The document discusses various topics related to pollution and waste disposal, including: - Historical practices of open sewers and unchecked industrial pollution. - Key US environmental laws passed in the 1960s-1980s to regulate pollution. - Modern landfill designs that include liners and leachate collection to prevent groundwater contamination. - Efforts to reduce solid waste through recycling, composting, and waste-to-energy incineration.

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Environmental
Geology
James Reichard
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

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Chapter 15
Pollution and Waste Disposal
© Jason Hawkes/The Image Bank/Getty Images

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Open sewers
© Howard Davies/Corbis
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description

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Historical Pollution
a: © Tulsa Historical Society, b: © Bettmann/Corbis
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Waste Disposal (1)
Historical waste disposal
US Environmental Laws
• NEPA National Environmental Policy Act 1969
• Clean Air Act 1970
• Clean Water Act 1972
• CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation &Liability Act 1980
• RCRA Resource Conservation & Recovery Act
1976

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Waste Disposal (2)
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Pollution & Contamination
Polluted
• Introduced substance reaches harmful
concentrations
Contaminated
• Substance above natural levels
© Digital Vision/Getty/Images
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Movement of Pollutants
• Point source
• Non point source
(left): © Sinisha Karich/123RF; (right): © Jim Reichard
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Contaminant Plume
a: US EPA
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Aquifer contamination
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Solid Waste
• Municipal solid waste
• Solid waste stream
Municipal solid waste generated in the United States
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Solid Waste Stream
Sanitary landfill
• leachate
Containment landfill
© Doug Sherman/Geofile
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Landfills
© Doug Sherman/Geofile
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Waste Management
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Solid waste (1)
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Solid waste (2)
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Solid Hazardous Waste
Secured landfills
Hazardous waste incinerators
Electronic waste
• Dry cell batteries
• Wet cell batteries
Tires
a: © Johner Royalty-Free/Getty Images
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Solid Waste (3)
© Jim Reichard
Government of Saskatchewan
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Liquid Waste Disposal
Wastewater
• Sewage
Liquid hazardous waste
• Secured landfill
• Deep well injection
Illinois EPA
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Deep Well Injection
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Hazardous waste roundup
Illinois EPA
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Wastewater
• Human waste
• Septic systems
• Municipal wastewater treatment
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Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Photo by Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
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Sewage Systems
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Agricultural & Urban Actions
• Agricultural chemicals
• Animal waste
• Sediment pollution
© Sylvia Smith-Reynolds
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Feedlot pollution
USDA
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Atrazine pollution
a: National Water Quality Assessment Program, USGS
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Mississippi River drainage basin
© Dr. Nancy Rabalais, Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium
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Radioactive Decay
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Radioactive Waste Disposal
Radiation hazards
Disposal problems
• High level waste
• Low level waste
(both): U.S. Dept. of Energy
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Air Pollution and Fallout
• Acid rain
• Mercury fallout
• Radon
b: National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NRSP-3). 2009. NADP Program Office, Illinois State Water Survey
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Acid Rain
(a–b) National Atmospheric Deposition Program/National Trends Network
© Dr. Parvinder Sethi
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Scrubbers
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Anthropogenic mercury (1)
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Anthropogenic mercury (2)
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Radon
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37. Appendix of Image Long
Descriptions

38. Open sewers Long Description
Human waste has historically been disposed of in open sewers where the only treatment consists of dilution.
Open sewers such as the one shown here in Lucknow, India, are still common in many parts of the world.
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39. Historical Pollution Long Description
Rapid industrialization in the United States resulted in dramatic increases in pollution as wastes were freely
discharged into the nation’s air and water. Pollution eventually became such a problem that citizens
demanded action, prompting Congress to enact a series of environmental laws beginning in the 1970s. Photo
(A) taken in 1947 shows unchecked industrial emissions in Tulsa, Oklahoma. In 1952 the Cuyahoga River (B)
in Cleveland, Ohio, caught fire due to the presence of petrochemicals discharged by industry.
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40. Waste Disposal (2) Long Description
Graph showing the cumulative number and status of Superfund sites on the EPA’s National Priorities List
(NPL). Those sites where construction has been completed have the physical infrastructure needed for
remediation in place. Once final cleanup levels are reached, those sites can be removed from the list.
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41. Pollution & Contamination Long Description
Mice or rats are commonly used to extrapolate the health risk of chemical substances to humans. A major
assumption is that these animals and people respond similarly to the same substance. Although the
extrapolated data may not accurately reflect long-term exposure risks to humans, such testing is the most
practical means available for gathering quantitative information on chemicals with a high-risk potential for
humans.
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42. Movement of Pollutants Long Description
Pollutants entering our water supplies come from two types of sources. Point sources are discrete locations
such as pipes discharging wastewater into streams from factories and sewage plants. Nonpoint sources are
those from which contaminants get picked up by water as it moves across the landscape and then enter
stream tributaries. Examples of contaminants from nonpoint sources include chemicals and animal wastes
from agricultural fields and residential lawns and oil from parking lots and highways.
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43. Contaminant Plume Long Description
Contaminant plumes form when polluted water enters surface bodies of water like lakes and streams (A) or
subsurface aquifers (B). Contaminants become diluted due to mixing as the plume grows in size, both
laterally and in the direction of flow. Once a contaminant source has been eliminated, surface waters are
generally able to flush themselves of pollutants relatively quickly. Groundwater moves much more slowly and
can remain polluted for decades to thousands of years.
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44. Aquifer contamination Long Description
Unconfined aquifers are highly susceptible to contamination from surface activities, whereas an aquitard
provides a layer of protection for the underlying confined system. In areas where vertical flow is upward,
confined aquifers are virtually immune from surface contamination. Note how human activity can easily
pollute shallow aquifers, which eventually discharge into streams, polluting them as well.
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45. Solid Waste Long Description
The stream of municipal solid waste generated in the United States can be broken down in several major
categories, shown here as percentages by weight. Paper is by far the largest part of this waste stream. Note
that due to recycling efforts much of this material is removed from the waste stream and is not buried in a
landfill.
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46. Solid Waste Stream Long Description
Sanitary landfills are excavated pits where heavy equipment is used to compact and cover trash with dirt on
a daily basis. Although an improvement over open dumps, these landfills do not prevent the escape of water
that infiltrates and interacts with the trash to form leachate. The escape of leachate from landfills has led to
widespread groundwater pollution.
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47. Landfills Long Description
a) The number of landfills operating in the United States declined 75% after 1988 as new EPA standards
caused many landfills to shut down. The shortage of landfills was compounded by public opposition to
new landfills. This greatly increased the cost of solid waste disposal, as the remaining landfills were able
to charge higher prices for their limited space.
b) To prevent leachate from escaping, modern containment landfills use a compacted clay base overlain by
an impermeable synthetic liner. For additional protection, landfills are typically located in areas of clay-
rich sediment and surrounded by monitoring wells for detecting potential leaks. Clay caps are used to
minimize infiltration, whereas drainage pipes allow for the collection and treatment of leachate. Methane
gas is also recovered and can be used for heating or generating electricity.
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48. Waste Management Long Description
A waste management pyramid describes the strategy many communities use to minimize the amount of solid
waste they must send off to a landfill. The most desirable option is to keep unnecessary waste from entering
the waste stream in the first place. For the waste that is received, recycling, reuse, and incineration are ways
of reducing the volume sent to a landfill.
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49. Solid waste (1) Long Description
Despite an overall increase in the amount of solid waste being generated, the combined efforts of recycling,
composting, and incineration have actually reduced the amount of waste being sent to landfills.
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50. Solid waste (2) Long Description
Percent recycling rates of selected materials in the United States in 2013. The recycling of these materials
not only saves energy and valuable landfill space, but with the exception of yard wastes, also serves as a
source of raw materials that can be used to make new products.
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51. Solid Hazardous Waste Long Description
The volume of electronic waste has grown considerably in recent years (A), creating a disposal problem as
many items contain toxic metals and plastics. To reduce the amount of electronic waste going to landfills,
the EPA and state and local agencies have set up reuse and recycling programs. As indicated in the plot (B),
only relatively small percentages of mobile devices, computers, and televisions are currently being recycled.
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52. Solid Waste (3) Long Description
a) This pile of depleted dry-cell batteries, collected in just one year by the author, illustrates the size of the
battery disposal problem. Because batteries contain heavy metals that are highly toxic, many state and
local governments are instituting battery recycling programs to help remove batteries from the municipal
waste stream.
b) In the past, scrap tires have been either placed in landfills or stockpiled on the surface in large open
dumps, such as the one shown here in Saskatchewan, Canada. Such dumps created problems with
mosquito-borne diseases and produced toxic fumes when the tires caught fire. In the United States the
recent market for used tires has greatly reduced the stockpile of discarded tires.
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53. Liquid Waste Disposal Long Description
Considerable amounts of liquid hazardous waste stored on-site have been left abandoned by bankrupt
companies, leaving costly cleanup efforts to government agencies, as shown in this photo taken in Illinois.
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54. Deep Well Injection Long Description
Deep-well injection involves disposing of liquid hazardous waste by pumping the material into a deep, saline
aquifer that is not used as a water supply. Shown here is a worst-case scenario where groundwater naturally
leaks upward, allowing the waste to contaminate freshwater aquifers via fractures and abandoned oil wells
that have not been properly sealed. Contamination can also occur due to leakage along the casing of the
injection well.
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55. Hazardous waste roundup Long Description
In order to reduce the amount of hazardous household materials entering the municipal waste stream, some
state and local governments now hold hazardous waste roundups where citizens can drop off household
wastes for proper disposal by trained personnel. Photo from the State of Illinois.
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56. Wastewater Long Description
Septic systems are used for household wastewater in areas that are not connected to municipal sewage
systems. Wastewater first goes into a holding tank where solids settle out and anaerobic bacteria partially
break down the organic matter. Water and suspended waste eventually leave the tank and flow into a drain
field and then percolate through an unsaturated gravel bed. Here the remaining organic matter and
pathogens are removed by aerobic bacteria.
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57. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Long Description
Modern wastewater treatment uses a series of processes to separate out solids and break down oxygen-
demanding organic matter. Primary treatment involves the settling out of solids, and is followed by
secondary treatment where aeration allows aerobic bacteria to break down most of the remaining waste. A
final disinfection step is often used to eliminate any harmful bacteria that may remain. Tertiary treatment is
sometimes included to reduce the amounts of nutrients and certain hazardous compounds.
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58. Sewage Systems Long Description
Many older cities have combined sewer systems rather than separate collection systems for sewage and
storm runoff. During heavy rains or rapid snowmelt, the runoff is mixed with sewage and allowed to
discharge directly into streams so as to not overwhelm the treatment plant. The raw sewage can cause a
host of problems, particularly for cities located downstream that use the river for their water supply.
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59. Agricultural & Urban Actions Long Description
Photo showing a section of the Canoochee River in coastal Georgia that is completely covered with algae and
experiencing severe oxygen depletion. The algae are fed by excessive nutrients, then die and fall to the
bottom of the river where aerobic bacteria break down the material and remove oxygen from the water.
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60. Feedlot pollution Long Description
Animal feedlots generate large amounts of manure and urine. To reduce the volume, the waste is put in
holding lagoons where it is partially decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. The remaining waste is normally
applied to fields. However, overapplication commonly leads to pollution and nutrient-loading problems in
shallow aquifers and nearby streams.
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61. Atrazine pollution Long Description
Map (A) showing areas of the U.S. Corn Belt where streams can be expected to contain elevated levels of
the pesticide atrazine. Graph (B) showing how the atrazine concentration in the Platte River in Nebraska
typically spikes in the spring and early summer after the pesticide is applied to farm fields.
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62. Mississippi River drainage basin Long Description
The runoff of agricultural nutrients within the Mississippi River drainage basin has led to a zone of oxygen-
depleted water in the Gulf of Mexico. This hypoxic zone or “dead zone” has been growing in recent years
and is a threat to the marine ecosystem.
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63. Radioactive Decay Long Description
When the nucleus of an unstable isotope undergoes nuclear decay, it emits radiation, consisting of alpha and
beta particles and energy waves called gamma rays. Because gamma rays possess the most energy and are
not particles, they have the greatest ability to penetrate objects and threaten human health.
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64. Radioactive Waste Disposal Long Description
Yucca Mountain in Nevada was selected by the U.S. federal government to be a central repository for high-
level nuclear wastes. The waste would be stored in specially designed containers and placed in mined-out
shafts within volcanic rocks approximately 1,000 feet above the water table. Although official scientific
studies have found the site suitable, concerns remain over the possibility of seismic activity and rising water
levels due to future climatic changes.
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65. Air Pollution and Fallout Long Description
Map (A) showing the locations of U.S. coal-fired power plants in 2007—those equipped with pollution
controls for removing sulfur dioxide are shown in green. Map (B) shows the average pH of precipitation in
2007. Due to the prevailing winds, acid rain was most severe in the northeast region, which lies downwind of
the major concentration of coal-fired power plants. Acid rain has lessened significantly in recent years due to
emissions reductions.
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66. Acid Rain Long Description
a) Maps showing significant improvements in acid rain as reflected by the lower amounts of atmospheric
sulfate (SO4 2–) deposited via precipitation over the eastern United States. The changes are largely the
result of new emission standards for electric power plants.
b) Photo from the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina showing trees that were killed by acid rain, the
source of which could have been hundreds of miles away upwind.
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67. Scrubbers Long Description
Scrubbers are a means of chemically removing pollutants from emission gases. In general, some form of
powdered limestone is injected into the emission gases as they leave the combustion chamber of a
coalburning plant. The limestone then bonds with the SO2 gas to form solids, which fall to the bottom of a
collection chamber, where they are later removed and disposed of in a landfill.
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68. Anthropogenic mercury (1) Long Description
Anthropogenic mercury enters the atmosphere when compounds containing mercury undergo combustion.
During combustion two different forms of gaseous mercury are liberated: elemental (Hg0) and oxidized
(Hg2+). Oxidized mercury is highly reactive and tends to fall out of the atmosphere relatively close to the
emission source as dry particles and in precipitation. Elemental mercury is nonreactive and stays in the
atmosphere, circling the globe until encountering oxidizing gases that convert it into oxidized mercury.
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69. Anthropogenic mercury (2) Long Description
Anthropogenic mercury emissions in the United States have decreased significantly due to EPA regulations
requiring scrubbing systems on medical and municipal waste incinerators. Today the single largest source of
mercury released into the atmosphere is old coal-fired power plants.
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70. Radon Long Description
Uranium minerals release radioactive radon gas that can enter a house through cracks and joints and in well
water. Once in the house, radon can become trapped and build up to dangerous levels. Radon is easily
inhaled into the lungs, where it decays into radioactive particles of polonium that become trapped and
damage lung tissue. The health risk due to radon can be reduced by eliminating entry points into the home
and installing a ventilation system that prevents the gas from building up.
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