2. WHAT IS SYNTAX
• Talking about the structure and function of a sentence or parts of a
sentence
3. PHRASE AND THEIR TYPES
• A phrase is a group of words that make sense, but only partly. It is part of a sentence but does
not have a finite verb.
in this city at the last moment the lashing waves of the sea some books
Each of these phrases plays an important role when joined to the main part of a sentence.
Example: They live in this city.
He joined the team at the last moment.
I could see the lashing waves of the sea.
He has written some books
4. TYPES
• There are mainly FIVE different kinds of phrases based on different parts of speech.
1. Noun Phrase:
• A group of words that does the function of a noun in a sentence is called a noun phrase.
• Example:
His sudden resignation is a mystery.
A fifty-year-old man was sitting in the garden.
2. Adjective Phrase:
A group of words that does the function of an adjective in a sentence is called an adjective
phrase.
Example: My neighbour is a man with strange habits.
This chain is made of gold.
5. TYPES CONT’D ….
3. Adverb Phrase:
A group of words that does the function of an adverb in a sentence is called an adverb
phrase.
Example:
He lived in Saudi Arabia once upon a time.
Please place the chemicals in the storeroom.
4. Verbal Phrase: A verbal phrase consists of any of phrases that function as a verb
5. Prepositional Phrase:
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object and any modifiers of the object.
6. CLAUSE AND ITS TYPES
• A Clause is a group of words which contains a ‘finite verb’.
• Clauses are of two types:
• a) Main clauses
• b) Subordinate Clauses
• A main clause is also called the Principal Clause or Independent Clause. It does not
have further varieties.
• A subordinate clause, which can also be called Dependent Clause, has THREE types:
• i) Noun Clause ii) Adjective Clause iii) Adverb Clause
7. NOUN CLAUSE
It is a clause that does the work of a noun in a sentence and, so, is called a noun
clause.
• Example:
• He says it will not work.
• (Here, ‘he says’ is the main or principal clause; ‘it will not work’ is the
subordinate clause)
• (In this example, ‘it’ is used as the object of transitive verb ‘says’. Since this
subordinate clause does the work of a noun, it is a noun clause.)
8. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE:
• It is a clause that does the work of an adjective in a sentence and, so, is called
an adjective clause.
• Example:
• I remember the letter that she wrote to me.
• (In this example ‘I remember the letter’ is the main or principal clause and
‘that she wrote to me’ is the subordinate clause)
• (Since the subordinate clause describes or qualifies the noun ‘letter’, it is an
adjective clause.
9. ADVERB CLAUSE
• It is a clause that does the work of an adverb in a sentence, so it is called an
adverb clause.
• Example:
• He could not come because he was sick.
• (In this sentence, ‘he could not come’ is the main or principal clause and
‘because he was sick’ is the subordinate clause. Since the subordinate clause
modifies the verb ‘come’, it is an adverb clause)
10. SENTENCE AND ITS TYPES
A group of words that has at least one finite verb and makes complete sense is
said to be a sentence.
• Example:
• The children of that school wear blue uniforms.
• This is the theory which throws light on superconductivity.
• Parts of a sentence:
• Any sentence can be divided into the following two parts:
• 1) Subject part
• 2) Predicate part
11.
12. TYPES OF SENTENCE
• We can classify sentences into FOUR kinds on the basis of the meaning
they convey
• assertive,
• interrogative,
• imperative and
• exclamatory.
• Look at the tables on the following slides
13. ASSERTIVE OF DECLARATIVE
• These are sentences that state facts,
describe things, or report events.
These may give a positive or negative
meaning.
• Assertive sentences can further be of
the following TWO types:
• i) Yes-sentence or affirmative
sentence
• ii) No-sentence or negative sentence
14. • Yes-sentence or affirmative sentence:
• A sentence that affirms something in a positive
way is called an Affirmative or Yes-sentence.
Sentence Structure: S + V + O + full stop (.)
• Example:
• He is a rich man.
• I can complete this work today. T
• hey understand our difficulties.
• I have watched a test-match on TV
• No-sentence or negative sentence:
• A sentence that does not affirm anything but
conveys negative meaning is called a Negative or
No-sentence.
• Sentence Structure: S + V + No/Not + O + full stop
(.)
• Example:
• He is not a rich man.
• I cannot complete this work today.
• They don’t understand our difficulties.
• I have never watched a test-match on TV.
15. INTERROGATIVE
• These sentences are used to make
enquiries or ask for information
• They can be further divided into
THREE kinds as:
• i) Yes/No Question
• ii) Wh-Questions or Target Question
• iii) Tag Question
16. YES/NO QUESTION:
• These Sentences are used to make enquiries or
ask for information with the help of Auxiliary
or modal verbs like do, does, did, is, am, are,
was, were, will, shall, has, have, had, can, could,
need, ought to, etc,
• Such questions can be answered in ‘yes’ or
‘no’.
• Sentence Structure:
• Auxiliary verb + S + O + question mark (?)
• Example:
• Can I leave early today?
• Shall we have pizza for lunch
together?
• Is the bus going to be late?
17. WH-QUESTIONS OR TARGET QUESTION:
• Example:
• Where are you going?
• What shall we have for lunch
today?
• Why is the bus late this
morning?
• These sentences are used to make enquiries or
ask for information with the help of Wh-words
like what, when, where, why, who, whose, which,
how, etc.
• Such questions cannot be answered in ‘yes’ or
‘no’.
• They need to have full-sentence answers.
• Sentence Structure:
• Wh-word + S + O + question mark (?)
18. TAG QUESTIONS:
• These sentences are used to make
enquiries or ask for information with
the help of Auxiliary verbs and subject
added at the end position — do, does,
did, is, am, are, was, were, has, have,
had, etc.
• Such questions can also be answered
in ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
• Example:
• He will help me, won’t he?
• They are going out of station, aren’t
they?
• The bus isn’t late this morning, is it?
• Safal wasn’t your batchmate, was
he?
19. IMPERATIVE
• The sentences that express an order,
request, advice, a direction, a suggestion,
a command, etc, are imperative
sentences.
• These sentences start with the verb, and
the subject (you) is understood.
express...
20. • Example:
• Take these books to the library.
(command)
• Get me a cup of coffee please. (request)
• Kindly/Please lend me your pen.
(request)
• Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
(suggestion)
• There are some sentences which express
‘commands’ in an indirect way. ‘Let’ is used at
the beginning of these sentences.
• Subject is not omitted but expressed in these
sentences.
• Example:
• Let the manager talk to the director first.
• Let’s start without any further delay.
• Let the staff assemble in the conference
room
21. EXCLAMATORY
• The sentences that express surprise,
admiration, pity, sorrow and other
feelings in an emphatic way are called
exclamatory sentences.
• They can either be formed with the
use of Interjections such as oops, alas,
bravo, hurrah, oh, ah, etc, or selected
Wh – words such as what and how.
22. EXCLAMATORY
• Sentence Structure:
• Interjection/Wh-word + exclamation
mark (!) + S + V + O
• Or, Interjection/Wh-word + S + V + O
+ exclamation mark (!)
• Example:
• Oh! I broke my spectacles!
• Bravo! We won the match!
• How fast time flies!
• What a beautiful view we have from
here!
• What a wonderful piece of art this is!
23. TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES
• Earlier in this chapter you learnt about the different kinds of sentences and
their sentence structure on the basis of their meaning.
• Now from here on, you will learn how one kind of sentence can be transformed
(changed) into another kind by changing their basic sentence structures.
24. TRANSFORMATION OF AFFIRMATIVE/DECLARATIVE
INTO NEGATIVE SENTENCES
• For transforming an
affirmative sentence into a
negative sentence, an
antonym can be used
along with the negative
word, so that the meaning
remains the same.
25. • It is possible to change an
affirmative sentence into a
negative sentence with a change
in the meaning.
• The use of negative words gives
the sentence an opposite
meaning.
26. TRANSFORMATION OF INTERROGATIVE INTO
NEGATIVE SENTENCES
• In case of interrogative sentences, the
negative word ‘not’ comes after the
subject and before the main verb.
• Sentence Structure:
• Do/Does/Did + S + action-verb + O
(assertive sentence)
• Do/Does/Did + S + not + action-verb + O
(negative sentence)
Interrogative
27. TRANSFORMATION OF IMPERATIVE INTO NEGATIVE
SENTENCES
• In case of imperative sentences ‘do
not/don’t’ are used to change affirmative
sentences into negative sentence.
• Sentence Structure: Action-verb + O
(assertive sentence)
• Do not / Don’t + action-verb + not + Obj.
(negative sentence)
Imperative…
29. TRANSFORMATION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
(COMMAND INTO REQUEST)
• For transforming a command sentence
into a request sentence, the sentence
structure is changed by placing request-
word such as ‘please’, ‘kindly’, could you
…….please’ before the verb and the
object.
Command Request …….
30. TRANSFORMATION OF ASSERTIVE INTO EXCLAMATORY
SENTENCES
• For transforming an assertive sentence into an
exclamatory sentence, the sentence structure is
changed by placing Interjection or Wh-word
before the subject, verb and the object.
• Sentence Structure:
• S + V + O (assertive sentence)
• Interjection/Wh-word + S + verb + O +
exclamation mark (!) (exclamatory sentence)
Exclamatory....
..
31. SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES
• A sentence, for the purpose of
analysis, can be examined from the
point of view of its structure as:
• (i) Simple Sentence
• (ii) Compound Sentence
• (iii) Complex Sentence
• Example:
• He has a big house (simple sentence)
• He has a house and it is very big. (compound
sentence – two simple sentence joined by the
coordinating conjunction, ‘and’)
• He has a house which is very big. (complex
sentence – having a main clause and a
subordinate clause joned by a subordinating
conjunction)
32. SIMPLE SENTENCE
• A simple sentence contains only one main
clause.
• It DOES NOT have subordinate clauses.
• Example:
• My father is a senior manager in this
organization.
• Chandigarh is a planned city.
• Microbiology is an interesting subject for
me.
33. COMPOUND SENTENCE
• A compound sentence contains at least two main
clauses (each having an independent finite verb).
• A compound sentence consists of two or more
independent clauses joined together by
conjunctions.
• One of them is a main clause while others are
coordinated to the main clause. They are called
coordinate clauses.
• Such coordinate clauses are of equal rank and can
convey complete meaning by themselves.
• These clauses are joined by coordinating
conjunctions or correlative conjunctions.
• Example:
• You may either stay in the hostel or stay with your
relatives.
• The flowers are blooming, the birds were singing,
and spring was in the air.
• We went to the market but the shops were closed
so we came back home.
• Not only is he knowledgeable but also has a lot of
experience in handling such cases
34. COMPLEX SENTENCE
• A complex sentence contains only one
main clause and at least one subordinate
clause.
• Subordinating conjunctions are used to
introduce clauses and join them to main
clause.
• Given below is a list of subordinating
conjunctions: when, while, who, which,
where, whereas, wherever, after, before,
since, as, if, whether, unless, because, that,
such…that, so…that, than, though, etc.
• Example:
• As soon as the meeting began, a
member said that he wanted to raise
a point of order.
• When he heard the news he did not
believe it.
35. TRANSFORMATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCE INTO
COMPOUND SENTENCE
• Look at the following examples and
see how two simple sentences are
transformed into a compound
sentence by using conjunctions to
join independent clauses.
• Example:
• The doctor took all precautions. His condition
deteriorated. (simple)
• The doctor took all precautions, still his
condition deteriorated. (compound)
• The illiterate gets cheated. The educated also
gets cheated. (simple)
• Not only the illiterate but the educated also get
cheated. (compound)
36. TRANSFORMATION OF SIMPLE SENTENCE INTO
COMPLEX SENTENCE
• Look at the following examples and see how
two simple sentences are transformed into a
complex sentence by using subordinating
conjunctions to join independent clauses
• Example:
• I was surprised. I heard his dismissal.
(simple)
• I was surprised when I heard his
dismissal. (complex)
• I was busy. I could not meet them.
(simple)
• As I was busy, I could not meet them.
(complex)
37. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
• Direct Speech:
• When the words said by the speaker
are said by someone else without
making any change to it, it is said to
be in direct speech.
• Indirect Speech:
• When the words said by the speaker
is said by someone else after making
certain changes to its sentence
structure without changing its
meaning, it is said to be in indirect
speech or reported speech.
38. • Ram said, “I am going home.” (direct
speech)
• Ram said that he was going home.
(indirect speech)
• “Come and have your breakfast”,
mother said. (direct speech)
• Mother asked me to come and have
my breakfast. (indirect speech)
39. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
• A sentence can be expressed either in active or passive voice depending on what kind of
verb (transitive or intransitive) it has.
40. ACTIVE VOICE:
• A verb (transitive) is in active voice
when it tells us something that a
person or a thing does.
• In other words, an active voice
expresses an action performed by the
subject.
• Sentence Structure:
• Subject + Verb (any tense) + Object
• Example:
• Gautam bought a new cycle.
• Her cousins tease her
• Am I disturbing you?
• When did you post the letter?
41. PASSIVE VOICE
• A verb (transitive) is in passive voice
when it tells us something that is
done to a person or thing.
• In other words, a passive voice
expresses an action performed upon
the subject.
• Sentence Structure:
• Subject + Auxiliary Verb + V3 (third
form of verb) + Object
• Examples:
• A new cycle was bought by Gautam.
• She is teased by her cousins.
• Are you being disturbed by me?
• When was the letter posted by you?
42. WHEN DO WE USE THE PASSIVE VOICE?
• When the agent is not important
• • When the agent is understood
• • When it is to be kept as confidential
• • When the subject is ‘they’
• • When the writing is impersonal like scientific or process writing.
• • When the speaker wishes to remain neutral
43. CONDITIONAL SENTENCE
• The sentences having any kind of ‘condition’,
which works as the force behind happening of
the action (expressed through the main verbs
of the principal clause), is called Conditional
Sentences.
• The modals will, would, can and could often
appear in conditional sentences.
• Usually conditional sentences have two clauses:
• 1. If-clause
• 2. Principal or main clause
• If I have the time, I will go
• If my headache disappears, we can play
tennis.
• If today were Saturday, we could go to
the beach.
• If we didn’t have to study, we could go
out tonight.
• If he works hard, he will definitely top the
examination.
44. PAST OF THE ‘BE’ VERB IN UNREAL CONDITIONAL
• In unreal condition, the past tense form of
‘be-verb’ is always ‘were’ in a conditional
sentence; it can NEVER be ‘was’ in correct
English.
• Look at the given ‘if-clause’.
45. EXERCISES
• 1. He looked for his book the cushion. (a) cushion (b) under them cushion (c) under the cushion
(d) into cushion
• 2. We went to see her whose she was not well. (a) when she was not well. (b) which she was not
well. (c) where she was not well. (d) who she was not well.
• 3. Why you don’t ever finish the work on time? (a) you don’t ever finish (b) don’t you ever finish
(c) you doesn’t ever finish (d) doesn’t you ever finish
• 4. He will be happy to see me, he won’t? (a) aren’t he? (b) won’t he? (c) he aren’t? (d) am I not?
• 5. They weren’t planning to go on a vacation, weren’t they? (a) isn’t they? (b) wasn’t they? (c) was
they? (d) were they?
46. • 6. Let’s the assignment be completed soon. (a) Lets the assignment (b) Let him the assignment (c)
Let the assignment (d) Let them the assignment
• 7. Bravo! I hurt my toe. (a) Hey, I hurt my toe! (b) Yippie! I hurt my toe. (c) Amen! I hurt my toe. (d)
Ouch! I hurt my toe.
• 8. Not only is he smart so also has a lot of keenness to learn. (a) but also has (b) while also has (c)
which also has (d) and also has
• 9. Naresh said he has met most of the team members. (a) he meet (b) he meeting (c) he had met
(d) he had been met
• 10. He said New Delhi was the capital of India. (a) New Delhi will be the capital (b) New Delhi is
the capital (c) New Delhi were the capital (d) New Delhi capital
47. • 11. My neighbour told me someone has been looking for me yesterday. (a) will be looking (b) is
looking (c) have been looking (d) had been looking
• 12. When did you had your dinner? (a) did you be having (b) did you have (c) did you having (d)
did you has
• 13. She said she shall be doing some important work next Friday. (a) she should be doing (b) she
would be doing (c) she shall doing (d) she must be doing
• 14. Simran told to me that he was the captain of the team. (a) told me (b) said me (c) says me (d)
tells me
• 15. I approached the policeman and enquired him when I could leave the city. (a) enquired from
him (b) enquired to him (c) enquired of him (d) enquired for him
