias in others so that the client does not inappropriately personalize problems. Psychologists consider not only differential diagnostic issues but also cultural beliefs and values of the clients and his/her community in providing intervention. Psychologists respect the roles of family members and community structures, hierarchies, values, and beliefs within the client's culture. Psychologists identify resources in the family and the larger community. Clarification of the role of the psychologist and the expectations of the client precede intervention. Psychologists seek to ensure that both the psychologist and client have a clear understanding of what services and roles are reasonable. Psychologists respect clients' religious and/or spiritual beliefs and values, including attributions and taboos, since they affect world view, psychosocial functioning, and expressions of distress. Part of working in minority communities is to become familiar with indigenous beliefs and practices and to respect them. Effective psychological intervention may be aided by consultation with and/or inclusion of religious/spiritual leaders/practitioners relevant to the client's cultural and belief systems. Psychologists interact in the language requested by the client and, if this is not feasible, make an appropriate referral. Problems may arise when the linguistic skills of the psychologist do not match the language of the client. In such a case, psychologists refer the client to a mental health professional who is competent to interact in the language of the client. If this is not possible, psychologists offer the client a translator with cultural knowledge and an appropriate professional background. When no translator is available, then a trained paraprofessional from the client's culture is used as a translator/culture broker. If translation is necessary, psychologists do not retain the services of translators/paraprofessionals that may have a dual role with the client to avoid jeopardizing the validity of evaluation or the effectiveness of intervention. Psychologists interpret and relate test data in terms understandable and relevant to the needs of those assessed. Psychologists consider the impact of adverse social, environmental, and political factors in assessing problems and designing interventions. Types of intervention strategies to be used match to the client's level of need (e.g., Maslow's hierarchy of needs). Psychologists work within the cultural setting to improve the welfare of all persons concerned, if there is a conflict between cultural values and human rights. Psychologists attend to as well as work to eliminate biases, prejudices, and discriminatory practices. Psychologists acknowledge relevant discriminatory practices at the social and community level that may be affecting the psychological welfare of the population being served. Psychologists are cognizant of sociopolitical contexts in conducting evaluations and providing interventions; they develop sensitivity to issues of oppression, sexism, elitism, and racism. Psychologists working with culturally diverse populations should document culturally and sociopolitically relevant factors in the records - number of generations in the country number of years in the country extent of family support (or disintegration of family) community resources level of education change in social status as a result of coming to this country (for immigrant or refugee) intimate relationship with people of different backgrounds level of stress related to acculturation.
- There is great debate about what "rural" is. As late as 2005, no single, consistent definition of rurality has been established. In greater perspective, the concept of "rural" embraces a wide-ranging set of variables that includes geography, topography, population distribution, economic systems, and cultural factors. There are, however, two relatively consistent variables found across rural populations: poverty and inability to pay urban fees for services. In rural communities, the availability of employment is limited and younger people frequently leave to find work. Upward of 15 percent of adult rural residents live below the federal poverty line, with rates significantly higher for minority rural residents. Because of economic changes, the tax base required for maintaining public services decreases as the population shifts from those who have a higher earning power to those who are on relatively stable incomes or those who, because of under or unemployment, descend into the cash economy. Fees-for-services slide with great variation. Rural residents live for longer periods of time without health insurance coverage when compared to urban peers and are less likely to seek needed medical and physician services because of pride, stigma, and the lack of access to reduced priced/free clinical care.
- Mental health is one of the top ten leading health indictors targeted by Healthy People 2010, the nation's blueprint for improving health. The need for rural mental health care has not been met with widely available and accessible mental health services. Mental health and mental illness exist on a continuum, with no clear cut line differentiating health from illness. Symptoms vary with age, gender, race, and culture. Mental health is commonly defined as successful mental functioning resulting in productive activities, fulfilling relationships with other people, and the resilient ability to adapt, change, and cope with challenging situations. Sound mental health is characterized by clear thinking, effective communication skills, continued learning, emotional growth, adaptability, and a sense of self-worth. Mental health is important for individual mastery, family and community health, general well-being, and productivity. Mental illnesses are health conditions characterized by alterations in thinking, dysfunctional mood or behavior, or any combination of these associated with distress and/or impaired functioning. Psychosocial influences affecting mental health include stressful life events, childhood abuse or domestic violence, poverty, cultural factors, social isolation, racism, prejudice, and interpersonal relationships.
- Rural residents have higher levels of depression, substance abuse, domestic violence, incest, and child maltreatment than residents of urban areas. Up to 40% of mentally ill individuals in rural areas have a comorbid substance use disorder. Rural residents have higher rates of completed suicide than their urban peers. Rural women face particular pressures impacting their mental health, including increased risk for abuse, heightened isolation, economic instability, and a lack of childcare support - all of which are linked to mood disorders. The prevalence of depression is significantly higher among rural residents. Rather than being attributed to geography itself, the rural population contains a higher proportion of individuals whose characteristics, such as poor health, place them at higher risk for depressive disorders. Rural youth have higher rates of depression and substance use than are found in the urban community. The school system has become the community mental health center, and the teacher is likely to be the de facto mental health counselor. School police are prone to become the informal and only available family therapist for children and teens with behavior and adjustment problems, and crisis management becomes the norm of the clinical encounter. Because of its co-morbidity with other mental disorders, the research community and mainstream media describe a remarkable rise and recognition of substance use in rural areas. Alcohol (particularly binge drinking), opioids, and methamphetamine abuse is higher for rural youth than their urban counterparts. Nonmedical use of prescription drugs is a growing national problem and one heavily impacting those living in rural areas. Statistically, adjusting for race, health, and other drug and alcohol use, rural youth are significantly more likely that their urban peers to have used prescription drugs non-medically. For rural adolescents in particular, factors associated with prescription drug abuse include poor health, presence of a major depressive episode, and other drug and alcohol use. Substance abuse in rural areas varies by social and economic characteristics. Lower education is strongly related to illicit drug use for young adults. Teenagers from low income rural families are more likely to abuse illicit drugs than youth from high income families. Unemployment is positively related to high rates of illicit drug use. While gender is not related to substance abuse among youth, substance abuse is higher among adult men than adult women. Domestic violence is a primary care issue in rural Bangladesh, one that is easily hidden and forgotten. More than one third of women living in a rural community will be victimized by an intimate partner. Circumstances of rural living exacerbate the danger for those families experiencing abuse. Geographic and social isolation, concerns about confidentiality, and limited access to services trap families, particularly women, in violent relationships. Firearms in the household are a fact of life in much of the rural community. Law enforcement response times vary in rural settings where domestic violence is not always considered a priority. Accessing shelters and protection programs is difficult. Women who experience domestic violence are more likely to experience a wide variety of chronic health problems than urban women. They suffer disproportionately from arthritis, irritable bowel syndrome, stomach ulcers, chronic pain syndrome, migraines, and eating disorders. They have higher incidence of common physical and mental symptoms, including chest pain, low back pain, breathing disorders, and anxiety. These types of long term health problems limit options for mental health treatment, especially during later years of life. Chronic illnesses and physical disabilities are major barriers to leaving an abusive relationship. The mental health consequences of living in such a relationship worsen this entrapment, particularly when combined with the social and geographic isolation of communities with few resources. Domestic violence increases a woman's risk of insomnia, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, panic disorder, and substance abuse. The symptoms can persist for years after the abuse ends. Numerous studies have demonstrated a connection between a history of abuse and an elevated risk of suicide. Child maltreatment in rural families tends to mirror that of urban families. However, rural families involved with Child Protective Services (CPS) are more likely than those in urban areas to be experiencing financial difficulties and live with high family stress, i.e., abandonment, moral/legal maltreatment, educational maltreatment, and exploitation. Nearly one in three rural families reported to CPS have trouble meeting basic financial needs compared to just over one in five urban families in the same demographic. Child neglect, defined as the failure by the caregiver to provide needed age-appropriate care, is the most common type of reported child maltreatment in the rural community. Approximately one half of reports to CPS are for neglect. In contrast, about one-fourth of the reports are for physical abuse. The remaining fourth are reported for more than one type of child maltreatment. It would appear that working in a rural community holds a bleak perspective. Great truths are found in the complex challenges awaiting the psychologist who ventures into a rural practice. However, there are exciting opportunities unfolding in the unlimited scope of practice at several levels, including direct clinical services, consultation, teaching, and collaborative multi-disciplinary research. Opportunities to work with other professional, paraprofessional, and lay persons abound. Many of the potential problems associated with work in smaller, rural communities can be easily translated into creative practice opportunities. Practice in rural areas, by definition, is more general than specific, with the character of psychological practice heavily influenced by the culture and context of the community. As stated by Lisa Curtin and David Hargrove (2010), "Multigenerational families, multiple relationships, porous boundaries, smaller populations, limited resources, and widespread knowledge of personal lives are important factors in psychological service delivery and influence choices of whether to or how to practice in a given community". Ultimately, the joy of a rural psychology practice is found in how it thrives by becoming embedded in the context of the community and region. Contextually sensitive practices consider the impact of problems and potential change on the systems in which individuals function. Awareness of the consequences of change and decisions based on them are integral to the therapeutic process and are figural and evident in rural practices. Given that much of a rural practice is contextually bound, there are several general, emerging trends worthy of consideration, including the development of prevention and education programs, use of technology, and integration of mental health and primary care. Prevention and education programs are designed to create community safety, respond to crises, and promote the development of individual good character and social interest. Information technologies, particularly telehealth, hold the potential to create new paradigms of care by leveraging the strength of its ability to connect individuals in immediate, cost-effective ways. Such possibilities bring new definition to the notion of integrated practices. There is widespread support for the idea of integration - that people's physical and mental health problems should be coordinated and not treated separately or in isolation. Rather than treating, preventing mental disorders is not only cost-effective, but supports quality of life, healthy families, and productivity throughout life. Prevention and education practices have emerged in a variety of settings and are designed to address a broad array of mental health needs and groups. Particularly among children, youth, and young adults, mental health and substance use disorders are major threats to health and well-being that continue into adulthood. The costs of treatment for mental health and addictive disorders, which create an enormous burden on the affected individuals, their families, and society, have stimulated increasing interest in prevention practices that can impede the onset or reduce the severity of the disorders. It has been noted that mental health practitioners can be the most effective in rural communities when contextual cues are taken into account. Heightened awareness acknowledges the distinct need for strong community outreach, coordination, case management, and education. For the majority of residents living in the community mainstream, the stigma of mental health/illness continues to rear its ugly head. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination may be darkly effective ways of organizing the complex world, but they do little to encourage the self-efficacy and esteem needs of individuals and families needing help. Such issues are amplified by the interconnectedness of people in rural communities. Social contact and high-speed communication make it hard for individuals to maintain privacy. Prevention and education serve to involve community members in collaborative, non-threatening ventures by addressing change efforts on a macro level. Working collaboratively, the community identifies its problems and needs,energizing the desire to work toward viable solutions. The psychologist brings skills of program design and development to the table, marshalling resources needed to implement the solutions chosen by the community. Essentially, prevention and education reframe mental illness into mental health and encourages utilization of psychological services, which then generalize into notions of individual and systemic self-sufficiency and nourishment. As an added benefit, the psychologist involved in prevention and education is further integrated into the community as trust in mental health services grows and is found to be acceptable. The use of technology in clinical services is a natural fit for rural practices as it serves to bridge the access gap for quality mental health services. Telephone and video conferencing, online counseling, email correspondence, and virtual reality increase the viability of rural service. Professional associations report an upward trend by psychologists indicating successful use of technology for mental health intervention. Primarily, real-time videoconferencing allows the client and psychologist to interact with immediacy, approximating the relationship developed in face-to-face traditional psychotherapy. Technological advances with personal computer systems have made inexpensive, user-friendly, and reliable videoconferencing easily available for use in clinical settings. There is some evidence that individuals are more likely to disclose highly charged personal and private information about themselves to a computer rather than in face-to-face situations. Preliminary research speaks to the ability to form authentic, positive therapeutic alliances in videoconferencing relationships. Across research reviews, diagnostic efficacy shows good reliability between televideo and face-to-face diagnoses with both children and adults. Rural communities offer a different and desirable quality of life than what typically is found in urbania. Opportunities for genuine connections and friendships, lower costs of living, the institutional value of the community spirit, and the pace of life are satisfying on deeply felt levels. Psychologists in rural practices endorse the lifestyle and thrive as generalists. The obligation to stay current on new information, trends, research, and practice issues is immediate and engaging in response to the variety of clients coming to the door. Rural psychology promotes comprehensive practice and engenders loyalty that develops between the provider and community. Once accepted in the community, psychologists are seen as experts and imbued with the special power of their professional role. They are able to see the results of their work, take on leadership roles in a variety of special issues, and feel acknowledged and appreciated. They are known as more than just their jobs. The mental health of rural communities remains a vital concern and holds increasing promise for a high quality of professional and personal life for psychologists. Rural areas vary significantly in demographics, economics, industry, and degree of isolation. The major barriers to providing mental health care in rural Bangladesh are similar: low population density, long distances from metropolitan areas, large geographical areas with poor transportation, and limited workforce power and financial resources. National conversations have brought light to promising practices in rural areas to continuing problems and challenges that plague underserved populations. Positive movement is afoot to enhance the mental health of rural Bangladesh.
- Population growth has exploded unevenly, shifting dramatically from rural into urban areas. Like metal particles in a magnetic field, this population has ineffably flowed away from sparse rural areas and into already crowded cities. Urbanologist Kingsley Davis (1973) documents the breath-taking shift into cities, which have shown explosive growth in four distinctive ways. (a) Cities are growing in number. (b) They are growing in size, as existing cities continue to expand. (c) They are growing in density, with the development of new building materials and other technologies. (d) They are growing in urbanization or the percentage of each nation's population which is housed in cities. When London became the first city in history to top the 1 million mark in 1800, one could traverse the entire city on foot in less than one hour (Mercer, 1975). In 2000, London's population of 7.3 million now makes it only 26 among world cities - dwarfed by the mega-cities of 26 million in Tokyo, 18 million in Mexico City, Mumbai, and Sao Paulo, and 17 million in New York.
- Urban psychology might be most concisely stated by elaborating the ten statements about urban life - Origins: Humans have lived in large cities for less than 0.4 percent of their his- tory on the planet. Growth: Even the largest ancient and medieval cities were small and fragile by modern standards. Size: No insect or animal species collects in communities nearly as large as mod- ern human cities that top one million. Trends: Throughout modern history, cities have ineffably grown around the plan- et, and in every way - number, size, density, permanence, and the percentage of the popu- lation they contain. Ubiquity: While the urban nations of the West become even more urbanized, the least urban nations of Africa and East Asia are the ones most rapidly urbanizing today, without exception.
- Paradox: At the same time people voice negative views of city life (anti-urbanattitudes), people are also pouring into cities in record numbers (pro-urban behavior). Density: With the invention of light-weight new high-rise construction materials and other technologies (such as transportation, communications, elevators), cities are now shedding any past limits in size and density. Urbanology: Though several behavioral sciences are part of modern urbanology, psychology is conspicuous by its near-total absence. Homo urbanus: Though "Homo urbanus" is clearly the person of the future, what little behavioral research has been done on us urbanites to date finds cities strongly shaped us on all levels - our outward behavior, inner personality, personal values, interpersonal relations. Urban psychology: Since 1970, systematic research and teaching on urban psy- chology is actually decreasing, not increasing. One need not be a psychologist to notice the bizarre paradox here, the direct clash between people's inner attitudes and outward behaviors. While public opinion sur- veys routinely find many people voicing anti-urban attitudes about the poor quality of city life (crowding, poverty, crime, cost of living, etc.), the behavior of people clearly is to flow from the countryside into cities by the tens of millions. With the on-going develop- ment of new technologies and building materials in recent decades, the size and density of future cities are no longer limited by natural forces, just as the vertical cities of today were unthinkable a century earlier. When students in a tenth-floor classroom at Fordham University in Manhattan were asked recently to use their imagination to answer this question - "Would you agree to live on the 1,000th floor of a building?" - half of these students said they would do so if this were feasible. Only time will tell if such units someday will be in demand, and whether their occupants might even have to pay extra for the "luxury" to live on these higher floor (as high-rise dwellers today must pay extra). The field of urbanology - the interdisciplinary study of cities has grown in pro- portion to this urban explosion of the Twentieth Century. For most of the century, each social science has assumed its large share of this emerging field of urbanology, so we see well-developed specialties of urban anthropology, urban economics, urban history, urban politics, urban sociology - each with its own established journals, books, theorists, and college curricula. Psychology alone - with its dual emphases on the individual, and on experimental methods has been conspicuous by its absence among the urbanology specialties. Stanley Milgram's 1970 article on "the experience of living in cities" was the first enunciation of modern urban psychology, in a few novel ways. (a) In his focus as a psy- chologist, he went beyond Simmel's sociological analysis to adapt the concept of stimulus "overload" from cybernetics, to link the urban environment with individual experience. (b) In his method, Milgram entirely based his many urban psychology concepts (anonymity, incivility, selectivity, trust, etc.) squarely on data produced by field experimentation and other empirical methods, rather than anecdote and simple observation. (c) In his goal, Milgram aimed for an objective, nonjudgmental description of urban life, much in contrast to the urbanology that leaned toward the negative in its view of the city as a collection of problems. Rightly or not, many urbanologists have come to view the city as a cloaca, full of failing institutions rife with social distress - schools that fail to teach, health care that fails to heal, law enforcement that fails to protect, transportationthat fails to transport, and constant crises in jobs, housing, sanitation, taxation. Since 99.6% of the human experience has been in small clans or tribes where all know one another, we truly have little idea what long-term impact our big-city life of the future will have on us as individuals or a species in the century ahead. The urban psychology field research conducted since Milgram's 1970 article has empirically documented the city's many impacts on the individual, yet it is up to the behavioral scientists of today and tomorrow not to drop the precious baton that Milgram and others have held up high for their grasp.