ETHICS-2022.pptx

Module Outline:
A. The Need to Study Ethics and the Importance of Rules to Social
Beings
B. Moral versus Non-moral Standards
C. What are Dilemmas?
D. What are the Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas?
E. Foundation of Morality

•Morality is “a system of beliefs about
what is right behavior and wrong
behavior” the principles of right and
wrong behavior or rightness and
wrongness (that is, goodness and
badness) of human actions”.

• In his book, Elements of Moral Philosophy, author
and university professor Dr. James Rachels – a
philosopher who specialized in Ethics – asserted that
“at the very least morality is the effort to guide one’s
conduct by reason, to act based on the best
reasons for doing, while giving equal weight to the
interests of each individual affected by one’s
decision” (Gallinero, 2018).

Topic 1. The Need to Study Ethics and the
Importance of Rules to Social Beings
• What is Ethics?
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) defines
that “ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior
in modern society at the level of the person, society,
and in interaction with the environment and other
shared resources” (CMO 20 series of 2013).

•Alternatively, ethics which is also
called “Moral Philosophy” is a
branch of philosophy that studies the
morality of human conduct using
moral frameworks, theories,
principles and standards.

•In our course, “ethics” and “morality”
can be used interchangeably, like using
the term “unethical” instead of the
term “immoral” or vice-versa. However,
philosophically speaking, there is a very
thin dividing line between the terms
ethics and morality.

•Ethics is the specific branch of philosophy
that studies morality, while morality refers to
the system of beliefs or principles of
rightness or wrongness of actions. In other
words, “ethics is the science of “morals”,
while morality is the practice of ethics”
(philonotes.com, 2018).

ETHICS
 Deals with right and wrong
 Social way of acting it implies
consensus and the adhesion of
society.
 Norms and social rules it is
guided by the culture of society
 Collective it is what one builds
from the consensus of several
morals
MORAL
 Deals with right and wrong
 Personal way of acting it is
acquired and formed through
life, by experiences.
 Personal norms and rules
guided by conscience
 Individual it is what underlies
ethics

Relevance of Studying Ethics
• College students already have developed a set of moral
standards by which they use to understand the world and a
moral compass to navigate it. The end goal of studying Ethics
is for the student to become a person who makes sound
judgments, sensitive to the common good (Gallinero, 2018).

The Importance of Rules to Social Beings
• “Rules are necessary to protect the greater good. Even the
freest societies ought to have rules in order to avoid
exploitations and tyranny while upholding the common
welfare” (De Guzman, 2018). Human societies have rules to
guarantee that rights of everyone is protected by regulating
behavior and produce a sense of justice in the society.

The Importance of Rules to Social Beings
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating
behavior.
Rules build boundaries that pace limits on behavior. Rules
are usually coupled with means to impose consequences
on those who violate them, one of the reasons people
follow accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.

• 2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and
freedom.
• Rules from frameworks for society. Nations are generally
nations of laws and the governing principles are outlined in
what is called constitution. Because the majority has agreed to
follow and consent to be governed by such constitution, the
freedoms outlined exist. One of the advantages of such a
system is that each person is guaranteed certain rights as the
government is limited in its power to ensure that it does not
become powerful enough to suppress liberty (freedom).

3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings.
Rules are needed in order to keep the strong from dominating
the weak, that is, to prevent exploitation and domination.
Without rules, schemes in which those with power control the
system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a stable
system that provides justice, in which even the richest and most
powerful have limitations on what they can do. If they
transgress rules such as laws and ordinances and take
advantage of people, there are consequences both socially and
criminally.

4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system.
Without rules regulating business, power would centralize
around monopolies and threaten the strength and
competitiveness of the system. Rules are needed to ensure
product safety, employee safety, and product quality.
Copyright and patents help protect people’s intellectual
property. Rules and regulations also keep the banking
system stable so as to avoid depression and the like.

•In short, society could not soundly function
without rules and regulations. Rules are
necessary to protect the greater good. Even
the freest societies ought to have rules in
order to avoid exploitations and tyranny
while upholding the common welfare.

“GEAR-UP” ACTIVITY
Recall / review all the rules that you have to follow at home, at the
church, in the community and in Pangasinan State University.
Consider the following study questions after recalling the rules:
• Among the rules (i.e. rules at home, in the community, at PSU), which rule
do you find constricting?
• What do you think are the reasons behind these rules?
• What would your home be without these rules? Your community? PSU?

Recitation:
Prepare for a sharing on why we need to
study ethics and the importance of rules
to social beings, specifically by answering
the study questions listed under “Gear-up”
Activity.

Topic 2. Moral versus Non-moral Standards
• As explained under Topic 1, we may infer that morality refer to the norms that an
individual, a group or community has regarding what is right or wrong (moral or
immoral).
• Moral standards are those that “individuals or groups have about the kinds of
actions believed to be morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what
we believed to be morally good or morally bad” (philonotes.com, 2018).
• On the other hand, Non-Moral standards refer to rules “by which we judge what
is good or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way” (philonotes.com, 2018).

Topic 3. What are Dilemmas?
• Dilemma refers to a situation in which a tough choice has to be made
between two or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable
ones (dictionary.com, 2017).
• Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas. Moral dilemmas (ethical
dilemmas) are “situations where persons are forced to choose between two
or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a
morally acceptable manner” (philonotes.com, 2018).

Topic 4. What are the Three Levels of
Moral Dilemmas?
The three levels of moral dilemmas are,
1) Personal dilemmas,
2) Organizational dilemmas,
and 3) Structural dilemmas

• Personal dilemmas are those that are encountered and resolved personally
by the individual. Personal dilemmas may be caused by the individual
him/herself, by another person, or by a group.
• Organizational dilemmas are those “encountered and resolved by social
organizations. This include moral dilemmas in business, medical field and
public sector” (De Guzman, 2018).
• Structural dilemmas are dilemmas encountered and resolved by network of
organizations. Structural dilemmas are multi-sectoral and larger in scope than
organizational dilemmas (De Guzman, 2018).

In your own opinion?
Is cheating is a choice?
Yes or no? Why?

Topic 5. Foundation of Morality
Freedom: Responsibility for One’s Act and to Others
• Only human beings can be ethical because, 1) only human beings are rational,
autonomous (free) and self-conscious, 2) only human beings can act morally
or immorally, and 3) only human beings are part of the moral community.
• Morality involves CHOICE. It is choosing ethical codes, values or standards to guide
us in our lives. Choosing is impossible without freedom. Everyone who wishes to
function morally in a society has to make choices every minute of the day (De
Guzman, 2018).

•Furthermore, freedom demands
responsibility. According to Sartre, even
though individuals must make their own
choices because they are free, these choices
also have consequences to it – these
consequences are something that the person
must endure (Gallinero, 2018).

Minimum Requirement for Morality
•Since freedom demands responsibility,
according to James Rachels, moral judgments
must be backed by sound reasoning and that
morality requires the impartial consideration
of all parties involved (Rachels, 2004).

SUMMARY
• Rules are important because they protect social beings by regulating behavior;
they help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom; they produce
sense of justice among social beings; and they are essential for a healthy
economic system.
• There are different kinds of standards, i.e. etiquette, policy, law, and
commandment. In ethics, a moral standard is a code of what is right or wrong
without reference to specific behaviors or beliefs

• A moral dilemma is a situation where: there are two or more actions that you
can possibly do; there is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions; and you
cannot do all the possible actions presented to you, you only need to choose
one.
• There are three levels of moral dilemmas. These are personal moral dilemma,
organizational moral dilemma, and structural moral dilemma.
• Only human beings can be ethical because of freedom and reason. Morality
is a question of choice”. Philosophically, choosing is impossible without
freedom. Likewise, moral decisions must be backed by sound reason and
ought to be based on impartial and objective criteria.

THE MORAL AGENT
Module Outline:
A. Culture and Moral Behavior
1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior
2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?
3. Why are There Universal Values?
4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
5. Strengths and weaknesses?

B. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as
Habit
1.How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular
Relation of Acts that Build Character and Acts
that Emanate from Character
2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience:
How do we get to the highest level, conscience-
based moral decisions?

Introduction:
• What does culture mean? There are several definitions of culture. It is
commonly understood that culture is found everywhere and appears to be
part of our behavior and life.
• The father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general,
culture is the way of life of a group of people that “includes their
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018).

• In this Module, “the moral agent” that we are
referring to is no other than YOU (or anyone) -
the one who is in-charge and responsible for all
of your actions and decisions. Generally, you will
learn from this module how culture and Filipino
moral identity affect your behavior as a “moral
agent”. Likewise, you will learn how to assess
your own personal experiences and decisions
against the Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development.

Topic 1. Culture and Moral Behavior
Sub-Topic 1.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior
What is Culture?
• Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all
aspects of shared human experiences. Culture possesses
five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values
and norms (Gallinero, 2018).

The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior
Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to
agreeable norms, it would lead the person to behave much better and quell
undesirable conduct (Gallinero, 2018).
Furthermore, moral rules and the sense of moral obligation and accountability
are products of social convention and social conditioning. The aspect of
morality is taught, people learn moral and immoral from cultural transmitters:
the parents, teachers, novels, films, tv shows, etc. (De Guzman, 2018).

Sub-Topic 1.2. What is Cultural Relativism?
Why is it not tenable in ethics?
• Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture
approves of it. James Rachels laid 5 claims of cultural relativists as to why
right or wrong is only a matter of cultural standards. Additionally, Rachels
identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism:
• 1) “It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational
standard”,
• and 2) “it teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in
discovering the truth” (Rachels, 2004)

Cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics because of
the dangers that it brings when making moral decisions. As
cited by Gallinero, the dangers of cultural relativism are:
• 1) “we cannot call out societal practices to promote
harm,
• 2) we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s
harmful practices,
• and 3) the idea of societal progress becomes doubtful”
(Gallinero, 2018

Sub-Topic 1.3. Why are There Universal
Values?
• Universal values refer to the values that are common to all cultures. According to
Rachels, when it comes to important moral issues, “there are some moral rules that
all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to
survive” (Rachels, 2004).
• The existence of the universal values is the strong proof that solely adhering to
cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics

Sub-Topic 1.4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and
a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures.
Patricia Licuanan, a former commissioner of CHED and a
distinguished Filipino psychologist, wrote that the strengths and
weaknesses of the Filipino Character are rooted in the following factors.
These factors are the home environment, culture and language, history,
educational system, religion, the economic system, political environment,
mass media and leaders/role models (Licuanan, 1994).

Sub-Topic 1.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of
the Filipino Character
The most common strong aspects of the Filipino character are:
pakikipagkapwa-tao, family orientation, joy and humor, flexibility,
adaptability and creativity, hardwork and industry, faith and religiosity, and
ability to survive. The most common weak aspects of the Filipino character
are: extreme personalism, extreme family centeredness, lack of discipline,
passivity and lack of initiative, colonial mentality, kanya-kanya syndrome
and lack of self-analysis and self-reflection (Licuanan, 1994).

Topic 2. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue
as Habit
• Sub-Topic 2.1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of
Acts that Build Character and Acts that Emanate from Character
Moral Character
Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity,
courage, fortitude, honesty and loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral
characters are those dispositions or tendencies to act or think in a particular
way by which a person can be held morally responsible (Gallinero, 2018).

• According to De Guzman, “in moral development, there is a
circular relation between acts that build character and moral
character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral character
will produce particular actions that are related with it, and on
the other hand, the individual actions that you execute will
determine the kind of moral character that you possess.
• For example, if you possess an “honest character”, it will
always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and you
may rarely do actions related to dishonesty). On the other way
around, when you “tell the absolute truth even at the risk of
attracting troubles”, this particular action determines the kind
of moral character that you have – which is, honesty.

Philosophical Views on Moral Character
• In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an achieved state of moral excellence”.
Moral development was attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human
personality, namely: 1) the heart of compassion (jen), 2) the heart of
righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the heart of
wisdom (Zhi).
• (According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if
a person is focused on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly
and you will do good things. The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine
of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one that is in the middle of two
extreme behaviors (Gallinero, 2018).

Sub-Topic 2.2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: how do
we get to the highest level, conscience-based moral decisions?
• Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental psychologist and
philosopher, is known for his theory on Moral Development.
• According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral development (pre-
conventional level, conventional level and post conventional level), each with
two stages composing his so-called “six stages of moral development”,
namely: 1) punishment-obedience stage, 2) reward orientation, 3) good boy/
good girl orientation, 4) authority orientation, 5) social contract orientation,
and 6) ethical-principle orientation.

• The three levels of Moral Development are 1)
Pre-Conventional Level which includes
punishment-obedience orientation stage and
reward orientation stage, 2) Conventional
Level which includes good boy/girl orientation
stage and authority orientation stage, and 3)
Post Conventional Stage which includes social
contract orientation stage and ethical-
principle orientation stage.

Why do we close
our eyes when we
kiss?

THE ACT
• Module Outline:
A. Feelings and Moral Decision Making
1. Why they can be obstacles in making the right decisions
2. How they can help in making the right decisions
B. Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
1. Reason and impartiality defined
2. 2. The 7-step moral reasoning model
C. Moral Courage
1. Why the will is as important as reason
2. 2. Developing the will

Introduction:
• Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of
emotion. “Feelings are seen as also necessary in
ethical judgment as they are even deemed by some
as instinctive and trained response to moral
dilemmas” (De Guzman, 2018).

• In this Module, “The Act” simply means the action performed
by the agent (as deliberate and free). When you perform
whatever kind of action, you need to consider three important
things: 1) feelings, 2) reason and impartiality, and 3) will.
• You will learn in this module the role of feelings in making the
right decisions and further assent that no matter what type of
moral dilemma we encounter, our moral decisions must be
based on reason and impartiality as minimum standards for
morality. Lastly, you will also learn that the “will” is as
important as reason.

Topic 1. Feelings and Moral Decision Making
• Sub-Topic 1.1. Feelings can be Obstacles in Making the Right Decisions
What are feelings?
• Feelings are instinctive responses to moral dilemmas.. Reason alone is
insufficient to yield a According to David Hume, “a person gains awareness
of moral good and evil by experiencing the pleasure of approval and
uneasiness of disapprovaljudgment that something is virtuous or vicious”
(plato.standford.edu, 2018).

• Feelings as obstacles in making the right
decisions
•Feelings can be obstacles in making the right
decisions because of its three central features,
they are: 1) their non-deliberate nature, 2)
their partial nature, and 3) they are
capricious (Gallinero, 2018).

Sub-Topic 1.2. Feelings can Help in Making the
Right Decisions
• As mentioned by Gallinero, there are at least three ways
that feelings help in making the right decisions, namely:
1) it signals the need to adjust behavior,
2) it can help us learn from our mistakes,
3) emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass
by (Gallinero, 2018).

Topic 2. Reason and Impartiality as Minimum
Requirements for Morality
• Sub-Topic 2.1. Reason and impartiality defined
According to Merriam-Webster, reason is “the power of the mind to think,
understand and form judgments by a process of logic”. Furthermore, Emmanuel
Kant claims that reason alone is the basis of morality, hence, acting morally is acting
rationally.
Impartiality “involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are
equally important. It is the principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based
on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, etc.” (De Guzman,
2018).

Sub-Topic 2.2. The Seven-Step Moral
Reasoning Model
• Scott Rae suggested a 7-step model which can be used in making moral decisions.
These steps are:
1) gather the facts,
2) Determine the ethical issues,
3) what principles have bearing on the case,
4) list the alternatives,
5) compare the alternatives with the principles,
6) weigh the consequences,
and 7) make a decision.

Topic 3. Moral Courage
Sub-Topic 3.1. Why the will is as important as reason
One’s will power is very important in making moral decisions.
• Moral Courage is the courage “to put your moral principles into
action even though you may be in doubt, are afraid, or face
adverse consequences. On the other hand, will is the capacity to
act decisively on one’s desire” (Gallinero, 2018).

Moral Courage
• • Socrates and Plato: virtue is knowledge and teachable, then "no one does
evil knowingly and willingly."
• • When a man chooses that which is de facto evil is, he chooses it sub specie
boni, what he imagines to be good}
• DE FACTO- reality
• SUB SPECIE BONI- as such

Aristotle
• Aristotle:
Knowledge not enough for I may know something good and yet not do it, or I may
know something bad and still do it. Inner struggle between reason and will.
Three kinds of act:
Voluntary=knowledge and approval
Involuntary=knowledge and lack of approval .
Non-voluntary=no knowledge, and no approval
Only voluntary act can be held accountable
So, what is moral courage? It is the will to do that one knows is the good or the will
to avoid what one knows to be bad. .

Sub-Topic 3.2. Developing the will
• To develop the will, the one and only way to do it is to engage into putting
rational, moral choice into action.
• According to De Guzman, to develop the will, one must: 1) develop and
practice self-discipline, 2) do mental strength training, 3) draw
inspiration from people with great courage, 4) repeatedly do acts that
exhibit moral courage and will, and 5) avoid deeds that show lack of
moral courage and will (De Guzman, 2018).

SUMMARY
• Feelings can really become obstacles when making ethical decisions; but this
fact should not be interpreted as completely removing your feelings in the
domain of morality. Though feelings can become obstacles, they can likewise
help in making the right decisions.
• Since some feelings can hinder decisions, making your actions automatic,
instinctive and emotional responses, there should be a minimum requirement in
making ethical decisions - they are reason and impartiality

• According to Rachels, morality at the very least “is the effort to guide one’s
action based on the most logical choice (reason) while giving equal
importance to the interests of each person affected by your decisions
(impartiality)”.
• To help you in making a reason-and-impartiality-based ethical decision, the
7-step moral reasoning model is very useful. The steps in the model are as
follows: 1) gather the facts, 2) determine the ethical issues, 3) identify the
principles that have bearing on the case, 4) list the alternatives, 5) compare
the alternatives with the principles, 6) weigh the consequences, and 7) make a
decision.
• Will power is very important in making moral decisions. It helps you to
make a courageous choice/decision and the resolve to stand firmly and put
into action that decision.

Module Outline:
• A. Basic Theories and Frameworks in Ethics
• B. Virtue Ethics
1. Aristotle: Telos; Virtue as Habit; Happiness as Virtue
2. St. Thomas: Natural Law
• C. Kant and Rights
1. Kant (Good will; Categorical imperative) 2. Different Kinds of Rights
• D. Utilitarianism 4.1
• Origins and Nature of Theory 4.2 Business’s Fascination and Utilitarianism
• E. Justice as Fairness: Promoting the Common Good 5.1 The nature of the theory
5.2 Distributive justice 5.3 The Principles of Taxation and Inclusive Growth

Philosophy- comes from the Greek root
words philos (love) sophia (wisdom) and (love
of wisdom/search for wisdom).
-It is the study of general and fundamental
problems concerning matters such as
existence, values, reason, mind and language.
-The term was probably coined by
Pythagoras.

Philosophy is about the big questions:
•Where are we from?
•Why are we here?
•And what is going to happen
afterward?

One of the things human being ask is?
• Why I am here ?
• What am I here for?
• What is the purpose of my existence?
• Why love when you only get hurt?
• What if there is no after life?

•Philosophy in Ancient Greece
encompassed all systematic study and
thought. The earliest philosophers
were also the first mathematicians,
physicists, biologists, astronomers,
psychologists, and political theorists.

THE GREEK
PHILOSOPHERS:
SOCRATES, PLATO
AND ARISTOTLE

SOCRATES (469-399 B.C.E)
•Socrates life is a puzzle because even three
recognized sources (Plato, Xenophon, and
Aristophanes) on his life presented differing
accounts. However they agreed that Socrates was
strange and ugly, he philosophized in market place.

Life
•He died at age of 70
•He was the son of a sculptor and a midwife, and used to
say that his art, like his mother’s was maieutike
(midwifery), the art of delivering children in the name of
truth. Socrates is one of the most interesting and
disturbing personalities in all Greek history; inflamed his
contemporaries

•One of the famous philosophers who
ever lived, this Greek Athenian
philosopher was a student of Socrates
and teacher to Aristotle.
•He founded a school in Athens known
as the Academy which served as the
model of universities.

Life
•Plato was born in Athens in 427 and died in
327 B.C
•He belonged to an old aristocratic family,
who claimed descent from Codrus and
Solon.

Writings
•The body of Plato’s writings is almost
completely preserved.
•Plato’s works, together with those of
Aristotle, form the pinnacle of all
Greek philosophy and culture.

Dialogues of Plato
• The Protagoras
• The Gorgias
• The Euthydemus
• The Phaedo- on the immortality of the soul
• The symposium, or Banguet on love
• The Phaedrus which contains Plato’s theory of the soul.
• The Republic on justice and the concept of the state

ARISTOTLE (384-322 BCE)
• He was born in Stagira, Greece and studied in Plato’s Academy.
• Aristotle surpassed his teacher by the number of works he wrote
and the diverse fields he studied (philosophy, biology, politics,
psychology, and art.)
• He tutored a thirteen year-old boy who came to be known as
Alexander the Great. Aristotle also put up a school in Athens
called Lyceum.

Ethics- studies human acts or human
conduct. There are indeed other
sciences which also study human
conduct, such as sociology,
psychology, and education. But ethics
differs from each of these in its
standpoint.

-Morality of human actions
-Human acts with reference to right and wrong
(acts done with knowledge and consent)
-Which lays down the right living
-That guides us un our actions that we may live
rightly and well

According to Socrates,
ethics is the
investigation of life.

The unexamined life
is not worth living
-Socrates

Topic 1. Basic Theories and Frameworks in
Ethics
• The study of ethics or morality today is generally divided into
three main areas, namely: 1) meta-ethics, 2) normative ethics, and
3) applied ethics.
• Meta-ethics consists in the attempt to answer the fundamental
philosophical questions about the nature of ethical theory itself
(Klement, n.d.).

Philosophical questions:
• What does it mean to live a good life?
• Why do we dream?
• Is it possible to live a normal life and not ever tell a lie?
• Is the meaning of life the same for animals and humans?
• What is the best way for a person to attain happiness?
• How long will you remembered after you die?

Some Classifications of Meta-ethics
1. Cognitivism and Non-cognitivism
• Cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments are
propositions, hence, they can either be true or false.
• Non-cognitivism is a view that ethical judgments cannot
be true or false, but they are most likely expressions of
emotions or exclamations. (Klement, n.d.)

• 2. Subjectivism and Objectivism
• Subjectivism is an ethical view that morality depends
on the individual’s attitudes, beliefs, desires, etc., rather
than anything external.
• Objectivism is an ethical view that morality is absolute
(objective) wherein it is based on moral facts and
principles, rather than anything from the individual’s
attitudes, beliefs, desires, etc. (Klement, n.d.)

• Normative Ethics is the study of what makes actions right
or wrong, what makes situations or events good or bad and
what makes people virtuous or vicious (Klement, n.d.)
Classifications of Normative Ethics
• 1. Deontology
• Deontology is a theory that bases morality on moral rules or
duties (De Guzman, 2018). In other words, a moral
deontologist will utilize established rules or duties to
distinguish what is right and wrong.

•Deontology
-Morality is a matter of duty
-Whether something is right and wrong doesn’t
depend on its consequences. Actions are right or
wrong in themselves
-We each have duties regarding our own
actions

2. Teleology
• Teleology is a theory that determines the moral value of
actions by their outcomes or results (De Guzman, 2018). So,
an action is good if it is done or in pursuit of a moral goal or
end.
3. Utilitarianism
• Utilitarianism, sometimes called consequentialism, is a
theory that bases morality on the consequences of actions.
So, an action is good if it produces the “best” consequences
among the rest of the alternative actions.

4. Virtue Ethics
• Virtue ethics is a theory that is character-
based rather than act-based like deontology or
teleology. When we say that it is character-
based, it means that we judge or determine
goodness (or badness) in the person by
judging the overall character or virtues that
he/she possesses

Applied Ethics consists in the attempt to answer
difficult moral questions actual people face in their
lives (Klement, n.d.). The moral questions addressed
under Applied Ethics are mostly about the social
issues that we usually experience in the present time.
According to De Guzman, J.M. et.al., Applied
Ethics is classified into the following sub-fields (De
Guzman, 2018):

•1. Bioethics - abortion, euthanasia,
surrogate motherhood, cloning and genetic
manipulation, mutilation, etc.
•2. Human Sexual Ethics - human sexuality,
pre-marital sex, extra-marital sex,
pornography, contraception, loveless and
casual sex, rape, etc.

• 3. Environmental Ethics - animal welfare and rights,
environmental sanitation, pollution control, kaingin,
cyanide fishing, etc.
• 4. Business Ethics - harassment, job discrimination,
employer-employee relationship, whistle blowing,
unprofessionalism, false advertising, etc.
• 5. Social Ethics - poverty, child labor, war on drugs,
death penalty, racial discrimination, gender
discrimination, etc.

• Topic 2. Virtue Ethics
• Gallinero states that virtue ethics refers to the theories that put
emphasis on the role of character and virtue in living one’s life
rather than in doing one’s duty or in acting to bring about good
consequences (Gallinero, 2018).
• Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas are two of the main
proponents of virtue ethics. Most of the virtue ethics that we
apply today lay their foundation or draw inspiration from the
views of these two philosophers.

Sub-Topic 2.1. Aristotle: Telos; Virtue as Habit; Happiness as Virtue
Who is Aristotle?
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is an Ancient Greek philosopher who has significant
contributions to almost any area of study such as Logic, Biology, Aesthetics and
Ethics. More information about Aristotle is discussed in our textbook, page 74.
• Telos
• Telos is a Greek term which means “end” (or purpose). According to Aristotle,
“every action and pursuit is thought to aim at some good…” (Stumpf, S.E., 2005).
As persons with a capacity for rational thinking, we always have telos which is a goal
that we have to fulfill.

• Virtue as Habit
• According to Gallinero, in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle explains that a
person acquires character excellence by habituation. Hence, we can say that virtues
are positive or good acts that are habitually put into action which in turn develops
the character of the person (Gallinero, 2018).
• According to Aristotle, there are two kinds of virtues, namely: 1) Moral virtues,
and 2) Intellectual virtues.
• In terms of moral virtues, we must always remember that we should always act in a
moderate way, that is, to act in a way that is too much nor too little (neither in
excess nor in deficiency). For Aristotle, a virtuous act is the “golden mean”
between two extremes – by which these extremes are considered as undesirable
actions or commonly termed as vices.

• Happiness as Virtue
• For Aristotle, happiness or “eudaimonia” is the
summum bonum or the supreme good. Happiness
as the supreme good is ultimately interpreted as our
telos (we do not want a telos that is not good and
does not bring happiness). Furthermore, according to
Aristotle, living a virtuous life “is the best life because
it contributes to the happiness or eudaimonia of the
person” (Gallinero, 2018)

Sub-Topic 2.2. St. Thomas Aquinas and
Natural Law
• Known as the Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholastics, Thomas
Aquinas (1225-1274) is an Italian philosopher and theologian who ranks
among the most important thinkers of the medieval time period. His
influence on Western thought is considerable, especially on modern
philosophy. His great works include Summa Theologica and Summa
Contra Gentiles. The two books are combinations of philosophy and
theology where he discussed about the role of natural laws, virtues and
happiness in moral philosophy. (De Guzman, 2018)

• Natural Law
• According to St. Thomas, Natural Law is based on the two
fundamental authority the Bible and Aristotle. Aquinas
described natural law as a moral code existing within the
purpose of nature, created by God. For him, morality is
accessible through natural order given by God. It is universal
and relevant to all situations and accessible to all. It is
unchanging and for all time, whether or not they believe in
God. The Aquinas’ basic moral law can be best described by
the following, “Good is to be done and pursued… and evil to
be avoided. All the other precepts of the law of nature are
based on this. (Do good and avoid evil).

There are four primary types of law according to St. Thomas Aquinas.
These are Eternal Law, Natural Law, Human Law and Divine Law.
• “Eternal Law refers to the rational plan of God by which all creation is
ordered. Natural Law is that aspect of the eternal law which is accessible
to human reason. Human Law refers to the positive natural laws. Human
law also includes the civil and criminal laws as formulated in the light of
proper and practical reason and moral laws. Human laws that are against
the natural law are not binding and not real laws, and people are not
obliged to obey those unjust laws. Divine Law is a law of revelation,
disclosed through sacred text or Scriptures and the Church which is also
directed toward man’s eternal end” (De Guzman, 2018).

• Furthermore, Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that as
human reason dictates (natural law), happiness or
eudaimonia is our natural telos. In order to achieve true
happiness, humans must follow certain natural laws –
these are the Primary precepts (which ensure self-
preservation such as reproduction, education, peaceful
living in a society and worshipping God) and the
Secondary precepts (the ways in which the primary
precepts can be put into practice)

Happiness as Constitutive of Moral and Cardinal Virtues
• St. Thomas Aquinas “believes that all actions are
directed towards ends and that eternal happiness is the
final end”. He also thinks that happiness is not equated
with pleasure, material possessions, honour or any sensual
good, but consists in activities in accordance with virtues.
A person needs a moral character cultivated through the
habit of choice to realize real happiness” (De Guzman,
2018).

•According to De Guzman, Aquinas
categorized habits (as virtues) into
acquired habits and infused habits.
Aquinas further categorized infused
virtues into two kinds – the (De
Guzman, 2018). moral and the
theological virtues

Moral virtues are divided into four basic kinds, namely:
• Prudence – this virtue is an exercise of understanding
that helps us know the best means in solving moral
problems in which we encounter in the concrete
circumstances. It is acting in the right time, place, manner,
intention, person, and situations. Knowing the best
means, and without acting carelessly without thinking,
will incline us to apply them immediately with certainty.
(Gallinero, 2018)

• Justice – The habit is an exercise of the will to give or render
what is due to another. It may be in the form of material or
immaterial things, to the person who rightly owns or belong it.
Each one must respect and give due to what is rightly belongs
to another person. No one is allowed to violate any of these
rights and privileges that is due to other people. (Gallinero,
2018)
• Fortitude – The habit of the will to exercise courage and
bravery despite facing grave danger especially when serious
injury or threat to life is at stake. (Gallinero, 2018)

•Temperance – The habit is an exercise of the
will to demonstrate proper control and
restrain in the midst of strong attraction to
pleasurable acts. The key word here is
moderation. Getting indulged into strong
pleasures has undesired consequences, either
excess or disorder. (Gallinero, 2018)

How happiness becomes constitutive of moral and
cardinal virtues?
• For, Aquinas, Happiness entails the wholeness/totality of human
being that involves body and soul to be united with the highest good
or the summum bonum, no other than God himself who is in
heaven. Man’s ultimate fulfilment of his nature is to live as being
God’s creature through the exercise of virtues and in accordance to
man’s final purpose. The Divine plan of God is for man to act to his
ultimate purpose/end. Man should not hinder his future union with
God in heaven. (Gallinero, 2018)

Topic 3. Kant and Rights
Sub-topic 3.1. Kant (Good will; Categorical Imperative)
Immanuel Kant and Rights Theory
Immanuel Kant – (1724-1804) is a German thinker regarded
by many as the most significant philosopher in the modern era.
His major contributions to Ethics can be found in his two
works: The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals and The
Critique of Practical Reason.

Kantian Ethics
• Kant’s ethics is based primarily on an a priori foundation. His
ethical theory uses reason alone. He rejects ethical judgments
that are based on feelings (De Guzman, 2018). Genuine
morality is based on the moral law, which is valid for all people
because it is grounded completely on rational exercise. Kant’s
test for the rational consistency of a moral principle is the
categorical imperative. (Mariano, 2016)

Kant’s Moral Theory
• Only the good will is absolutely good. A good will is good, not because of its effect,
but is good in itself. A good will is good because it is done out of duty (Mariano,
2016).
• Kant believes that one of the functions and capacities of our reason is to produce a
will which is good not as a means to further end, but good in itself”…therefore, it is
only when we recognize that we ought to do an act because it is our duty, understand
the nature of this obligation, and act upon it that we are said to perform an
authentically moral act”. Kant’s theory of moral judgement emphasizes on the ethical
relevance of good will and acting from a sense of duty (De Guzman, 2018).

Categorical Imperative
• Kant regards man as a rational being acting on a principle/maxim. This
maxim is rightly called the Categorical Imperative.
• Kant’s 3 Ethical Propositions (Mariano, 2016)
• 1. An act must be done from duty in order for it to have an inner moral
worth.
• 2. An act done from sense of duty derives its moral worth, not from the
purpose, which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is
determined.
• 3. Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law

•Kant’s Categorical Imperative
(Mariano, 2016) The supreme principle of
the moral law is the categorical imperative
Versus hypothetical imperatives, which
can either be imperative of skill or
imperative of prudence

Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical
Imperative (Mariano, 2016)
• 1. Act only on that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it
should become a universal law. (Principle of Universality)
• 2. Act as to treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of
any other person or in that of any other, in every case as an end in itself,
not as means only. (Principle of Humanity as End-in-Itself)
• 3. Act so that your will is what makes universal law. (Principle of
Autonomy)

Sub-topic 3.2. Different Kinds of Rights
The principle of rights theory is the notion that in order for a
society to be efficacious, “government must approach the making
and enforcement of laws with the right intentions in respect to the
end goals of the society that it governs. Members of society agree to
give up some freedoms for the protection enjoyed by organized
society, but governments cannot infringe upon the rights that
citizens have been promised.” (De Guzman, 2018)

• Rights based ethics is a broad moral theory in which
Kant’s principle of right theory is included. The
concepts of rights based ethics is that “there are some
rights, both positive and negative, that all humans have
based only on the fact that they are human. These rights
can be natural or conventional. That is, natural rights are
those that are moral value while conventional are those
created/crafted by humans and reflects society’s values.
(De Guzman, 2018)

Legal Rights
• Legal rights refer to all the rights that you have (as stated in
any existing law) as a citizen of the Philippines, or any
particular country.
Moral Rights
• Moral rights refer to those rights attributed to all moral
entities (Gallinero, 2018). These rights are independent and
precisely existed before any legal rights.

Human Rights
• “They are best thought of as being both moral and
legal rights. The legitimacy claims of human rights
are connected to their status as moral rights.
Nonetheless, the practical efficacy of human rights
is essentially dependent upon their developing into
legal rights” (De Guzman, 2018).

Topic 5: Justice as Fairness: Promoting the
Common Goo
John Rawls and the Theory of Justice
• He is one of the important political philosopher during the 20th century. His
main work is A Theory of Justice published in 1971. This work has addressed
some of the social issues especially in the name of justice between the state and
the citizens and among the citizens. He received his academic training at
Princeton University, and later part of his career he became a philosophy
professor at Harvard University. (Gallinero, 2018)

•“Rawls’ proposes justice as fairness as an
ethical framework. This framework focuses
on how justice should be distributed that
would yield fairness for those who have more
and those who have less. The term fairness
refers not to equality but equity” (Gallinero,
2018)

The two principles of justice and fairness are as
follows:
• 1. “Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive
scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar scheme
of liberties for others”.
• 2. “Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that
they are both a) reasonably expected to be to everyone’s
advantage, and b) attached to positions and offices open to all”.

Sub-topic 5.2. Distributive Justice
• This means “everyone in the society has to share
both the burden and the benefit of whatever the
society offers. What is the content of benefit and
burden? This can be answered depending on the
following kinds of society – egalitarian, capitalist
and socialist” (Gallinero, 2018)

Sub-topic 5.3. The Principles of Taxation
and Inclusive Growth
Principles of Taxation
• As stated in the 1987 Constitution, Article X - Section V, the
government has the power to create sources of revenues and to levy
taxes, fees and charges. The government cannot support its
existence and perform its duties such as projects for the betterment
of the land and its people without this power of taxation.

•The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal
duties. Taxation is a necessity because the
Government cannot exist and function without
means to pay its expenditures, and reciprocal
duties of protection and support between the
government and its citizens (Dy, 2016).

Inclusive Growth
• Taxation pursues the principle of inclusive growth.
Inclusive growth refers to “economic growth where the
benefits of growth are more evenly shared between
individuals across the income and wealth distribution”
(oecd.org). Taxation should not be interpreted as a
burden or a forceful power of the government but
should be seen as important in economic development
and growth.

•Generally, taxation primarily provides a
fundamental source of income for running
the government and providing public services
such as public protection, land improvement,
monetary and non-monetary programs.
Likewise, “taxation promotes equity and used
to address social and economic concerns”
(oecd.org)

SUMMARY (Module 4)
There are four primary types of law according to St. Thomas
Aquinas. These are
• Eternal Law,
• Natural Law,
• Human Law and
• Divine Law.

•Aquinas agreed with Aristotle that as
human reason dictates (natural law),
happiness or eudaimonia is our natural
telos. In order to achieve true
happiness, humans must follow
certain natural laws.

•According to Aquinas, moral virtues are divided
into four basic kinds, namely: prudence, justice,
fortitude and temperance.
•For Kant, only the good will is absolutely good. A
good will is good, not because of its effect, but is
good in itself. A good will is good because it is
done out of duty.

• Kant’s Formulations of the Categorical Imperative are
based on the Principle of Universality, Principle of
Humanity as End-in-Itself and Principle of Autonomy.
• Utilitarianism is a theory that bases morality on the
consequences of actions. It is derived from the Latin
term “utilis” which means useful, hence, what is useful
is good and that morality is determined by the
consequence of your actions.

•The role of utilitarianism in the moral
decision making in business is on the
extent of pleasure and pain to the people.
“If the benefit is lesser than the amount
spent, then it is worth it, therefore, it is
pain”

The two principles of justice and fairness are:
1) Each person is to have equal right to the most extensive
scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar
scheme of liberties for others, and
2) Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so
that they are both a. reasonably expected to be to everyone’s
advantage, and b. attached to positions and offices open to
all.

• Distributive Justice means “everyone in the society has
to share both the burden and the benefit of whatever the
society offers”.
• The basis of taxation is necessity and reciprocal duties.
There can be no government without the monetary
aspects for its operations. This responsibility springs from
the concept of rights and duties.

CONCLUSION – ETHICS
THROUGH THICK AND
THIN, AND ETHICS AND
RELIGION

Module Outline:
A. Moral Challenges of Globalization
1. Globalization and pluralism: New challenges to
ethics
• B. Challenges of Filinnials
• C. The Religious Response: The Role of Religion in a
Globalized World

Introduction
•According to Mariano, globalization can be
defined as “the continuing world-wide economic
integration, recently facilitated by emerging
information technologies, that has also affected the
environment, culture, and politics of different
groups of people” (Mariano, 2016).

•Today, there are a variety of technological and
other advancements that enable cultures from
all over the world to collaborate and be closer
to one another. Though there are surely
benefits of globalization, one must also look
into the ethical challenges that it brings to the
society and to everyone.

•In this Module, aside from learning the ethical
challenges of globalization, you will also learn
your qualities as a “Filinnial” (Filipino Millennial)
and the different challenges you are experiencing
or may experience in a globalized world. Finally,
you will also learn about the role of religion in a
globalized world.

At the end of this Module, you should be
able to:
1. Identify the important moral challenges of globalization.
2. Compare responses to shared moral dilemmas of baby
boomers and millennials.
3. Cite qualities of the Filinnials.
4. Differentiate ethics from religion. 5. Outline the role of
religion in a globalized world.

Topic 1. Moral Challenges of Globalization
• According to Gallinero, the moral challenges that are brought about
by globalization are,
• 1) the rise of radical inequality,
• 2) the problem of managing global environment to prevent
global ecological collapse, and
• 3) the intrusion of international economic organizations on
indebted nations (Gallinero, 2018).

Because of the problems that may arise from globalization, many
suggest that there should be universal ethical standards that will
serve as a guide to globalized interactions. However, if we look
back on our lessons under Module 2 particularly under moral
relativism, James Rachels listed three universal values shared
by all cultures, namely:
• 1) caring for the young,
• 2) murder is wrong,
• and 3) telling the truth.

Topic 2. Challenges of Filinnials
• There are 5 generations existing in our time, they are
1. the traditionalists,
2. baby boomers,
3. generation X,
4. generation Y or the millennials,
5. generation Z.

• According to Gallinero, the Generation Y, or the
Millennials, who were born from 1981 to 2000, are
also called the “digital natives”. They grew up in the
digital age or the internet era. On the other hand, the
Generation Z are those who were born in 2001 to
present. This generation is the era of mobile
technologies such as smartphones, tablets, iPad,
etc. (Gallinero, 2018).

• As cited from a 2016 study, there are things that the
Filinnials care more about than their millennial
counterparts from other countries. Some of these are:
1) 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily on their parents for
advice,
2) on adulthood, Filinnials value close family relationships,
3) Filinnials are more active in social media and are more
easily influenced by peers, etc. (Gallinero, 2018).

Topic 3. The Religious Response: The Role
of Religion in a Globalized World
•Religion is a “specific fundamental set
of beliefs and practices generally agreed
upon by a number of persons or sects”

•Religion is not ethics. Any religion will assert
that its religious codes and practices (including
religious moral codes and moral practices)
represent a clear road to salvation or
enlightenment. Ethics on the other hand can be
used by anyone regardless of religion, and even
those who do not belong to any religious
affiliation (Gallinero, 2018).

•Although religion and ethics are not the same,
the role of religion is important in a
globalized world. Inter-religious dialogues are
now being done thereby eliminating the gap
or disharmony among religions and “working
together to promote peace, justice and social
harmony”

SUMMARY:
• As the world continuously becomes a
one-globalized community, it brings with it
varied moral issues, problems, concerns
and related implications

• The moral challenges that are brought about by
globalization are,
1) the rise of radical inequality,
2) the problem of managing global environment to
prevent global ecological collapse, and
3) the intrusion of international economic organizations
on indebted nations.

• There are certainly many issues that cause friction
between the Filinnials and the other generations.
However, according to Gallinero, there are 3 enduring
human truths encompassing all the generations, these are:
1) the notion of needing to “find yourself”,
2) 2) friends are everything, and
3) 3) finding your place in the world (Gallinero, 2018).

• Religion and ethics are not the same, but
the role of religion is important in a globalized
world. Inter-religious dialogues are now being
done thereby eliminating the gap or
disharmony among religions and “working
together to promote peace, justice and social
harmony” (Banchoff, 2008).

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