EMILE_DURKHEIMS_SOCIOLOGY_4_MAJOR_WORKS.pptx

ÉMILE DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY:FOUR
MAJOR WORKS
ANIRBAN BANERJEE
PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
COMPOSITE BUILDING
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
GOLAPBAG
BURDWAN 713104
WEST BENGAL
INDIA
2017 1

INTRODUCTION
• ACCORDING TO COSER:
• “ÉMILE DURKHEIM WAS THE
FIRST FRENCH ACADEMIC
• SOCIOLOGIST”(3:143)
• BORN AT ESPINAL , LORRAINE,
FRANCE ON APRIL15,1858.
• DIED ON NOVEMBER 15,1917 ,
AGED 59 YEARS
3

SOCIAL BACKGROUND I
• DURKHEIM- SON OF A RABBI
• BELONGED TO ASKENITE BRANCH OF
JEWS
• STUDIED IN ECOLE NORMALE
SUPERIOR
4

SOCIAL BACKGROUND II
• DURKHEIM TAUGHT SOCIOLOGY AND
PEDAGOGY AT BORDEUX UNIVERSITY
5

SOCIAL BACKGROUND III
• DURKHEIM WAS
• PROFESSOR OF SCIENCE AND
EDUCATION AT SORBONNE
UNIVERSITY.
• LATER OCCUPIED THE FIRST CHAIR IN
SOCIOLOGY AT SORBONNE .
6

SOCIAL CONTEXT-I
FRANCE IN TURMOIL
• POLITICS AND RIGHT WING ELEMENTS OF THIRD REPUBLIC MARKED BY
CONFRONTATION BETWEEN LEFTISTS
AND RIGHTISTS.
• REPEATED ATTEMPTS TO UNDERMINE
DEMOCRACY.
• FRENCH PRESIDENT MACMAHON
HAD DICTATORIAL AMBITIONS.
BUT FAILED TO SEIZE POWER OWING TO
STRONG OPPOSITION
7

SOCIAL CONTEXT-II
GEN.BOULANGER, FRENCH WAR MINISTER,
ATTEMPTED TO SEIZE POWER.
• TAKING ADVANTAGE OF
POPULAR RESENTMENT OVER
CORRUPTION IN HIGH PLACES
PLOTTED A COUP.
• TRICKED INTO BELIEVING
THAT THERE WAS AN ONGOING
INVESTIGATION INTO HIS
TREASONABLE ACTIVITIES.
• FLED TO BELGIUM
• COMMITTED SUICIDE
8

DURKHEIM’S PARTICIPATION IN PUBLIC
LIFE –I
DREFYUS CASE .
DREFYUS, A FRENCH MILITARY
OFFICER CHARGED , CONVICTED
PUNISHED FOR
SPYING.WIDESPREAD FEELING
THAT HE HAD BEEN WRONGED.
DREFYUS CASE DIVIDED
FRENCH SOCIETY INTO PRO
AND ANTI-DREFYUSARDS.
DURKHEIM ACTIVELY
PARTICIPATED IN THE
MOVEMENT TO GIVE JUSTICE
TO DREFYUS.RETRIAL ORDERED.
DREFYUS EXONERATED.
DREFYUS
CASE
HIGHLIGHTED THE
DEEPROOTED ANTI-SEMITISM IN
LATE 19TH CENTURY
FRENCH SOCIETY
9

CHANGES IN THE SOCIAL
STRUCTURE OF FRANCE
• DECLINE OF AGRICULTURAL POPULATION
• 1870-AGRICULTURE MAINSTAY OF FRENCH ECONOMY
• 1914 –AGRICULTURAL POPULATION DROPPED TO 44%.
• INCREASE IN INDUSTRIAL WORKERS
• 1870-INDUSTRIAL WORKERS 23%
• 1914- INDUSTRIAL WORKERS AND ARTISANS 39%.
• SOCIALIST MOVEMENTS BEGIN
• WORKERS SECURE TRADE UNION RIGHTS
• FRENCH SOCIETY WAS MORE AND MORE BEING
TRANSFORMED INTO AN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
• MIDDLE CLASS DOMINATED THE POLITICS OF THE THIRD
REPUBLIC
10

DURKHEIM’S PARTICIPATION IN
PUBLIC LIFE II
• DURKHEIM PLAYED A MAJOR ROLE IN WORLD WAR I.
• HE CHAIRED A COMMITTEE CHARGED WITH PUBLISHING DOCUMENTS ON THE
HISTORY OF THE WAR .
• DURKHEIM ATTACKED GERMANS IN A SERIES OF ARTICLES.
• TALCOTT PARSONS RIGHTLY OBSERVED THAT THE WAR WAS A GREAT BLOW AND
STRAIN TO DURKHEIM.(18:311)
• DURKHEIM’S ONLY SON, ANDRE , A PROMISING SCHOLAR , WAS KILLED IN THE
WAR.
11

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT-I
• DURKHEIM WAS INFLUENCED BY MANY SCHOLARS
• FRENCH INFLUENCES
• WE WILL FIRST DISCUSS FRENCH
• INFLUENCES
• AMONG THESE SCHOLARS WAS
THE NOTED FRENCH PHILOSOPHERS,
MONTESQUIEU , COMTE, BOUTROUX,
AND HISTORIAN COULANGES.
•
• MONTESQUIEU
• MONTESQUIEU’S HOLISTIC VIEW OF SOCIETY INFLUENCED DURKHEIM.
• MONTESQUIEU’S MAIN METHOD WAS UNDOGMATIC OBSERVATION.
• MONTESQUIEU REGARDED RELIGION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION.
• MONTESQUIEU REGARDED DESPOTISM, SLAVERY AND INTOLERANCE AS
INTRINSICALLY EVIL.(2)
12

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT-II
• COMTE’S CONCEPT OF SOLIDARITY
INFLUENCED DURKHEIM’S CONCEPT
OF SOLIDARITY.
• COMTE REGARDED INSTITUTIONS
NOT SO MUCH AS WHAT THEY ARE
BUT HOW THEY CONTRIBUTED TO
THE LARGER WHOLE.
• THERE MUST BE HARMONY
BETWEEN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE
SOCIAL SYSTEM.(3)
13

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT III
• FUSTEL DE COULANGES
• FUSTEL DE COULANGES –HIS HISTORICAL
METHOD INFLUENCED DURKHEIM.
• HIS HISTORICAL THOUGHT HAD TWO
MAIN TENETS-OBJECTIVITY AND
UNRELIABILTY OF SECONDARY
SOURCES.
• HE ESTABLISHED THE MODERN
IDEA OF HISTORICAL
IMPARTIALITY.
• ADVOCATED RELIANCE ON
CONTEMPORARY DOCUMENTS.
• INFLUENCED DURKHEIM’S WORK
ON DIVISION OF LABOUR
“DE LA DIVISION
DU TRAVAIL SOCIAL”
• (4)
14

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT IV
• EMILE BOUTROUX-
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF
REALITY.
• SCIENCE CAN EXIST WITH
• RELIGION
• AND ETHICS
• SCIENCE UNCOVERS FACTS
OF LOWER LEVELS OF
EXISTENCE
• RELIGION UNCOVERS
REALITY ON A HIGHER ,
SPIRITUAL PLANE
• METAPHYSICS AND RELIGION
INDISPENSABLE FACETS OF EXISTENCE(5).
15

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT V
BRITISH INFLUENCES
HERBERT SPENCER’S
THEORY OF
EVOLUTION
• EVOLUTION=CHANGE
FROM INCOHERENT
HOMOGENEITY TO
COHERENT
HETEROGENEITY
• DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF
CHANGE FROM MECHANICAL
TO ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
BEARS THE INFLUENCE OF SPENCER(3)
16

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT VI
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH-
COMMUNITY OF BELIEVERS
• MARGARET WARBURG REGARDED
SMITH’S THEORY OF RELIGION AS A
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY(6)
• SMITH SAW RELIGION AS PART OF THE
ORGANIZED SOCIAL LIFE OF MAN.
• PERFORMANCE OF RITES SHOWED THAT A MAN IS PART OF
THE COMMUNITY.DEFAULT WAS A PUBLIC WITHDRAWAL.(7)
• DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF RELIGION , AS STATED IN LE
FORMES ÉLEMENTAIRES DE LA VIE RELIGIEUSE:LE SYSTEM
TOTEMIQUE ED AUSTRALIE BEARS THE INFLUENCE OF
WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH.
17

INTELECTUAL CONTEXT VII
GERMAN INFLUENCES
WILHELM WUNDT - FATHER OF PSYCHOLOGY
• OPENED THE INSTITUTE OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY AT LEIPZING
UNIVERSITY IN 1879.
• SEPARATED PSYCHOLOGY FROM PHILOSOPHY.
. DEVELOPED THE METHOD OF INTROSPECTION IN PSYCHOLOGY.
DURKHEIM LEARNT FROM WUNDT ABOUT
• COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS
• SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF RESEARCH
18

INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT VIII
GERMAN INFLUENCES
IMMANUEL KANT
• FUNDAMENTAL
IDEA IS
AUTONOMY
• SINGLE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF
MORALITY ON WHICH ALL MORAL DUTIES
ARE BASED.
• ALL MORAL PRINCIPLES ARE
BASED ON REASON (1)
• DURKHEIM’S ETHICS IS INFLUENCED BY
KANT’S MORAL DOCTRINE.(3)
19

SOME BOOKS PUBLISHED BY
DURKHEIM
20

SOME BOOKS PUBLISHED ON
DURKHEIM
21

DURKHEIM’S INTELLECTUAL IMPACT
• DURKHEIM’S FRIEND , FELIX ALCAN , HELPED HIM
PUBLISH HIS SCHOLARLY WORKS .
• MAJOR WORKS
• DE LA DIVISION DU TRAVAIL SOCIAL, PARIS,
ALCAN(1893) (TRANS: THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IN
SOCIETY BY W.D.HALLS)
• LE REGLÈ DE LA MÈTHODE SOCIOLOGIQUE ,
SOCIAL,PARIS, ALCAN,1895(TRANS: THE RULES OF
SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD, BY SARAH A.SOLVAY AND
JOHN H.MUELLER)
• LE SUICIDE:ÈTUDE DE SOCIOLOGIE, PARIS,
ALCAN,1897(TRANS: SUICIDE:A STUDY IN SOCIOLOGY
BY GEORGE SPAULDING AND JOHN SIMPSON).
• LE FORMES ÉLEMENTAIRES DE LA VIE RELIGIEUSE:LE
SYSTEM TOTEMIQUE ED AUSTRALIE , PARIS,
ALCAN(1912)(TRANS;THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF
RELIGIOUS LIFE BY J.W.SWAIN, LONDON , ALLEN &
UNWIN 1915).
22

SUMMARIES OF DURKHEIM’S MAJOR
WORKS
BOOK MAIN CONTENTS AND THEORIES
1.THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IN
SOCIETY
SOCIAL SOLIDARITY, SOCIOLOGY OF LAW, SOCIAL
CHANGE
2.THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL
METHOD
SOCIAL FACTS AND THEIR STUDY.IN THIS BOOK,
DURKHEIM DISCUSSES IN DETAIL HIS
METHODOLOGY OR LOGIC OF RESEARCH, CLEALY
LAYING DOWN GUIDELINES THAT SHOULD BE
FOLLOWED BY A RESEARCHER DOING
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH .
3.SUICIDE:A STUDY IN SOCIOLOGY APPLICATION OF THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL
METHOD TO ACTUAL RESEARCH
PROBLEMS.STUDY OF RELATION BETWEEN
SOCIAL SOLIDARITY AND SUICIDE.
4.THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF
RELIGIOUS LIFE
AUSTRALIAN TOTEMISM,RELIGION AND SOCIAL
SOLIDARITY
23

EDITING JOURNAL
• DURKHEIM EDITED THE FIRST
PROFESSIONAL JOURNAL OF
SOCIOLOGY-
L’ANEE SOCIOLOGIQUE
• FUNCTIONS
1. PUBLICATION OF
ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPERS
2. REVIEW OF PUBLISHED
BOOKS
24

DISCIPLES AND COLLABORATORS -I
MARCELL MAUSS
LUCIEN LÉVY -BRUHL
25

DISCIPLES AND COLLABORATORS-II
CELÉSTIN BOUGLÉ
FRANÇOID SIMIAND
26

THE FIELD OF SOCIOLOGY
• DURKHEIM’S CONCEPTION ABOUT THE FIELD OF
SOCIOLOGY IS FOUND IN THE PAPER “SOCIOLOGY ET
SOCIAL SCIENCES”(14.READING NO.1)
• WHAT IS SOCIAL LIFE ?
• INDIVIDUAL CONSCIOUSNESS BY ASSOCIATING
THEMSELVES IN A STABLE WAY, REVEAL, THROUGH THEIR
INTERRELATIONSHIPS,A NEW LIFE VERY DIFFERENT FROM
THAT WHICH WOULD HAVE BEEN DEVELOPED HAD THEY
REMAINED UNCOMBINED;THIS IS SOCIAL LIFE.
• WHAT CONSTITUTES CIVILIZATION WOULD NOT EXIST IF
THERE WAS NO SOCIETY.
• WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?
• CIVILIZATION PRESUPPOSES CO-OPERATION WITHIN A
SOCIETY AND BETWEEN SOCIETIES.THE EXPERIENCES OF
ONE GENERATION SHOULD BE TRANSMITTED TO ANOTHER.
• SOCIETIES ARE COMPOSED OF ASSOCIATIONS.
• THE STUDY OF SOCIETIES CONSTITUTE THE SUBJECT
MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY.
28

(CONTD)
• DURKHEIM’S CRITICISM OF
COMTE
• COMTE ATTEMPTED TO CREATE
THE NEW DISCIPLINE OF
SOCIOLOGY BUT HE DID NOT
RECOGNIZE THE MULTIPLICITY
OF PROBLEMS POSED BY THE
NEW DISCIPLINE.
29

(CONTD)
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIOLOGY
• THE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY HAVE
RECEIVED FACUAL CONFIRMATION.
• SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE SHOWN THAT :
1. THERE EXISTS UNIFORMITY IN BELIEFS
AND INSTITUTIONS.
2. THE CONDITIONS OF SOCIAL LIFE ARE
IDENTICAL.
3. UNIFORMITY EXISTS AMONG CUSTOMS OF
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
30

(CONTD)
THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF SOCIOLOGY
‘THERE ARE AS MANY BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY …AS THERE
ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOCIAL FACTS’(DURKHEIM
14:24)
• COMTE:SOCIAL STATICS AND SOCIAL DYNAMICS
1. SOCIAL STATICS-STUDY OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE
2. SOCIAL DYNAMICS-STUDY OF SOCIAL CHANGE
• DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY:SOCIOLOGY MAY BE DEFINED
AS THE SCIENCE OF INSTITUTIONS, OF THEIR GENESIS AND
FUNCTIONING(MAUSS& FAUCONNET).
• DURKHEIM’S DIVISION OF SOCIOLOGY
1. SOCIAL MORPHOLOGY:STUDY OF SOCIETY FROM THE
OUTSIDE.
2. SOCIALPHYSIOLOGY:STUDY OF INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
3. GENERALSOCIOLOGY:BUILDS ON SPECIFIC
SOCIOLOGIES AND CONSTRUCTS A GENERAL
THEORY OF SOCIETY
31

(CONTD)
• DURKHEIM’S DIVISION OF
SOCIOLOGY(DETAILS )
• SOCIAL MORPHOLOGY:STUDY OF
SOCIETY FROM THE OUTSIDE.
1. THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHICAL
BASE OF PEOPLE
2. THE STUDY OF POPULATION, ITS
VOLUME, DENSITY AND ITS
DISTRIBUTION ON EARTH
32

(CONTD)
DURKHEIM’S DIVISION OF SOCIOLOGY(CONTD)
SOCIAL PHYSIOLOGY:
STUDY OF INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY
COMPONENTS:
1. SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION
2. SOCIOLOGY OF MORALITY
3. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW
4. ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY
5. LINGUISTIC SOCIOLOGY
6. AESTHETIC SOCIOLOGY
33

(CONTD)
GENERAL SOCIOLOGY:
BUILDS ON SPECIFIC SOCIOLOGIES AND
CONSTRUCTS A GENERAL THEORY OF
SOCIETY
PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS OF SOCIOLOGY:
RESEARCHING THE WAY IN WHICH A
POLITICAL , LEGAL, MORAL , OR
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION, BELIEFAND SO
ON WAS ESTABLISHED,WHAT CAUSES
GAVE RISE TO AND WHAT USEFUL ENDS
IT CORRESPONDS TO (14:27)
34

DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF SOLIDARITY
AND ITS RELATION TO LAW
DE LA DIVISION TO TRAVAIL
SOCIAL(1893) , BETTER
KNOWN AS
THE DIVISION OF
LABOUR IN SOCIETY,
IS DURKHEIM’S
FIRST
MAJOR
WORK.
35

LAW AND SOLIDARITY II
MAIN RESEARCH QUESTIONS:
1. HOW CAN THE INDIVIDUAL ,
WHILE BE COMING MORE
AUTONOMOUS , DEPENDS MORE
HEAVILY ON SOCIETY?
2. HOW CAN THE INDIVIDUAL BE AT
THE SAME TIME BE INDIVIDUAL
AND MORE SOCIALLY
INTEGRATED?
36

LAW AND SOLIDARITY III
• AN INDEX OF SOLIDARITY IS NEEDED.
• LAW IS THE INDEX
• LEGAL PRECEPTS =RULES OF CONDUCT WHICH ARE
SANCTIONED
• CUSTOM IS THE BASIS OF LAW
• THE STUDY OF SOLIDARITY IS DEPENDENT ON SOCIOLOGY
• LAW IS RELATED TO SOLIDARITY
• LAW IS OF TWO TYPES :PUBLIC AND PRIVATE
• PUBLIC LAW GOVERNS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATE
AND INDIVIDUAL
• PRIVATE LAW GOVERNS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
INDIVIDUALS
• ALL CRIMINAL LAW PUBLIC LAW .
• PRIVATE LAW IS CIVIL LAW LIKE CONTRACTUAL LAW.
37

LAW AND SOLIDARITY IV
• TYPES OF SANCTIONS:REPRESSIVE &
RESTITUTIVE
• REPRESSIVE LAW:ALL PENAL LAW
• CRIMINAL ACT-THAT WHICH OFFENDS
STRONG AND DEFINED STATES OF
COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNES(EG.MURDER)
• PUNISHMENT-DESIGNED TO ACT UPON LAW
ABIDING CITIZENS(EG.IN ALAUDDIN KHILJI’S
REGIME, THE CHOR MINAR IN DELHI
DISPLAYED THE HEADS OF EXECUTED
CRIMINALS AS A WARNING TO SUBJECTS) .
38

LAW AND SOLIDARITY V
RESTITUTIVE LAW
• WHAT IS WRONGLY TAKEN FROM THE
INDIVIDUAL IS RESTORED TO HIM(EG.IF
AN INDIVIDUAL IS DISHONOURED , THAT
PERSON MAY MOVE COURT FOR
COMPENSATION)
TYPES
1. COMMERCIAL
2. PROCEDURAL
3. ADMINISTRATIVE
4. CONSTITUTIONAL
39

LAW AND SOLIDARITY VI
• TYPES OF SOLIDARITY:
• MECHANICAL AND ORGANIC
• MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY
=SOLIDARITY OF LIKENESS.FOUND IN PRIMITIVE
AND TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES WHERE THERE IS
LOW DIVISION OF LABOUR .
• EXPLANATION:
• EVERYONE PERFORMS THE SAME JOBS.
• DIVISION OF LABOUR IS RUDIMENTARY.
• COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS COMPLETELY
ENVELOPS THE INDIVIDUALCONSCIOUSNESS
• MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY IS LINKED TO
REPRESSIVE LAW
40

LAW AND SOLIDARITY VII
• ORGANIC SOLIDARITY LINKED TO
ADVANCED DIVISION OF LABOUR
• FEATURE OF MODERN SOCIETIES
• CONSEQUENTLY EVOLVING OF VARIOUS TYPES OF
CONSCIOUSNESS AND PERSONALITIES
• INDIVIDUAL GIVEN IMPORTANCE
• ORGANC SOLIDARITY IS LINED TO RESTITUTIVE LAW
• SPECIALIZED ORGANS :
• CONSULTATIVE TRIBUNALS
• ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS
• ARBITRATION COUNCILS
• LABOUR TRIBUNALS
41

CAUSES OF DIVISION OF
LABOUR -I
DIRECTION OF CHANGE :
• INCREASE IN DYNAMIC OR MORAL
DENSITY
• PRIMARY CAUSES
1. CONCENTRATION OF POPULATION
2. CREATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF
CITIES
3. IMPROVEMENT IN METHODS OF
COMMUNICATION AND TRANSPORT
42

CAUSES OF DIVISION OF
LABOUR -II
SECONDARY CAUSES
1. INCREASE IN RATIONALITY
2. UNIVERSALISM
MECHANICAL CAUSES
1. ANCESTOR WORSHIP
2. BLOOD TIES
3. ATTACHMENT TO THE SAME
TERRITORY
4. COMMUNITY OF SHARE HABITS
43

ANOMIC DIVISION OF LABOUR
industrial & commercial bankruptcies I
• DURKHEIM NOTICED THAT THERE IS ANOMIC DIVISION
OF LABOUR WHICH LED TO BREAKS IN ORGANIC
SOLIDARITY.
• ONE CAUSE IS
INDUSTRIAL AND
COMMERCIAL BANKRUPTCIES
THE TRADE CYCLE
THE TRADE CYCLE IS
THE NORMAL EXPANSION
AND CONTRACTION OF
BUSINESS ACTIVITY
THAT TAKES PLACE IN
CAPITALIST
SOCIETIES.
PEAK =HIGHEST LEVEL OF
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
PROSPERITY =INCREASE IN IMAGE CREDITS:HAVAYOLU 101
LEVEL OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY.
CONTRACTION LEADS TO DEPRESSION , I.E,.LOW ECONOMIC ACTVITY
44

ANOMIC DIVISION OF LABOUR
industrial & commercial bankruptcies II
THE TRADE CYCLE(CONTD)
• THE CYCLE OF BOOM AND BUST LEADS TO
BREAKS IN ORGANIC SOLIDARITY.
• DOWNTURN IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY LEADS
TO ECONOMIC CRISIS.
• ECONOMIC CRISIS LEADS TO SOCIAL CRISIS.
• MANY PEOPLE LOSE THEIR JOBS.
• BUSINESSES BECOME BECOME BANKRUPT.
• UNEMPLOYMENT LEADS TO SOCIAL
DISCONTENT.
• A STATE OF ANOMIE PREVAILS.
45

ANOMIC DIVISION OF
LABOUR
• CONFLICT BETWEEN LABOUR AND CAPITAL
• GROWTH OF INDUSTRIALIZATION IN FRANCE
• LEADS
TO
• THE RISE OF THE WORKING CLASS
• LEADS
TO
• INCREASING CONFLICT BETWEEN WORKERS AND
INDUSTRIALISTS
• INDUSTRIAL CONFLICTS LEAD TO ANOMIE IN IN
SOCIETY .
46

FORCED DIVISION OF
LABOUR
• CONFLICTS ARISE BECAUSE PEOPLE ARE NO
LONGER SATISFIED WITH THE ROLE
ALLOTTED TO THEM.
DURKHEIM SAYS:
• ‘IN ORDER FOR THE DIVISION OF LABOUR TO
ENGENDER SOLIDARITY IT IS NOT
THERFORE SUFFICIENT THAT PERSON HAS
HIS TASK :THIS TASK MUST ALSO SUIT
HIM’.(14:56)
***
‘IN OTHER WORDS , THERE CANNOT BE ANY
RICH AND POOR FROM BIRTH WITHOUT
THERE BEING UNJUST CONTRACTS’ (14:57)
47

ANOMIE:DURKHEIM’S
CONCLUSION
DURKHEIM CONCLUDES AS FOLLOWS:
• IN A SHORT SPACE OF TIME RAPID SOCIAL
CHANGE HAS TAKEN PLACE .
• BUT THE MORALITY OF THE OLD SOCIAL
TYPE HAS REGRESSED WITHOUT
DEVELOPING FAST ENOUGH TO FILL THE
SPACE LEFT VACANT BY OUR
CONSCIOUSNESS .
• THIS CAUSES ANOMIE .
• WE SHOULD PUT A STOP TO THIS ANOMIE
AND INTRODUCE GREATER JUSTICE IN
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS .(14:57)
48

ANOMIE:COMMENTS I
ALAN SWINGEWOOD
1. DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF ANOMIE
RECOGNIZES SUPREMACY OF SOCIETY.
2. DURKHEIM DID NOT GIVE DUE
IMPORTANCE TO HISTORY WHILE
DISCUSSING SOCIAL CHANGE.
3. DURKHEIM DID NOT UNDERSTAND THAT
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS ESSENTIALLY
DEMOCRATIZATION OF CULTURE.
4. “DURKHEIM HAD NO ADEQUATE THEORY
OF THE SUBJECT”. (19:119)
49

ANOMIE:COMMENTS II
• ANTHONY GIDDENS
• GIDDENS EXPLAINS THAT DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF
ANOMIE POSITS TWO DEFINITE SENSES IN WHICH IT IS
USED.FIRST IS THE INSATIABILTY OF HUMAN
DESIRES.THE SECOND IS THAT HUMAN DESIRES
CANNOT BE REALISED IN THE PRESENT SOCIAI
SETTING.IN THE LATTER CASE THAT DURKHEIM
EMPHASISES A SETTING WHERE STRAINS OR
CONTRADICTIONS ARE BROUGHT ABOUT BY SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR RELEVANCE FOR DEMANDS
FOR FURTHER SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION.INSOFAR AS
THE FIRST VIEW IS EMPHASISED , IT LEADS TO AN
INTRINSIC OPPOSITION BETWEEN MAN AND SOCIETY,
SUCH AS MORAL NORMS MUST RESTRAIN THE
INHERENT INSATIABILTY OF HUMAN DESIRES.IN
RECENT TIMES SOME SCHOLARS HAVE USED IT IN THE
SENSE OF ‘NORMLESSNESS’ AND OTHERS AS
‘NORMATIVE STRAIN’RATHER THAN
NORMLESSNESS.EACH OF THESE VERSIONS OF ANOMIE
IS PRESENT IN THE DIVISION OF LABOUR.(21:107-108)
50

SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL AND ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
1.SIZE SMALL LARGE
2. NUMBER OF PARTS FEW MANY
3. NATURE OF PARTS KINSHIP BASED DIVERSE:DOMINATED BY ECONOMIC
AND GOVERNMENTAL CONSENT
4. ARRANGEMENT INDEPENDENT, AUTONOMOUS INTERRELATED , MUTUALLY
INDEPENDENT
5. NATURE OF
INTERRELATIONS
BOUND TO COMMON CONSCIENCE AND
PUNITIVE LAW
BOUND TOGETHER BY EXCHANGE ,
CONTRACT, NORMS AND RESTITUTIVE
LAW
COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
1. VOLUME HIGH LOW
2. INTENSITY HIGH LOW
3.DETERMINATE NESS HIGH LOW
4.CONTENT RELIGIOUS, STRESSING COMMITMENT AND
CONFORMITY TO DICTATES OF SACRED
POWERS
SECULAR, EMPHASIS ING
INDIVIDUALITY (11)
51

DURKHEIM’S CONTRIBUTION TO
SOCIOLOGY OF LAW
• DURKHEIM’S BOOK, THE DIVISION OF LABOUR IN
SOCIETY , IS ONE OF THE EARLIEST CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE SOCIOLOGY OF LAW. PREVIOUSLY, MONTESQUIEU
CONTRIBUTED TO THE SUBJECT IN THE EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY THROUGH HIS BOOK, THE SPIRIT OF THE
LAWS.
• DURKHEIM SHOWED THAT LAWS CHANGE WITH SOCIAL
CHANGE.THE TRANSITION FROM MECHANICAL TO
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY IS ACCOMPANIED BY CHANGE
FROM REPRESSIVE LAW TO RESTITUTIVE LAW.
• RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INDIA ALSO POINT TO THIS
DIRECTION.THERE HAVE BEEN CALLS FOR SCRAPPING
SECTION 377 OF THE INDIAN PENAL CODE THAT
CRIMINALIZED GAY SEX AT A CONVENTION ORGANIZED
BY NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION.(26)
52

DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY I
• DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY IS
CONTAINED IN HIS BOOK
LE REGLÈ DE LA MÈTHODE
SOCIOLOGIQUE , SOCIAL,
PARIS, ALCAN,1895
IT IS BETTER KNOWN AS
THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD
53

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY II
KEY METHODOLOGICAL RULES DISCUSSED
IN THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD
1. RULES FOR THE OBSERVATION OF SOCIAL
FACTS
2. RULES FOR DISTINGUISHING NORMAL
FROM PATHOLOGICAL
3. RULES RELATING TO CLASSIFICATION OF
SOCIAL TYPES
4. RULES FOR EXPLANATION OF SOCIAL
FACTS
5. RULES FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF PROOFS
54

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY III
• METHODOLOGY=PHILOSOPHY OR
LOGIC OF RESEARCH
• THEORIES EXPLAIN SOCIAL REALITY
• KEY FEATURES OF DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY:
1. NATURALISM
2. ANTI-PSYCHOLOGISM
3. OBJECTIVITY
4. CAUSAL DIMENSION
5. FUNCTIONAL DIMENSION
6. COMPARATIVE DIMENSION
55

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY IV
• DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY TERMED
“SOCIOLOGISM”BY EMILE BENOIT
SMULLYAN
• “SOCIOLOGISM”=POSITIVISM+
AGELECISM
• POSITIVISM= THE PHILOSOPHY THAT
BELIEVES THAT SOCIETY CAN BE
STUDIED WITH THE METHODS OF
NATURAL SCIENCES
• AGELECISM= THEORY MAINTAINS
REALITY OR THE CAUSAL PRIORITY OF
THE GROUP.
56

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY V
DURKHEIM’S STUDY OF SOCIAL
FACTS
DEFINITION:DURKHEIM DEFINED
SOCIAL FACT AS :
“….WAYS OF ACTING, THINKING AND
FEELING THAT ARE EXTERNAL TO
THE INDIVIDUAL AND ARE
ENDOWED WITH A COERCIVE
POWER BY VIRTUE OF WHICH THEY
EXERCISE CONTROL OVER HIM”(8:3)
57

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY VI
2.RULES FOR DISTINGUISHING NORMAL FROM
PATHOLOGICAL
• CRITERION OF DISTINCTION =LEVEL OF
GENERALITY
• BUT THIS GENERALITY DEPENDS ON THE TYPE
OF ORGANISM OR SOCIETY.
• WHAT IS NORMAL FOR A MOLUSC CANNOT BE
NORMAL FOR A VERTEBRATE
• WHAT IS NORMAL FOR ONE SOCIETY CANNOT BE
NORMAL FOR ANOTHER.
IS CRIME NORMAL?
DURKHEIM ANSWERS THAT CRIME IS A NORMAL
SOCIAL FACT BECAUSE THERE EXISTS NO
SOCIETY IN WHICH CRIME IS ABSENT.
58

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY VII
3.RULES RELATING TO
CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL TYPES
• PRINCIPLE OF
CLASSIFICATION=ABSENCE OF
PARTS
• IN HUMAN SOCIETY, THE HORDE IS
THE MOST SIMPLE TYPE OF
SOCIETY.SO WE SHOULD BEGIN
WITH THE HORDE.
59

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
VIII
4.RULES FOR EXPLANATION OF
SOCIAL FACTS
• TYPES OF EXPLANATION:CAUSAL AND
FUNCTIONAL
• CAUSAL EXPLANATION: IN CAUSAL
EXPLANATION AN EVENT IS EXPLAINED IN
TERMS OF CERTAIN CAUSES
• EG.THERE IS NO SMOKE WITHOUT FIRE.SO FIRE
IS THE CAUSE OF SMOKE.
• FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION :FUNCTIONAL
EXPLANATION =HOLISTIC EXPLANATION.
• FOR EXAMPLE , WHAT CONTRIBUTION DOES THE
FAMILY MAKE TO SOCIETY?HERE WE ANALYSE
THE FUNCTION OF THE PART IN TERMS OF ITS
CONTRIBUTION TO THE SYSTEMIC WHOLE.
60

DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY IX
5.RULES FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF
PROOFS
• DURKHEIM PREFERED THE METHOD
OF CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS AS
A METHOD OF PROOF.
• THE METHOD OF CONCOMITANT
VARIATIONS IS ONE OF THE
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
PROPOSED BY JOHN STUART MILL.
61

CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS
• Source : Argentina_trade_chart.svg
63

CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS
• CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS IS A
METHOD IN WHICH TWO EVENTS CO
VARY .QUANTITATIVE CHANGE IN THE
EFFECT IS ASSOCIATED WITH
QUANTITATIVE CHANGES IN THE GIVEN
FACTOR (16)THE METHOD OF
CONCOMITANT VARIATIONS IS A
QUANTITATIVE APPROACH TO
HYPOTHESIS FORMATION IN CONTRAST
TO THE QUALITATIVE APPROACHES IN
METHOD OF AGREEMENT AND
DIFFERENCE(27) .
64

COMMENTS ON DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY I
• EMILE BENOIT SMULLYAN :4 MEANINGS
OF SOCIAL FACTS (9:501)
• AN ENTITY POSSESSING DEFINITE
CHARACTERISTICS WHICH ARE INDEPENDENT
OF HUMAN OBSERVATION
• AN ENTITY WHICH CAN ONLY BE KNOWN A
POSTERIORI
• AN ENTITY WHICH EXISTS INDEPENDENT OF
HUMAN VOLITION
• AN ENTITY WHICH CAN BE KNOWN THROUGH
EXTERNAL OBSERVATION
65

COMMENTS ON DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
II
• EMILE BENOIT SMULLYAN :VARIATIONS IN
MEANINGS OF SOCIAL FACTS (9:501)
• SOCIOLOGY HAS A REAL SUBJECT MATTER
• SOCIOLOGY CAN ONLY BE KNOWN THROUGH
A PRIORI EXPERIENCE
• ASSUMPTION OF DETERMINISM IN INTER
HUMAN RELATIONS
• LIMITS US TO EXTERNAL OBSERVATION OF
SOCIAL FACTS
66

METHODOLOGY III
EMILE BENOIT SMULLYAN :CRITICISM OF
DURKHEIM’S CONCEPTION OF NORMAL AND
PATHOLOGICAL
• DURKHEIM:NORMALITY=GENERALITY
• PARADOXICAL CONCLUSION :
CRIME =NORMAL
• CRITICISM:NORMALITY CRITERION LEADS TO
ULTRA CONSERVATIVE MORALITY
• EVERY FORM OF SOCIAL DEVIATION SEEN AS
PATHOLOGICAL.
• AMONG FRENCH SCHOLARS WHO CRITICISED
DURKHEIM ARE:
G.TARDE,R.LACOMBE,C.BOUGLE,G.RICHARD,
• G.CANTÉCOR,AND A.FOULÉE
67

CRITICISM OF DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
IV
METHODOLOGICAL CRITICISM BY
JONATHAN TURNER, LEONARD
BEEGHLY AND CHARLES H.POWERS
IN THIS DEFINITION [OF SOCIAL
FACTS] DURKHEIM LUMPED
BEHAVIOUS, THOUGHTS AND
EMOTIONS AS THE SUBJECT
MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY(11:325)
68

COMMENTS ON DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
V
METHODOLOGICAL CRITICISM BY ZEITLIN
DURKHEIM’S FIRST RULE IS “CONSIDER
SOCIAL FACTS AS THINGS”
* * *
DURKHEIM UNDERSTOOD THAT SOCIAL
THINGS ARE ACTUALISED ONLY
THROUGH MEN .BUT MEN ARE PASSIVE
RECIPIENTS OF THIS ACTIVITY,NEVER
HUMAN SUBJECTS .
THE ACTIVE, CREATIVE SIDE OF HUMAN
CONDUCT DISAPPEARS IN DURKHEIM’S
SCHEME.(12:268)
69

METHODOLOGY VI
IDEOLOGICAL CRITICISM BY ELENA OSIPOVA:
• SOCIOLOGISM WAS HOSTILE TO THE
REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT OF MARXISM (10:250).
TALCOTT PARSONS ON SOCIAL FACTS
• DURKHEIM ARRIVED AT THE CRUCIALLY IMPORTANT
CONCLUSION THAT CULTURE AND SOCIAL
STRUCTURE ARE INTERNALIZED IN THE
INDIVIDUAL.IN THIS HE CONVERGED NOTABLY WITH
FREUD AND WITH THE MOVEMENT IN AMERICAN
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGYFROM CHARLES COOLEY TO
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD(18:315).
•
70

EVALUATION OF DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
CONCLUDING REMARKS
• DESPITE THE ABOVE CRITICAL
REMARKS MADE ON DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY, WE ARE OF THE
OPINION THAT DURKHEIM’S THE RULES
OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD REMAINS
AN EXCELLENT GUIDE FOR ANY
SOCIOLOGIST WHO ASPIRES TO DO
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH.HIS STEP BY
STEP APPROACH TO SOCIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH HAS BEEN FRUITFULLY
ADOPTED BY RESEARCH SCHOLARS.
(13)
71

SUICIDE & SOCIAL SOLIDARITY
ÉMILE DURKHEIM’S LE SUICIDE:ÈTUDE DE
SOCIOLOGIE,
(PARIS, ALCAN,1897)
• BETTER KNOWN AS
SUICIDE: A STUDY IN
SOCIOLOGY.
• THE BOOK I S, ON ONE HAND,
THE APPLICATION OF
DURKHEIM’S METHODOLOGY
AS SPELT OUT IN THE
RULES OFSOCIOLOGICAL
METHOD .
• ON TH E OTHER HAND ,
IT DEALS WITH THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY
72

DURKHEIM’S
RECOMMENDATION
“INSTEAD OF TAKING PLEASURE IN METAPHYSICAL MEDITATION
ON SOCIAL THEMES ,THE SOCIOLOGIST SHOULD TAKE AS THE
OBJECT OF HIS RESEARCH GROUPS OF CLEARLY CIRCUMSCRIBED
FACTS , WHICH ARE CAPABLE OF READY DEEFINTION AND HAVE
RECOGNIZABLE LIMITS AND HE MUST ABIDE STRICTLY TO THEM..."
(DURKHEIM:14:91)
73

DURKHEIM ON METHOD
• SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD, AS WE
PRACTICE IT IS ENTIRELY BASED
ON THE PRINCIPLE OF STUDYING
SOCIAL FACTS AS THINGS.
• INDIVIDUAL IS DOMINATED BY A
MORAL REALITY WHICH
TRANSCENDS HIM-COLLECTIVE
REALITY .
74

APPLICATION OF DURKHEIM’S
METHODOLOGY
PRESCRIPTION APPLICATION
1.DEFINE SOCIAL PHENOMENA 1.DURKHEIM DEFINES SUICIDE
2.CLASSIFY PHENOMENA 2DURKHEIM CLASSIFIED SUICIDES INTO FOUR
TYPES :EGOISTIC, ALTRUISTIC, ANOMIC, FATALISTIC
3.EXPLAIN SOCIAL FACTS 3.DURKHEIM EXPLAINED SUICIDE BY SUICIDE RATE
SUICIDE RATE =
NO.OF SUICIDES
--------------------X1000,000
POPULATION
3A.CAUSAL EXPLANATION 3A.DURKHEIM CITES LEGAL STATEMENTS OF
CAUSES BUT WARNS OF OVERELIANCE ON
OFFICIAL STATISTICS
3B.STATISTICAL EXPLANATION 3B.COEFFICIENT OF PRESERVATION=
A NUMBER SHOWING HOW MANY TIMES LESS
FREQUENT IN ONE GROUP THAN IN ANOTHER AT
THE SAME AGE
75

HOW DURKHEIM DEFINED SUICIDE
• FIRST TASK:DEFINE SUICIDE
• STEP 1.DETERMINE ORDER OF FACTS WHICH CAN BE
LABELLED SUICIDE
• STEP 2.FIRST FORMULA: “THE TERM SUICIDE IS APLIED TO
ANY DEATH WHICH RESULTS DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY
FROM ANY POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE ACT CARRIED OUT BY
THE VICTIM HIMSELF “
• BUT THIS DEFINITION IS INCOMPLETE :IT FAILS TO
DISTINGUISH BETWEEN DIFFERENT KINDS OF DEATH
• AN ACT CANNOT BE DEFINED BY ENDS AN ACTOR IS
PURSUING.
• SUICIDE MUST BE DEFINED BOTH POSITIVELY AND
NEGATIVELY
• “…SUICIDE IS APPLIED IN EVERY CASE OF DEATH WHICH
RESULTS DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY FROM A POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE ACT, CARRIED OUT BY THE VICTIM HIMSELF ,
KNOWING THAT IT WILL PRODUCE THIS RESULT”-
DURKHEIM(14:95).
76

DETERMINING SOCIAL CAUSES AND TYPES
SECOND TASK :
DETERMINING SOCIAL CAUSES
• GET LEGAL STATEMENTS –PAIN,
DRUNKEDNESS , ETC.
• WAGNER COMMENTED THAT THESE
ARE ONLY OPINIONS OF PEOPLE
RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING
CAUSES
• REASONS ARE ONLY APPARENT
CAUSES
77

EGOISTIC SUICIDE
• SUICIDE & RELIGION
• SUICIDE IS INVERSELY RELATED TO THE DEGREE OF
INTEGRATIONOF RELIGIOUS SOCIETY
CONCLUSIONS : 1) SUICIDE IS LEAST IN CATHOLIC STATES;GREATEST
IN PROTESTANT STATES;2) CAUSE -CREDO OR SET OF BELIEFS OF
CATHOLICS GREATER THAN PROTESTANTS
STATES AVERAGE SUICIDE PER MILLION
INHABITANTS
PROTESTANT 190
CATHOLIC 96
MIXED STATES
(PROTESTANT +CATHOLIC)
58
GREEK CATHOLIC STATES 40
78

SUICIDE AND DOMESTIC SOCIETY I
MARRIAGE FAVOURS PRESERVATION OF MALES BUT WORKS AGAINST FEMALES.
AGE(YRS) SHARE OF EACH SEX
PER 100 UNMARRIED
SUICIDES
PER 100 MARRIED
SUICIDES
MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN
25=25 70 30 65 35
25-30 73 27 65 35
30-40 84 16 74 26
40-50 86 14 77 23
50-60 88 12 78 22
60-70 91 09 81 19
70-80 91 09 81 19
ABOVE 80 90 10 88 12
79

SUICIDE AND DOMESTIC SOCIETY II
MAJOR CONCLUSIONS
1. TOO EARLY MARRIAGES HAVE AN AGGRAVATING
INFLUENCE ON SUICIDES, ESPECIALLY ON MALES.
2. FROM AGE 20 ONWARDS, MARRIED PEOPLE OF BOTH
SEXES BENEFIT FROM A COEFFICIENT OF
PRESERVATION IN COMPARISON TO SINGLE PEOPLE.
3. COEFFICIENT OF PRESERVATION OF MARRIED PEOPLE
IN COMPARISON TO SINGLE PEOPLE VARIES ACORDING
TO SEX.
4. WIDOWHOOD REDUCES COEFFICIENT OF PRESERVATION
OF MARRIED PEOPLE BUT DOES NOT ELIMINATE IT
COMPLETELY.
5. IMMUNITY OF SUICIDE OF MARRIED PEOPLE ATTIBUTED
TO :
A.INFLUENCE OF DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENT.
B.MATRIMONIAL SELECTION.
80

SUICIDE & POLITICAL SOCIETY I
• POLITICAL UPHEAVALS REDUCE SUICIDE
• DURING THE PERIOD 1848-49, SUICIDES DECREASED
ALL OVER EUROPE .
YEARS DENMARK PRUSSIA BAVARIA KINGDOM OF
SAXONY
AUSTRIA
1847 345 1852 217 NA 611(IN
1846)
1848 305 1649 215 398 NA
1849 337 1527 189 328 452
ADAPTED FROM DURKHEIM SUICIDE (15:205)
81

SUICIDE & POLITICAL SOCIETY II
IMPACT OF WAR ON SUICIDE
• GREAT NATIONAL WARS HAVE THE SAME EFFECT AS POLITICAL
DISTURBANCES.
• IN THE WAR OF 1866(AUSTRIA VS ITALY) SUICIDES DROPPED 14%
IN BOTH COUNTRIES .
STATE 1865 1866 1867
ITALY 678 588 657
AUSTRIA 1464 1265 1407
SOURCE: DURKHEIM: SUICIDE (15:205)
82

EGOISTIC SUICIDE:
MAIN CONCLUSIONS
• SUICIDE VARIES WITH THE DEGREE OF
INTEGRATION OF RELIGIOUS SOCIETY.
INTEGRATION OF DOMESTIC SOCIETY.
INTEGRATION OF POLITICAL SOCIETY.
• (DURKHEIM 15:208)
83

ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
WHEN MAN BECOMES DETATCHED FROM
SOCIETY HE ENCOUNTERS LESS
RESISTANCE TO SUICIDE IN HIMSELF , AND
HE DOES SO LIKEWISE WHEN SOCIAL
INTEGRATION IS TOO STRONG –
DURKHEIM(15:217).
• EXAMPLES :
1. SUICIDES OF MEN ON THE THRESHOLD OF OLD AGE
OR SICKNESS;
2. SUICIDES OF WOMEN ON THEIR HUSBANDS’ DEATH
3. SUICIDES OF SERVANTS OR FOLLOWERS ON THE
DEATH OF THEIR CHIEF .(15:119)
84

ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE:TYPES
TYPES OF ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE EXPLANATION EXAMPLE
OBLIGATORY SUICIDE IS REGARDED AS A
DUTY
SATI-THE SUICIDE OF HINDU
WIDOWS .
OPTIONAL ONE IS NOT OBLIGED TO
COMMIT SUICIDE BUT
PUBLIC OPNION FAVOURS IT.
JAPANESE HARAKIRI.
ACUTE INDIVIDUAL KILLS HIMSELF
FOR THE JOY OF SACRIFICE
(MYSTICAL SUICIDE)
RELIGIOUS SUICIDE AMONG
JAINS.
•ADAPTED FROM DURKHEIM SUICIDE (15:CH 4)
85

MILITARY SUICIDE-A SPECIAL CASE OF
ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
• SUICIDE RATE OF SOLDIERS MUCH HIGHER THAN CIVILIANS
• TABLE XXIII.COMPARISON OF MILITARY AND CIVILIAN SUICIDES IN
THE CHIEF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES(ADAPTED FROM
DURKHEIM:SUICIDE (15:228))
COUNTRY SUICIDES PER COOEFFICIENT OF
AGGRAVATION OF
SOLDIERS COMPARED TO
CIVILIANS
1 MILLION
SOLDIERS
1 MILLION CIVILIANS OF
SAME AGE
AUSTRIA (1876-90) 1,253 122 10
UNITED STATES (1870-84) 680 80 8.5
ITALY (1876-90) 407 77 5.2
ENGLAND (1876-90) 209 79 2.6
WURTENBERG (1846-58) 320 170 1.92
SAXONY (1847-58) 640 369 1.77
PRUSSIA (1876-90) 607 394 1.50
FRANCE (1876-90) 333 265 1.25
86

MILITARY SUICIDE(CONTD)
• WHY MILITARY SUICIDE IS ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
• SOLDIERS ARE TRAINED TO SET LITTLE VALUE UPON THEMSELVES
• APTITUDE FOR RENUNCIATION GREATER AMONG SOLDIERS THAN CIVILIANS
• TABLE ADAPTED FROM DURKHEIM:SUICIDE (15:235)
COUNTRY COEFFICIENT OF
AGGRAVATION OF
SOLDIERS COMPARED TO
CIVIILIANS
SUICIDE RATE OF
CIVILIAN POPULATION
PER MILLION
FRANCE 1.3 150(1871-75)
PRUSSIA 1.8 133(1871-75)
ENGLAND 2.2 73(1876)
ITALY 3-4 37(1874-77)
AUSTRIA 8 72(1864-72)
87

ANOMIC SUICIDE
WHAT IS ANOMIC SUICIDE?
• “WHEN SOCIETY IS DISTURBED,
EITHER BY A PAINFUL CRISIS OR
BY FAVOURABLE OR ABRUPT
CHANGES, IT IS INCAPABLE OF
EXERCISING THIS [CONTROLLING
ACTION]”(DURKHEIM 14:109).
• “ANOMY IS THEREFORE A REGULAR
AND SPECIFIC FACTOR IN OUR
MODERN SOCIETIES….”
(DURKHEIM.15:258).
88

CAUSES OF ANOMIC
SUICIDE I
ECONOMIC CRISIS
• CRASH OF PARIS BOURSE (WINTER 1882) .
• SUICIDES INCREASED BY 7%-11%
1881 1882 1883
ANNUAL TOTAL
FIRST THREE
MONTHS
6,741
1,589
7,2013(+7%)
1,770(+11%)
7, 267
1,604
ADAPTED FROM : DURKHEIM SUICIDE (8:242)
89

CAUSES OF ANOMIC SUICIDE II
BREAKDOWN OF MARRIAGE
• DIVORCES AND SEPARATIONS LEAD TO SUICIDE
• SEE DATA FROM PRUSSIA(8:267)
PROVINCES CONTAINING PER 100,000 MARRIED PERSONS
FROM 850-405
DIVORCED
COEFFICIENT OF
PRESERVATION
OF WIVES
FROM 321-324
DIVORCED
COEFFICIENT OF
PRESERVATION
OF WIVES
FROM 229-
116DIVORCED
COEFFICIENT OF
PRESERVATION
OF WIVES
BERLIN 1.72 POMERANIA 1 POSEN 1
BRANDENBU
RG
1.75 SILESIA 1.18 HESSE 1.44
EAST
PRUSSIA
1.50 WEST PRUSSIA 1 HANOVER 0.90
SAXONY 2.08 SCHESWIG 1.20 RHINELAND 1.25
WEST PHALIA 0.80
90

FATALISTIC SUICIDE
• FATALISTIC SUICIDE
• CAUSE :EXCESSIVE REGULATION
• WHO COMMITS SUICIDE?
• THIS TYPE OF SUICIDE IS COMMITTED BY PEOPLE
WHOSE FUTURE IS MERCILESSLY BLOCKED.
EXAMPLES:
• SUICIDES OF VERY YOUNG HUSBANDS
• SUICIDES OF CHILDLESS WOMEN
• SUICIDES OF SLAVES
• ALL SUICIDES ATTRIBUTED TO PHYSICAL
AND /OR MORAL DESPOTISM ARE FATALISTIC
SUICIDES.
91

“SUICIDE” I
GEORGE SIMPSON
• TO FIGHT IRRATIONALITY,THE FINDINGS OF SCIENCE MUST BE INCORPORATED INTO THE
SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND THE FUNCTIONING OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THAT STRUCTURE .IN THE
LONG TRADITION OF WESTERN THOUGHT DURKHEIM JOINS WITH PSYCHOLANALYSIS IN
EMPHASISING THAT THE LIFE OF REASON HAS MANY ENEMIES, THE CHIEF OF WHICH IS THE
FAILURE TO APPLY WHAT WE HAVE DISCOVERED ON SOUND EVIDENCE TO THE SOCIAL
WORLD ABOUT US.(15:32)
*********
• DURKHEIM WAS SCEPTICAL ON THE RELIABILITY OF OFFICIAL STATISTCS ON SUICIDE.HIS
VIEWS FIND SUPPORT FROM ZILBOORG(15:18).
• FENICHEL FOLLOWING BRILL AND MENINGER , POINTS OUT THE EVIDENCE OF
“PARTIAL”WHERE DEATH DOES NOT OCCUR BUT WHICH CONSIST OF ‘SELF DESTRUCTIVE
ACTIONS” DURING MELANCHOLIC STATES CARRIED OUT AS”SELF PUNISHMENT (15:18-19).
• DURKHEIM, DUBLIN AND BUNZEL , AND OTHERS SHOW LITTLE SUICIDE AMONG CHILDREN
.ZILBORG DEEMED IT SIGNIFICANT TO MAKE A SPECIAL STUDY .(15:19)
•
92

“SUICIDE” II
TALCOTT PARSONS
“… SUICIDE ESTABLISHED A VERY
IMPORTANT LINK BETWEEN
DURKHEIM’S THEORETICAL
WORK AND THE TRADITIONS OF
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH” (18:315).
ROBERT K.MERTON
MERTON REGARDED SUICIDE AS A
MIDDLE RANGE THEORY( 25).
93

RELEVANCE OF DURKHEIM’S THEORY TODAY
• SUICIDE IS VERY MUCH A SOCIAL PROBLEM IN THE MODERN
WORLD.DURKHEIM’S GREATEST ACHIEVEMENT LIES IN SHOWING
THAT SUICIDE IS A SOCIAL FACT, NOT AN INDIVIDUAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACT.
• IF DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF SUICIDE IS CORRELATED WITH
MODERN TRENDS IN SUICIDE, WE WILL FIND THAT DURKHEIM’S
THEORY HELPS EXPLAIN MODERN TRENDS IN SUICIDE.(22:197-
228;23:47-69).
• RECENTLY THE BLUE WHALE CHALLENGE , A SUICIDE GAME, HAS
BECOME A MAJOR SOCIAL PROBLEM.IT HAS DRAWN THE
ATTENTION OF THE WHOLE WORLD .THE INDIAN COURTS HAVE
EXPRESSED CONCERN ABOUT THE RISING TREND OF SUICIDE
ATTEMPTS ON PART OF TEENAGERS AND YOUTHS. THE INDIAN
SUPREMECOURT HAS ORDERED DOORDARSHAN TO PREPARE AN
AWARENESS PROGRAMME TO BE SHOWN IN PRIME
TIME.SOCIOLOGISTS HAVE ALSO WRITTEN POPULAR ARTICLES ON
THIS GAME DRAWING ATTENTION TO ITS DANGERS (28:3).
94

DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY OF
RELIGION I
• DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION IS FOUND IN HIS
BOOKLE FORMES ÉLEMENTAIRES DE LA VIE RELIGIEUSE:LE
SYSTEM TOTEMIQUE ED AUSTRALIE , PARIS,
ALCAN(1912)(TRANS:THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF RELIGIOUS
LIFE BY J.W.SWAIN, LONDON , ALLEN & UNWIN 1915).
• THAT APART, THERE ARE NUMEROUS OTHER WORKS-
ESSAYS,INTERVIEWS , BOOK REVIEWS, ETC. IN WHICH
DURKHEIM SET FORTH HIS VIEWS ON RELIGION.
• TALCOTT PARSONS OBSERVED THAT DURKHEIM WAS GREATLY
IMPRESED BY THE CLOSENESS OF INTEGRATION BETWEEN THE
RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF REPRESENTATION AND THE
STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY ITSELF , THE ATTITUDE OF MORAL
RESPECT BEING THE CONNECTING LINK.(18:315)
95

RELIGION II
DEFINITION .
IN HIS THE ELEMENTARY FORMS OF
RELIGIOUS LIFE ,DURKHEIM DEFINED
RELIGION AS FOLLOWS:
“A RELIGION IS A UNIFIED SYSTEM OF BELIEFS
AND PRACTICES RELATIVE TO SACRED
THINGS , THAT IS TO SAY , THINGS SET
THINGS SET APART AND FORBIDDEN –
BELIEFS AND PRACTICES WHICH UNITE INTO
ONE SINGLE MORAL COMMUNITY CALLED A
CHURCH ALL THOSE WHO ADHERE TO
THEM”.(14:121)
96

RELIGION III
HOW RELIGIOUS PHENOMENA
EMERGE :
DISTINCTION BETWEEN SACRED
AND PROFANE
SACRED= TRANSCENDENTAL,
EXTRAORDINARY.THIS POWER IS
ATTRIBUTED TO THE OBJECT
• PROFANE = ORDINARY
97

RELIGION IV
FEATURES OF RELIGION:
1) DISTINCTION BETWEEN
SACRED AND PROFANE .
2) FAITH OR BELIEF.
3) ORGANIZED CHARACTER-
THE CHURCH.
98

DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY OF RELIGION V
AUSTRALIAN TOTEMISM
MOST PRIMITIVE
RELIGION
EXEMPLIFIED
IN ARUNTA RELIGION
MEANING OF TOTEM
‘TOTEM’-TERM USED BY
OJIBWAY TRIBE TO DESIGNATE
THE THING WHOSE NAME THE
CLAN BEARS.
FEATURES
1) ANIMATE OR INANIMATE SOURCES
2) NOT INDIVIDUAL BUT SPECIES OR
VARIETY
3) AN ANCESTOR OR GROUP OF ANCESTORS
4) TOTEM UNITES INDIVIDUALS THROUGH
A BOND OF KINSHIP
5) DIFFERENT SYSTEMS FOR INHERITING TOTEMIC
NAME –MATERNAL, PATERNAL, MYTHICAL ANCESTOR.
6) APART FROM CLANS , PHRATRIES ALSO HAVE TOTEMS .
7) SUB DIVISIONS WITHIN PHRATRIES BASED ON
MATRIMONY
8) DIETIC RESTRICTIONS –NO KILLING OR EATING TOTEM
TOTEM IS USED AS EMBLEM OF THE GROUP
TOTEM POLE AT
KITWANGA,AUSTRALIA , 1986
.PHOTO:BC ARCHIVES
99

RELIGION VI
WHY STUDY AUSTRALIAN TOTEMISM?
• DURKHEIM FOUND PERFECT HOMOGENEITY
IN AUSTRALIAN SOCIETIES.
• WISHED TO STUDY THE MOST SIMPLE AND
PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES .
METHOD OF STUDY
• NO FIELD WORK.
• STUDY OF THE ACCOUNTS OF TRAVELLERS –
MATHEW, PALMER, ROTH, SPENCER, GILLEN,
ETC.
100

RELIGION VII
TOTEMISM AS A RELIGION
• FOR DURKHEIM, TOTEM HAS A RELIGIOUS CHARACTER
BECAUSE IT IS PART OF THE LITURGY.
• TOTEMIC OBJECTS , EG.CHURINGA , ARE SACRED OBJECTS.
• THEY ARE KEPT IN A SPECIAL PLACE CALLED
ERNATLUNGA.
• ERNATLUNGA IS A PLACE OF PEACE .
• RELATION BETWEEN TOTEMIC OBJECTS AND HUMAN
BEINGS ARE AT THE SAME LEVEL AND ARE EQUAL IN
VALUE .
• TOTEMIC BONDS, WHICH UNITE CLAN MEMBERS, ARE LIKE
THOSE OF A FAMILY.
• TOTEMIC RELIGION IS FORMED BY THE UNION OF MANY
CULTS , HAVING ITS OWN COSMOLOGY AND RITUALS .
101

RELIGION VIII
CULTS
• POSITIVE CULTS:
• SACRIFICIAL
• IMITATIVE
• REPRESENTATIVE
• PIACULAR
• NEGATIVE CULTS :
• ASCETICISM
102

RELIGION IX
CULTS
(CONTD)
• POSITIVE CULTS:
1) SACRIFICIAL(INTICHIUMA)
• A FEAST.
• A FEAST IN WHICH BOTH THE
WORSHIPPER AND GOD TAKES
PART.
103

RELIGION X
POSITIVE CULTS(CONTD)
2) IMITATIVE
• LAW OF CONTAGION:
• LIKE PRODUCES LIKE
3) REPRESENTATIVE –COMMEMORATIVE
RITES IN WHICH NATIVES ENACT THE
HISTORY OF THALULLA.
4) PIACULAR
• A RITE WHICH COMMEMORATES A
STATE OF UNEASE OR CALAMITY.
• UNITES GROUP IN TIMES OF CALAMITY.
104

RELIGION XI
ARUNTA MEDICINE MAN (SPENCER & GILLEN)
105

RELIGION XII
RELIGION IN MODERN SOCIETY
• IN SUICIDE:A STUDY IN SOCIOLOGY, DURKHEIM SHOWED THAT
SUICIDE VARIES WITH THE DEGREE OF INTEGRATION OF
RELIGIOUS SOCIETY.
• PROTESTANTS-HIGHEST SUICIDE RATE.
• JEWS –LOWEST SUICIDE RATE .
• LOWER THE DEGREE OF INTEGRATIONIN RELIGIOUS SOCIETY ,
HIGHER THE SUICIDE RATE .
STATES AVERAGE SUICIDE PER MILLION
INHABITANTS
PROTESTANT 190
CATHOLIC 96
MIXED STATES
(PROTESTANT + CATHOLIC)
58
GREEK CATHOLIC STATES 40 106

RELIGION XIII
• DURKHEIM’S BASIC THEORY OF RELIGION MAY BE
EXPLAINED BY THE FOLLOWING DIAGRAM (ADAPTED
FROM BANERJEE 17:86) .
FUNCTON OF RELIGION IS
SOCIAL
INTEGRATION
107

RELIGION XIV
• ALPERT’S CLASSIFICATION OF
FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
1. DISCIPLINARY
2. COHESIVE
3. VITALISING
4. EUPHORIC
108

RELIGION XV
• FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION (CONTD)
DISCIPLINARY
FUNCTION LEADS
ASCETICISM
SOCIAL BONDING
TO
COHESIVE
FUNCTION
CREATES
109

RELIGION XVI
• FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION (CONTD)
VITALISING
FUNCTION
AWARENESS OF SOCIAL
HERITAGE
EUPHORIC FUNCTION LEADS COUNTERING FEELINGS OF
FRUSTRATION
CREATES
TO
110

RELIGION XVII
CRITICAL REMARKS (17)
E.E.EVANS PRITCHARD
• DURKHEIM NOT A SCIENTIST , A PHILOSOPHER AT
BEST ;
• VIOLATED HIS OWN RULE BY PSYCHOLOGICALLY
INTERPRETING RELIGION .
IRVING M.ZEITLIN
• DURKHEIM GIVES A CONSERVATIVE EMPHASIS ON
THE INTEGRATIVE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION.
• DURKHEIM FAILED TO SEE THAT RELIGIOUS
PRACTICES VARY FROM CLASS TO CLASS.
• DURKHEIM FAILED TO SEE THE NEGATIVE,
ALIENATING CONSEQUENCES OF RELIGION.
111

RELIGION XVIII
CRITICAL REMARKS (CONTD)
ELENA OSIPOVA
• OSIPOVA SAW MERIT IN DURKHEIM’S
THEORY OF RELIGION AS A SYSTEM OF
SIGNS.
• DURKHEIM REGARDED RELIGION AS AN
IDEOLOGY OF SOCIAL INTEGRATION.
• DURKHEIM DID NOT ANALYSE THE TRUE
CAUSES OF DEIFICATION WHICH AROSE OUT
OF ANTAGONISTIC SOCIAL RELATIONS.
112

RELIGION XIX
CRITICAL REMARKS (CONTD)
ANTHONY GIDDENS
• RELIGION DOES NOT MERELY REINFORCE
SOCIAL BONDS.IT BRINGS ABOUT AN
EXALTATION OF MORAL LIFE WHICH RESULTS IN
A GROUP OF IDEAL CONCEPTIONS.
ROBERT A.NISBET
• DURKHEIM ANALYSED THE COMMUNAL AND
COPORATIVE ASPECTS OF RELIGION, THE
COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS , RATHER THAN
INDIVIDUAL REPRESENTATIONS.
113

RELIGION XX
STUDIES SUPPORTING DURKHEIM’S THESIS
RELIGION IN AUSTRALIA
ALTJIRARAMA(TO SEE AND DREAM
ETERNAL THINGS )
(ALSO KNOWN AS ‘DREAMTIME RELIGION’)
• RELIGION OF KUNWINJKU TRIBE
• RAFFAELE:DREAMTIME CEREMONIES
SERVE TO REINFORCE SOCIAL
SOLIDARITY AMONG THE KUNWINJKU
TRIBE .
114

RELIGION XXI
STUDIES SUPPORTING DURKHEIM’S THESIS (CONTD)
RELIGION IN ANDAMAN & NICOBAR
ISLANDS (INDIA)
FEATURES OF NICOBARESE RELIGION
• UNDISGUISED ANIMISM
• STRONG BELIEF IN THE EXISTENCE OF SPIRITS
• KIOLOS ARE RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS HELD TO
PROPITIATE MALEVOLENT SPIRITS.
• FEATURES:FEASTING, DANCING,WRESLING, OFFERING
OF SACRIFICES
• FUNCTIONS :
• TO DRIVE AWAY EVIL
• TO INTEGRATE SOCIETY
• KANENYTIYA OINY –A RELIGIOUS FESTIVAL IN CAR
NICOBAR PERFORMS SIMILAR FUNCTIONS
115

RELIGION XXIII
STUDIES SUPPORTING DURKHEIM’S THESIS (CONTD)
RELIGION AMONG BENGALI FISHERMEN
• RITES LIKE HARILOOT AND
BUROTHAKURANIR PUJO PERFORMED
• THESE CEREMONIES DRAW FISHERMEN TO
THE HOUSE OF THE MAJHI OR THE OWNER
OF THE FISHING VESSEL.
• THIS RELIGIOUS GATHERING FOSTERS A
SENSE OF FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN THE
FISHERMEN.THIS SOLIDARITY IS NEEDED
FOR THEY HAVE TO FACE GRAVE DANGERS
WHILE FISHING.(17)
116

RELIGION XXIII
CONCLUSION
• ETHNOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE SUPPORTS DURKHEIM’S THEORY
THAT RELIGIOUS RITUALS PRODUCE SOCIAL SOLIDARITY.(17)
• BUT DURKHEIM IGNORED THE POLITICAL ROLE OF MODERN
RELIGION .RELIGION BASED POLITICS DIVIDES SOCIETY AND IS
AT THE ROOT OF CIVIL STRIFE.
• RELIGIOUS WARS IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE (EG., THE CRUSADES)
OR THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALIST MOVEMENTS
THROUGHOUT THE MODERN WORLD HAVE BROUGHT UNTOLD
DEATH AND DESTRUCTION IN MODERN SOCIETY.
• INDIA HAS REPEATEDLY SUFFERED THE EVIL CONSEQUENCES
OF SECTARIAN STRIFE.COMMUNALISM WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR
THE PARTITION OF INDIA AND THE BIRTH OF PAKISTAN IN
1947.COMMUNAL RIOTS IN MODERN INDIA, LIKE THE GUJARAT
POGROM (2002) HAVE CAUSED HAVOC IN CIVIL SOCIETY.(17;24)
117

EVALUATION OF DURKHEIM I
RAYMOND ARON
• DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY HAS AROUSED MUCH PASSION IN 19TH CENTURY FRANCE WHEN THE
CONFLICT BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND THE STATE WAS IN FULL SWING.SOCIOLOGY WAS
REPLACING THELOGY IN TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGES .
• DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY STILL AROUSES CONTROVERSY.DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY HAD A
CONSERVATIVE ELEMENT –IT SEEKS TO REINFORCE SOCIAL CONSENSUS .BUT THIS IS ONLY HALF
TRUE . “DURKHEIM WANTS TO STABILISE A SOCIETY WHOSE HIGHEST PRINCIPLE IS RESPECT FOR
THE HUMAN PERSON AND FULFILLMENT OF PERSONAL AUTONOMY”.(20:107).
• “THE CENTRE OF DURKHEIMIAN THOUGHT IS AN ATTEMPT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT RATIONALIST,
INDIVIDUALIST, LIBERAL THOUGHT IS THE LAST TERM IN HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND SINCE THIS
FORM OF THOUGHT CORRESPONDS TO THE STRUCTURE OF MODERN SOCIETIES , IT MUST
THEREFORE BE SANCTIONED, NOT DISMISSED.BUT AT THE SAME TIME THIS RATIONALIST AND
INDIVIDUALIST ATTITUDE WOULD RISK PROVOKING SOCIAL DISAGGREGATION , THE PHENOMENA OF
ANOMIE , UNLESS THE COLLECTIVE NORM INDISPENSABLE TO ANY CONSENSUS WERE REINFORCED
• A SOCIOLOGY JUSTIFYING RATIONALIST INDIVIDUALISM BUT ALSO PREACHING RESPECT FOR
COLLECTIVE NORMS –SUCH, IT SEEMS TO ME , IS DURKHEIM’S IDEAL”.(20:107)
118

EVALUATION OF DURKHEIM
II
TALCOTT PARSONS
• THE ESSENTIAL CONCLUSION OF DURKHEIM’S
THINKING IS THAT FOR THE SOCIOLOGIST THE
BOUNDARY BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY
CANNOT BE THAT OF COMMON SENSE .
******
• DURKHEIM ARRIVED AT THE CRUCIALLY IMPORTANT
CONCLUSION THAT ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
ARE INTERNALIZED AS PART OF THE PERSONALITY OF
THE INDIVIDUAL.IN THIS HE CONVERGED NOTABLY
WITH FREUD AND WITH THE MOVEMENT IN AMERICAN
SOCIAL APSYCHOLOGY FROM CHARLES H.COOLEY TO
GERORGE HERBERT MEAD AND W.I.THOMAS.(18:315)
• “…SUICIDE ESTABLISHED A VERY IMPORTANT LINK
BETWEEN DURKHEIM’S THEORETICAL WORK AND THE
TRADITIONS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH”(18:315)
119

EVALUATION OF DURKHEIM III
ELENA OSIPOVA
• “DURKHEIM IDEALISED SOCIAL RELATIONS AND TREATED
THEM AS RELATIONS OF CONCORD , SOLIDARITY, HARMONY
AND CO-OPERATION.
***
• THE BASIC INSPIRATION OF ‘SOCIOLOGISM’ WAS
CONCENTRATED IN A CONSERVATIVE ORIENTATION DEEPLY
HOSTILE TO THE REVOLUTIONARY SPIRIT OF
MARXISM…(“10:250)
• “IT IS SIGNIFICANT THAT THE EFFORTS OF WESTERN
SOCIOLOGISTS IN OUR DAY TO JUSTIFY THE EXISTENCE OF
CAPITALISM THEORETICALLY AND TO FIND A WAY OUT OF
THE CRISIS ARE BASED N THE IDEAS AND CONCEPTIONS OF
BASED ON THE IDEAS AND CONCEPTIONS OF DURKHEIM ,
WHO MADE THE PROBLEMS OF THE CRISIS OF THE
CAPITALIST WORLD THE KEYNOTE OF SOCIOLOGY.”(10:251)
120

RELEVANCE OF DURKHEIM IN
21ST CENTURY
• WHY STUDY DURKHEIM TODAY?
• STUDENTS WHO HAVE STUDIED HIS
MAJOR WORKS WILL THEMSELVES
BE ABLE TO ANSWER THIS
QUESTION.
• ANALYSE HIS MAJOR CONCEPTS –
ANOMIE, SOCIAL FACTS , SOCIAL
SOLIDARITY, COLLECTIVE
REPRESENTATIONS –AND YOU WILL
GET THE ANSWER.
121

FURTHER READING I
• A.ENGLISH AND ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS
• RAYMOND ARON: MAIN CURRENTS IN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT ,
VOL.2,TRANSLATED BY RICHARD HOWARD AND HELEN WEAVER ,
PENGUIN BOOKS LIMITED HARMONDSWORTH, MIDDLESEX,
ENGLAND 1982.
• LEWIS A.COSER :MASTERS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT:IDEAS IN
SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT, SECOND EDITION NEW YORK,
HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVITCH PUBLISHERS ,1977.
• KENNETH THOMPSON: READINGS FROM ÉMILE DURKHEIM,
ROUTLEDGE, LONDON 1989.
• KEN THOMPSON: EMILE DURKHEIM, ROUTLEDGE, LONDON & NEW
YORK,1982.
• ANTHONY GIDDENS :DURKHEIM, FONTANA PRESS , LONDON ,1978.
• MUSTAPHA EMIRBAYER ED.EMILE DURKHEIM:SOCIOLOGIST OF
MODERNITY, SECOND EDITION,BLACKWELL PUBLISHING , MALDEN,
OXFORD, VICTORIA,2006.
• ANIRBAN BANERJEE:EXPLORATIONS IN SOCIOLOGY,THE
UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN 2013(SEE ESSAY”EMILE DURKHEIM’S
SOCIOLOGIE RELIGIEUSE)
• ELENA OSIPOVA :”EMILE DURKHEIM’S SOCIOLOGY” IN I.S.KON ED.A
HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGY, TRANS.CAMBELL CREIGHTON,
PROGRESS PUBLISHERS, MOSCOW, 1989.
122

FURTHER READING II
B.BENGALI WORKS
1. ANIRBAN
BANDYOPADHYAY:“ÉMILE
DURKHEIMER SAMAJTATTAVABAD"
IN SAMAJTATTA VOL.20.ISSUE
1.JULY 2014.
2. ASOKE KUMAR BHADURY:
SAMAJTATTWIK EMILE DURKHEIM,
READER’S SERVICE, KOLKATA,
2008.
123

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• 1.STANFORD DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
:"IMMANUEL KANT"
(https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant/) DT 7/05/2017
• 2.ROBERT SHACKLETON:"MONTESQUIEU" IN
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Montesquieu)
DOWNLOADED ON 24/05/2017.
• 3.LEWIS A.COSER :MASTERS OF SOCIOLOGICAL
THOUGHT:IDEAS IN SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL
CONTEXT, SECOND EDITION NEW YORK, HARCOURT
BRACE JOVANOVITCH PUBLISHERS ,1977.
• 4.EDITORS OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA:"NUMA
DENNIS FUSTEL DE COULANGES:FRENCH HISTORIAN"
,ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Numa-Denis-
Fustel-de-Coulanges) DOWNLOADED ON 24/05/2017.
124

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• 5.MICHEL DELASSMUTT :"EMILE BOUTROUX, PROFESSOR
OF PHILOSOPHY , SORBONNE (1845TO 1921)" THE GIFFORD
LECTURES( http://www.giffordlectures.org/lecturers/emile-
boutroux) DOWNLOADED ON 24/05/2017.
• 6.MARGIT WARBURG"WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH AND THE
STUDY OF R ELIGION",JOURNAL OF RELIGION,VOL.19,ISSUE
1,1989(http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0048-
721X%2889%2990076-6?journalCode=rrel20) DOWNLOADED
ON 26/05/2017.
• 7.THOMPSON GATE :"SMITH, WILLIAM
ROBERTSON"INTERNATIONAL ENCLYCLOPAEDIA OF THE
SOCIAL SCIENCES,
2008(http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/philosophy-and-
religion/protestant-christianity-biographies/william-robertson-
smith) DOWNLOADED ON 26/05/2017.
• 8.ÉMILE DURKHEIM:THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD
,TRANSLATED BY SARAH A . SOLVAY AND JOHN
H.MUELLER, EDITED BY GEORGE E.G.CATLIN, THIRD
PRINTING , THE FREE PRESS OF GLENCOE,1962.
125

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• 9.EMILE BENOIT SMULLYAN "THE SOCIOLOGISM OF ÉMILE
DURKHEIM AND HIS SCHOOL " IN H.E.BARNES ED.INTRODUCTION
TO THE HISTORY OF SOCIOLOGY, THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
PRESS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS ,1948
• 10. ELENA OSIPOVA: ÉMILE DURKHEIM'S SOCIOLOGY " IN IGOR
KON ED.A HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGY, ( TRANS BY )
PROGRESS PUBLISHERS, MOSCOW, 1989
• 11.JONATHAN TURNER, LEONARD BEEGHLY,AND CHARLES
H.POWERS:THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY , THIRD
EDITION, WADSWORTH PUBLISHING COMPANY 1995.
• 12.IRVING M.ZEITLIN :IDEOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY , PRENTICE HALL OF INDIA, NEW
DELHI,1969.
• 13.ANIRBAN BANDYOPADHYAY" ÉMILE DURKHEIMER
SAMAJTATTAVABAD" IN SAMAJTATTA VOL.20.ISSUE 1.JULY 2014.
• 14.KENNETH THOMPSON: READINGS FROM ÉMILE DURKHEIM,
ROUTLEDGE, LONDON 1989.
• 15.ÉMILE DURKHEIM: SUICIDE : A STUDY IN
SOCIOLOGY,ROUTLEDGE AND KEGAN PAUL LIMITED ,
LONDON,1970.
126

BIBLIOGRAPHY
• 16.www.wwnorton.com/college/phil/logic3/ch15/c
oncom.htm.
• DOWNLOADED ON 6/6/2017.
• 17.ANIRBAN BANERJEE: “ÉMILE DURKHEIM’S
SOCIOLOGIE RELIGIEUSE”IN SOCIALIST
PERSPECTIVE 30(1&2)2002.
• 18.TALCOTT PARSONS: “DURKHEIM, ÉMILE” IN
DAVID L.SILLS ED.INTERNATIONAL
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES ,
VOL.4, THE MACMILLAN COMPANY AND THE
FREE PRESS 1968.
• 19.ALAN SWINGEWOOD:A SHORT HISTORY OF
SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT, MACMILLAN
PUBLISHERS LIMITED , LONDON AND
BASINGSTOKE, 1984
127

BIBLIOGRAPHY
20.RAYMOND ARON: MAIN CURRENTS IN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT ,
VOL.2,TRANSLATED BY RICHARD HOWARD AND HELEN WEAVER ,
PENGUIN BOOKS LIMITED HARMONDSWORTH, MIDDLESEX, ENGLAND
1982.
21. ANTHONY GIDDENS :DURKHEIM, FONTANA PRESS , LONDON ,1978.
22. ANIRBAN BANERJEE : “IS SUICIDE IN INDIA THE RELECTION OF CRISIS
OF VALUES?” SOCIALIST PERSPECTIVE, (ISSN No.0970-8863) VOL.
32.NOS.3&4, DECEMBER 2004-MARCH 2005: 197-228. (ABSTRACTED IN
SOCIOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS (CSA ACCESSION NUMBER : 200601464).
23ANIRBAN BANERJEE : “SUICIDE AND ATTEMPTED SUICIDE IN BURDWAN
DISTRICT “SOCIALIST PERSPECTIVE (ISSN 0970-8863) 36(1&2)2008.
24.ANIRBAN BANDYOPADHYAY:”BHARATER BAHUTYABADI SANSKRITIR
BIPONNATA”IN ANTARMUKH,6(1)2016.
25.ROBERT K.MERTON :”THEORIES OF THE MIDDLE RANGE” IN ROBERT
K.MERTON :SOCIAL THEORY AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE,1968,INDIAN
EDITION, AMERIND PUBLISHING CO.NEW DELHI, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA
,NEW YORK,THIRD INDIAN REPRINT,1981
26.OUR LEGAL CORRESPONDENT:”CALL TO SCRAP SECTION 377”, THE
TELEGRAPH, CALCUTTA 15 AUGUST,2016.
27. http://www.pitt.edu/~super1/lecture/lec20041/023.htm
28.ANIRBAN BANDYOPADHYAY:”NIL TIMIR GRASH THEKE NIJER SANTAN KE
BACHAN” DHARABAHIK ,10TH SEPTEMBER,2017.
128

THE SOCIOLOGY OF EMILE
DURKHEIM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
• UNLESS OTHERWISE STATED IN THE TEXT, PICTURES
AND SOME DIAGRAMS IN THIS PRESENTATION HAVE
BEEN DOWNLOADED FROM THE INTERNET
• TECHNICAL SUPPORT : PAPAN CHATTERJEE, UNET
TARABAG, BURDWAN
129

SOCIOLOGY OF EMILE
DURKHEIM
THANK YOU
130

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