This document, prepared by Prof. Ashish Makwana from the Civil Engineering Department, outlines essential processes and considerations involved in heavy construction projects, particularly focusing on earthmoving operations and soil properties. It discusses various steps such as clearing, digging, moving, dumping, spreading, and compacting, along with terms like compaction, optimum moisture content, and different types of soil. Other critical technical factors related to machine performance and resistance during earthworks, such as rolling resistance, grade resistance, and the effects of altitude on engine performance, are also covered.

1. Prepared by
Prof. Ashish Makwana
Civil Engineering Dept. - MEFGI
1Prof. Ashish Makwana

2. 2Prof. Ashish Makwana

3. PRESENTATION
OUTLINE…
• General
• Compaction
• Effect of compaction on soil properties
• MDD and OMC
• Types of Soils
• Soil properties
• Fundamental definitions
• Rolling Resistance
3Prof. Ashish Makwana

4. • Grade Resistance
• Coefficient of Traction
• Rimpull
• Drawbar Pull
• Effect of Altitude on Performance of IC Engines
• Effect of Pressure and Temperature on
performance of IC engines
PRESENTATION
OUTLINE…
4Prof. Ashish Makwana

5. GENERAL
• Heavy construction projects  require the handling and
processing of large quantities of bulk materials.
• 3 crucial material considerations  considered by an
engineer while taking a new material handling problem of
a project:
1. total quantity
of material
2. rate at which it
must be moved
3. size of the
individual pieces
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6. Land has to be cleared of jungle or vegetation before
any construction activity can be started which may be
for making roads, building embankments or drainage
works etc.
GENERAL
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7. Clearing or
loosening
Digging Moving
Dumping
Spreading &
compacting.
BASIC EARTH MOVING
OPERATIONS
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8. (1) CLEARING OR LOOSENING
This is the preparatory stage, which involves
removing top soil or brush to expose the mass of
earth to be moved.
This may also involve loosening the material by
blasting to put the material in to a workable state.
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9. (2) DIGGING
These steps involve digging the material to start the
move from its original location.
Some construction situations or equipments combine
the loosening and digging operations in one
integrated step.
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10. (3) Moving
This involves moving the material from its original
location to deposit point.
For a highway or other construction projects there is
commonly the need for moving large quantities of
earth materials on and off the location or along the
route.
10Prof. Ashish Makwana

11. (4) DUMPING
It is dumping the material at its place for deposit. It is
dumped in the general area selected for its final
deposit or use.
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12. (5). SPREADING AND COMPACTING
It involves, working on the material to put it in to final
specified condition at its place of use.
The dumped material will need to be spread in a
uniform layer. It may also need watering for specified
moisture content and compaction for 95% optimum
density.
Some earthwork operations will not include the last step.
These all operations are accomplished by different earth
moving equipments and combination of two machines.
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13. WORK CYCLE FOR
AN EARTH WORK OPERATION
Fig. WORK CYCLE
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14. COMPACTION
• Compaction is a process by which soil particles are
artificially rearranged and packed together into a closer
state of contact by mechanical means in order to
decrease the void ratio of the soil and thus increase dry
density.
14Prof. Ashish Makwana

15. EFFECT OF COMPACTION ON
SOIL PROPERTIES
Soil structure Permeability Shrinkage Swelling
Pore water
pressure
Compressibility
Stress-strain
relationship
Shear strength
15Prof. Ashish Makwana

16. MDD AND OMC
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
• With increase in water content, initially the dry density
increases and becomes maximum. With further increase
in water content, the dry density decreases. The water
content at which dry density is maximum, is called
optimum moisture content.
Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
• The dry density corresponding to optimum moisture
content is called maximum dry density.
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17. TYPES OF SOILS
Gravel Sand Silt
Clay Organic matter
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18. 1. Preliminary operations
EARTH MOVING MACHINE REQUIRED
FOR VARIOUS FUNCTION
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19. 2. Clearing operations
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20. 3. Excavating soil
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21. Loader Tipper Rear dumper
Bottom dumper Articulated dump truck Scraper
Bucket conveyor Belt conveyor
4. Loading & Transporting soil
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22. Dozer
Grader
5. Spreading & Leveling soil
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23. Plow Disc harrow
Mix in place
plant
Traveling plant Stationery mixer
6. Mixing soil
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24. Steel drum
roller
Pneumatic
tired roller
Sheep foot
roller
Vibratory
roller
tamper
7. Compacting soil
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25. SOIL PROPERTIES
Compressibility Elasticity Capillarity
Shearing
resistance
Internal friction
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26. SOIL PROPERTIES (CONTINUED…)
Cohesion of
soil grains
Shrinkage Consolidation
Permeability Settlement
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27. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
Water content (w) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝑥 100 %
Bulk unit weight (𝛾 𝑏) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Dry unit weight (𝛾 𝑑) =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Saturated unit weight
(𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡)
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Submerged unit weight
(𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏)
=
𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Unit weight of solids (𝛾𝑠) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
Specific Gravity (G) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟27Prof. Ashish Makwana

28. FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS (continued…)
Void ratio (e) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠
Porosity (n) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Degree of saturation (𝑆 𝑟) =
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
Air content (𝑎 𝑐) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑠
Percentage air voids (𝑛 𝑎) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Density Index (𝐼 𝐷) =
𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑛
28Prof. Ashish Makwana

29. ROLLING RESISTANCE
• It is a resistance, which is encountered by a vehicle
while moving over a road.
𝐑 =
𝐏
𝐖
Where,
R = rolling resistance in kg. tonne
P = total tension in tow cable in kg.
W = gross weight of truck in tonne
29Prof. Ashish Makwana

30. GRADE RESISTANCE
• The force opposing movement of a machine up a
frictionless slope is known as grade resistance.
Total Resistance:
• Total resistance equals rolling resistance plus grade
resistance minus grade assistance. It can also be
expressed as an effective grade.
Rolling resistance expressed in lb / ton
9
kg
ton
= G %
30Prof. Ashish Makwana

31. COEFFICIENT OF TRACTION
• The coefficient of traction is defined as the factor by
which the load on a driving tyre (ie. downward force)
should be multiplied to determine the maximum possible
tractive force between the tyre of track and the surface of
road before slipping occurs.
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32. Approximate values of coefficient of traction
Road surfaces Rubber tyres Tracks
Smooth concrete 0.80 – 1.00 0.30 – 0.6
Rough concrete 0.80 – 1.00 0.45
Clay 0.50 – 0.80 0.60 – 0.90
Firm sand/gravel 0.30 – 0.40 0.70 – 0.90
Loose sand 0.10 – 0.30 0.30 – 0.50
Dry snow 0.20 0.15 – 0.35
Ice 0.10 0.10 – 0.25
Firm loam 0.40 – 0.80 0.60 – 1.00
Loose loam 0.40 – 0.60 0.70 – 1.00
32Prof. Ashish Makwana

33. RIMPULL
• Rimpull is a term that is used to designate the tractive
force between the tires of a machine’s driving wheels
and the surface on which they travel.
𝐑𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐥 =
275 x hp x efficiency
speed (kmph)
kg
33Prof. Ashish Makwana

34. DRAWBAR PULL
• The towing force a crawler can exert on a load is
referred to as drawbar pull. Drawbar pull is typically
expressed in kilograms.
• To determine the drawbar pull available for towing a load
it is necessary to subtract from the total pulling force
available at the engine the force required to overcome
the total resistance imposed by the haul conditions.
• If a crawler tractor tows a load up a slope, its drawbar
pull will be reduced by 9 kg. for each ton of weight of the
tractor for each 1% slope.
34Prof. Ashish Makwana

35. EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON
PERFORMANCE OF IC ENGINES
• When a manufacture provides a flywheel horse power
rating it is based on standard conditions, such as a
temperature of 15.50℃ and sea-level barometric
pressure of mercury (76 cm).
• For natural operation at altitudes above see level will
cause a significant decrease in available engine power.
This power is caused by the decrease in air density due
to increase in altitude. The air density in turn affects the
fuel to – air ratio during combustion in the engine’s
piston.
• For all practical purposes, the loss in power may by
approximately taken as 1% for every 100 m. above the
first 300 m.
35Prof. Ashish Makwana

36. EFFECT OF PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
ON PERFORMANCE OF IC ENGINES
• The horse power developed by an IC engine is the power
tested under standard conditions of temperature and
pressure. i.e. normal atmospheric pressure at mean – sea
level at a temperature of 15.5 ℃.
He = H0
Ps
P0
T0
Ts
Where,
He = Corrected hp for standard condition
H0 = Observed hp as determined for test
PS = Standard barometric pressure
P0 = Observed barometric pressure
T0 = Absolute observed temperature
TS = Absolute temperature for standard condition
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37. 37Prof. Ashish Makwana