About the types of nutrition and the recommended dietry allowance from ICMR NIN document. The presentation will be useful for medical students as well as people who want to prepare diet charts to achieve appropriate calorie targets.
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
About Krebs cycle, which is the most important cycle in cellular respiration which take place in all aerobic organism and also tells about importance of Krebs cycle. As it place a connecting link between Glycolysis and ETS
Lipids by Dr Ripudaman,Assistant Professor ,Anjuman Islam School of Pharmacy ...Ripudaman Manjitsingh
This document defines lipids and classifies them by structure and function. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, sphingolipids and others. They serve important roles like energy storage, cell membrane structure, and as precursors to hormones. Fatty acids are classified as saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids exhibit positional and geometric isomerism. Linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids are essential fatty acids that must be obtained through diet. Omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oils confer various health benefits. Nomenclature systems describe fatty acid structure and double bond positions.
The HMP pathway, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate oxidative pathway, is an alternate pathway to glycolysis where glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to produce NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, and red blood cells. The pathway has two phases - an oxidative phase that generates NADPH and a non-oxidative phase that produces pentoses. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the first reaction of the oxidative phase, is regulated by NADPH levels. The uronic acid pathway is another oxidative pathway for glucose that produces glucuronic
Biological Oxidation (Electron Transport Chain)Eneutron
1) Biological oxidation (also called respiration) is an ATP-generating process where oxygen serves as the ultimate electron acceptor, reducing oxygen to water.
2) Mitochondria contain the enzymes of the electron transport chain in cristae, using a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane to drive ATP synthesis.
3) The electron transport chain is made up of four complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors like NADH to ultimately reduce oxygen, using the energy from electron transfer to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix.
The document discusses the citric acid (TCA) cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria and involves 8 steps to completely oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents in the form of NADH and FADH2. These reducing equivalents are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle also serves as a hub to integrate various metabolic pathways and provides precursors for many biosynthetic processes. Regulation of the cycle occurs through feedback inhibition by products of high energy states like ATP and NADH.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
About the types of nutrition and the recommended dietry allowance from ICMR NIN document. The presentation will be useful for medical students as well as people who want to prepare diet charts to achieve appropriate calorie targets.
Disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides joined by an O-glycosidic linkage. The main disaccharides discussed are:
1) Sucrose (table sugar), which hydrolyzes into glucose and fructose. Inversion of sucrose produces invert sugar, which is sweeter.
2) Maltose, formed from two glucose molecules and is a reducing sugar. It is found in germinating seeds.
3) Lactose is the sugar in milk, formed from glucose and galactose. It is hydrolyzed by lactase in the small intestine.
About Krebs cycle, which is the most important cycle in cellular respiration which take place in all aerobic organism and also tells about importance of Krebs cycle. As it place a connecting link between Glycolysis and ETS
Lipids by Dr Ripudaman,Assistant Professor ,Anjuman Islam School of Pharmacy ...Ripudaman Manjitsingh
This document defines lipids and classifies them by structure and function. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, sphingolipids and others. They serve important roles like energy storage, cell membrane structure, and as precursors to hormones. Fatty acids are classified as saturated or unsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids exhibit positional and geometric isomerism. Linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids are essential fatty acids that must be obtained through diet. Omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oils confer various health benefits. Nomenclature systems describe fatty acid structure and double bond positions.
The HMP pathway, also known as the pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate oxidative pathway, is an alternate pathway to glycolysis where glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to produce NADPH and pentoses like ribose-5-phosphate. It occurs in the cytosol of liver, adipose tissue, adrenal cortex, and red blood cells. The pathway has two phases - an oxidative phase that generates NADPH and a non-oxidative phase that produces pentoses. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the first reaction of the oxidative phase, is regulated by NADPH levels. The uronic acid pathway is another oxidative pathway for glucose that produces glucuronic
Biological Oxidation (Electron Transport Chain)Eneutron
1) Biological oxidation (also called respiration) is an ATP-generating process where oxygen serves as the ultimate electron acceptor, reducing oxygen to water.
2) Mitochondria contain the enzymes of the electron transport chain in cristae, using a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane to drive ATP synthesis.
3) The electron transport chain is made up of four complexes that transfer electrons from electron donors like NADH to ultimately reduce oxygen, using the energy from electron transfer to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix.
The document discusses the citric acid (TCA) cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria and involves 8 steps to completely oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, producing carbon dioxide and reducing equivalents in the form of NADH and FADH2. These reducing equivalents are used to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The TCA cycle also serves as a hub to integrate various metabolic pathways and provides precursors for many biosynthetic processes. Regulation of the cycle occurs through feedback inhibition by products of high energy states like ATP and NADH.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
1. Beta oxidation is a process that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules in the mitochondria to produce energy. It involves activating fatty acids to fatty acyl-CoAs, transporting them into mitochondria, and breaking them down through four steps.
2. Each round of beta oxidation yields acetyl-CoA, FADH2, and NADH, which generate approximately 12-17 ATP molecules. It continues removing two carbons at a time until the fatty acid is completely broken down.
3. The four steps of beta oxidation are dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and thiolysis. These shorten the fatty acyl-CoA by two carbons each cycle while producing
This document discusses protein metabolism, including oxidative deamination, transamination, decarboxylation, and transmethylation. It also discusses the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt, Warburg-Dickens pathway, and other names. The PPP provides an alternative pathway to glycolysis for carbohydrate breakdown and generates NADPH for biosynthetic processes. It is important for producing pentose sugars, aromatic compounds, nucleotides, and reducing power for biosynthesis.
Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources through a complex series of metabolic pathways. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney cytosol and produces approximately 1 kg of glucose per day, which is essential for brain function and as an energy source for muscles. The major precursors for gluconeogenesis are lactate, pyruvate, amino acids, glycerol, and propionate derived from the breakdown of proteins, fats, and certain metabolites. The pathways involved closely mirror glycolysis except for a few irreversible steps that are bypassed by alternative enzyme-catalyzed reactions in order to synthesize glucose from these precursors.
Fatty acids are the major source of energy through fatty acid oxidation. This process generates acetyl-CoA and ATP in the liver and muscle. The liver converts much of the acetyl-CoA to ketone bodies - acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate - which are fuel for other tissues like muscle during fasting when fatty acids are released from adipose tissue. Fatty acid oxidation is controlled by the need for ATP. Fatty acids must be activated to acyl-CoA before undergoing β-oxidation in the mitochondria, which is transported via carnitine shuttle.
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake. It involves 10 enzymatic steps, with 7 reversing the reactions of glycolysis. The key substrates used for gluconeogenesis include lactate, glycerol, certain amino acids, and intermediates of the citric acid cycle. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon, as well as feedback inhibition based on energy levels and metabolite concentrations.
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle consists of 8 steps: 1) conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl-CoA, 2) citrate synthase catalyzes the formation of citric acid, 3) isocitrate dehydrogenase and other enzymes catalyze additional reactions, generating NADH, FADH2, and GTP to fuel ATP synthesis. The net result is the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide to generate between 36-38 ATP.
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
Digestion of proteins, absorption of amino acids, synthesis of amino acids, catabolism of amino acids and synthesis of specialised non-protein compounds from amino acids for undergraduates
The document summarizes electron transport chain which involves the passage of electrons through electron carrier molecules embedded in mitochondrial membranes. As electrons reach proton pumping channels, their energy drives protons out of the membrane, leading to ATP synthesis. Enzymes like NADH, FADH2, CoEnzyme Q, and Cytochrome C are involved in transferring electrons. The electron transport chain uses energy from electron transfers to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Each glucose molecule produces about 38 ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
Translation in eukaryotes involves three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins with the dissociation of ribosomes into subunits, followed by the formation of initiation complexes involving initiation factors and met-tRNA binding to the 40S subunit. Elongation cyclicly adds amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain through aminoacyl-tRNA binding, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Termination occurs when a release factor binds to a stop codon, causing the ribosomal subunits to separate and release the completed polypeptide chain. Ribosomal recycling then dissociates remaining mRNA and tRNAs to recycle the ribosome.
Biosynthesis of fatty acids --Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Fatty acid synthesis involves a two-step reaction where acetyl-CoA is carboxylated by biotin to form malonyl-CoA using ATP as an energy source. Malonyl-CoA then condenses with acetyl-CoA through a decarboxylation reaction to elongate the fatty acid chain. This cycle of condensation and decarboxylation is repeated until a 16-carbon fatty acid is produced, at which point a thioesterase domain catalyzes its release as palmitate. NADPH produced by the pentose phosphate pathway provides electrons to reduce substrates during chain elongation. Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids must be obtained through diet as mammals cannot introduce double bonds at specific
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
1. Glycolysis is the pathway where glucose is broken down to pyruvate with production of ATP. It takes place in the cytosol of cells.
2. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate, phosphorylation of fructose to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, cleavage to two 3-carbon molecules, conversion of one to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and isomerization, oxidation and phosphorylation to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, substrate-level phosphorylation to form ATP, and generation of pyruvate from phosphoenolpyruvate.
Cholesterol is a lipid that plays several important roles in the body. It is synthesized primarily in the liver from acetyl-CoA and can also be obtained through diet. Cholesterol synthesis is a multi-step process regulated by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. High levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream, especially LDL cholesterol, increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. The body maintains cholesterol homeostasis through mechanisms like reverse cholesterol transport that move cholesterol from tissues back to the liver.
ETC and Phosphorylation by Salman SaeedSalman Saeed
ETC and Phosphorylation lecture for Biology, Botany, Zoology, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
The ETC is a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase.
This document discusses the digestion and absorption of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract. Lipids require specialized machinery to be broken down and absorbed due to their insoluble nature. In the stomach, lipids undergo minor digestion by gastric lipase. In the small intestine, bile salts emulsify lipids into smaller droplets for pancreatic lipase to act on. Lipases break down triglycerides into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These products are absorbed via mixed micelles and transported through the intestinal cells before being packaged into chylomicrons for systemic circulation. Disorders of the pancreas or liver can impair lipid digestion and absorption, leading to conditions like steatorrhea.
1. Beta oxidation is a process that breaks down fatty acids into acetyl-CoA molecules in the mitochondria to produce energy. It involves activating fatty acids to fatty acyl-CoAs, transporting them into mitochondria, and breaking them down through four steps.
2. Each round of beta oxidation yields acetyl-CoA, FADH2, and NADH, which generate approximately 12-17 ATP molecules. It continues removing two carbons at a time until the fatty acid is completely broken down.
3. The four steps of beta oxidation are dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and thiolysis. These shorten the fatty acyl-CoA by two carbons each cycle while producing
This document discusses protein metabolism, including oxidative deamination, transamination, decarboxylation, and transmethylation. It also discusses the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), also known as the hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt, Warburg-Dickens pathway, and other names. The PPP provides an alternative pathway to glycolysis for carbohydrate breakdown and generates NADPH for biosynthetic processes. It is important for producing pentose sugars, aromatic compounds, nucleotides, and reducing power for biosynthesis.
Gluconeogenesis is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources through a complex series of metabolic pathways. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidney cytosol and produces approximately 1 kg of glucose per day, which is essential for brain function and as an energy source for muscles. The major precursors for gluconeogenesis are lactate, pyruvate, amino acids, glycerol, and propionate derived from the breakdown of proteins, fats, and certain metabolites. The pathways involved closely mirror glycolysis except for a few irreversible steps that are bypassed by alternative enzyme-catalyzed reactions in order to synthesize glucose from these precursors.
Fatty acids are the major source of energy through fatty acid oxidation. This process generates acetyl-CoA and ATP in the liver and muscle. The liver converts much of the acetyl-CoA to ketone bodies - acetoacetate and β-hydroxybutyrate - which are fuel for other tissues like muscle during fasting when fatty acids are released from adipose tissue. Fatty acid oxidation is controlled by the need for ATP. Fatty acids must be activated to acyl-CoA before undergoing β-oxidation in the mitochondria, which is transported via carnitine shuttle.
This document discusses gluconeogenesis, which is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. Gluconeogenesis is important for maintaining blood glucose levels during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake. It involves 10 enzymatic steps, with 7 reversing the reactions of glycolysis. The key substrates used for gluconeogenesis include lactate, glycerol, certain amino acids, and intermediates of the citric acid cycle. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon, as well as feedback inhibition based on energy levels and metabolite concentrations.
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
The citric acid cycle (TCA cycle) is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle consists of 8 steps: 1) conversion of pyruvic acid to acetyl-CoA, 2) citrate synthase catalyzes the formation of citric acid, 3) isocitrate dehydrogenase and other enzymes catalyze additional reactions, generating NADH, FADH2, and GTP to fuel ATP synthesis. The net result is the oxidation of acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide to generate between 36-38 ATP.
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. It occurs primarily in the liver and involves bypassing the three irreversible steps of glycolysis through different enzymes. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis include pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase which catalyze reactions to bypass pyruvate kinase. Gluconeogenesis and glycolysis share certain intermediate compounds but are not simple reversals of each other due to different enzymatic pathways. Regulation of these two processes helps determine whether glucose or glycogen will be synthesized or broken down depending on the body's energy needs.
This document discusses intermediary carbohydrate metabolism, specifically glycolysis. It begins with an introduction to glycolysis, noting that it is the degradation of glucose into pyruvate through a series of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions. These reactions can occur aerobically, producing pyruvate, or anaerobically, producing lactate. The document then delves into the specific reactions, enzymes, and intermediates involved in both the preparatory and payoff phases of glycolysis. It also discusses the importance of 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate in red blood cells for regulating oxygen release from hemoglobin.
Digestion of proteins, absorption of amino acids, synthesis of amino acids, catabolism of amino acids and synthesis of specialised non-protein compounds from amino acids for undergraduates
The document summarizes electron transport chain which involves the passage of electrons through electron carrier molecules embedded in mitochondrial membranes. As electrons reach proton pumping channels, their energy drives protons out of the membrane, leading to ATP synthesis. Enzymes like NADH, FADH2, CoEnzyme Q, and Cytochrome C are involved in transferring electrons. The electron transport chain uses energy from electron transfers to pump protons out of the mitochondrial matrix, creating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Each glucose molecule produces about 38 ATP through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
Translation in eukaryotes involves three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins with the dissociation of ribosomes into subunits, followed by the formation of initiation complexes involving initiation factors and met-tRNA binding to the 40S subunit. Elongation cyclicly adds amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain through aminoacyl-tRNA binding, peptide bond formation, and translocation. Termination occurs when a release factor binds to a stop codon, causing the ribosomal subunits to separate and release the completed polypeptide chain. Ribosomal recycling then dissociates remaining mRNA and tRNAs to recycle the ribosome.
Biosynthesis of fatty acids --Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Fatty acid synthesis involves a two-step reaction where acetyl-CoA is carboxylated by biotin to form malonyl-CoA using ATP as an energy source. Malonyl-CoA then condenses with acetyl-CoA through a decarboxylation reaction to elongate the fatty acid chain. This cycle of condensation and decarboxylation is repeated until a 16-carbon fatty acid is produced, at which point a thioesterase domain catalyzes its release as palmitate. NADPH produced by the pentose phosphate pathway provides electrons to reduce substrates during chain elongation. Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids must be obtained through diet as mammals cannot introduce double bonds at specific
Glycogen metabolism involves the breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate through glycogenolysis. Glycogenolysis occurs in three steps: 1) glycogen phosphorylase cleaves glucose from glycogen, 2) transferase and alpha-1,6-glucosidase remodel glycogen to allow further degradation, and 3) phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate. In liver, glucose-6-phosphatase converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose for blood glucose regulation. In muscle, glucose-6-phosphate enters glycolysis for rapid energy production.
1. Glycolysis is the pathway where glucose is broken down to pyruvate with production of ATP. It takes place in the cytosol of cells.
2. Key steps include phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase, isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate, phosphorylation of fructose to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, cleavage to two 3-carbon molecules, conversion of one to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate and isomerization, oxidation and phosphorylation to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, substrate-level phosphorylation to form ATP, and generation of pyruvate from phosphoenolpyruvate.
Cholesterol is a lipid that plays several important roles in the body. It is synthesized primarily in the liver from acetyl-CoA and can also be obtained through diet. Cholesterol synthesis is a multi-step process regulated by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. High levels of cholesterol in the bloodstream, especially LDL cholesterol, increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. The body maintains cholesterol homeostasis through mechanisms like reverse cholesterol transport that move cholesterol from tissues back to the liver.
ETC and Phosphorylation by Salman SaeedSalman Saeed
ETC and Phosphorylation lecture for Biology, Botany, Zoology, and Chemistry Students by Salman Saeed lecturer Botany University College of Management and Sciences Khanewal, Pakistan.
About Author: Salman Saeed
Qualification: M.SC (Botany), M. Phil (Biotechnology) from BZU Multan.
M. Ed & B. Ed from GCU Faisalabad, Pakistan.
The ETC is a collection of proteins bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane and organic molecules, which electrons pass through in a series of redox reactions, and release energy. The energy released forms a proton gradient, which is used in chemiosmosis to make a large amount of ATP by the protein ATP-synthase.
The document provides information on cellular respiration and how it generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. It discusses the electron transport chain, made up of protein complexes I-IV in the inner mitochondrial membrane, which establishes a proton gradient by pumping protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient drives ATP synthase to catalyze the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. The chemiosmotic theory explains how the potential energy in the proton gradient is used to produce ATP through rotation of the ATP synthase complex.
The electron transport chain (ETC) transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH to electron acceptors like oxygen via redox reactions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This creates an electrochemical proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of 4 complexes along the inner mitochondrial membrane containing enzymes and proteins. As electrons are passed from one complex to the next, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space. This proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP, the energy currency of cells.
Chapter 19 - Oxidative Phosphorylation and Photophosphorylation- BiochemistryAreej Abu Hanieh
The document discusses two processes that cells use to synthesize ATP - oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. Both processes involve the flow of electrons through electron transport chains to establish a proton gradient across a membrane. In oxidative phosphorylation, the proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP, while in photophosphorylation light provides the energy to drive the process in chloroplasts. The chemiosmotic theory proposes that it is the flow of protons back through ATP synthase, not a direct chemical reaction, that provides the energy for ATP synthesis.
The document discusses two processes that cells use to synthesize ATP - oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. Both processes involve the flow of electrons through a transport chain coupled to the transport of protons across a membrane. Energy from the electron transport is used to pump protons against their gradient, and when protons flow back through ATP synthase, the energy is used to phosphorylate ADP into ATP. The chemiosmotic theory proposed that this is how cells harness energy to drive the endergonic formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate.
The electron transport chain (ETC) transfers electrons from electron donors like NADH to electron acceptors like oxygen via redox reactions. This creates a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which drives the synthesis of ATP. The ETC consists of four complexes - I, II, III, and IV - located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons pass from one complex to the next, protons are pumped from the matrix to the intermembrane space. Complex I oxidizes NADH, Complex II oxidizes FADH2, and Complexes III and IV pass electrons to oxygen to produce water. The proton gradient powers ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP, providing energy for cellular work.
This document summarizes ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. It describes how electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts establish proton gradients across membranes, which are then used by ATP synthase complexes to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Specifically, it outlines how electrons from NADH/FADH2 or water power proton pumping via complex I-IV in mitochondria or photosystems I and II in chloroplasts. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through the ATP synthase.
The document summarizes the electron transport chain (ETC). The ETC is located in the mitochondria and is composed of a series of electron carriers that transfer electrons from donors like NADH and FADH2 to oxygen. As electrons flow from carrier to carrier, their energy is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. The ETC consists of four complexes that transfer electrons step-wise to oxygen with complexes I, III, and IV pumping protons. The chemiosmotic hypothesis proposes that this proton gradient powers ATP synthase to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport, oxidation reduction by Akshay...HNGU
The document summarizes mitochondrial and bacterial electron transport. It describes the key components of the electron transport chain (ETC) in mitochondria, including four complexes and coenzyme Q that transfer electrons and pump protons. Bacterial ETCs can resemble mitochondria but vary in electron carriers and branches. They are usually shorter and less efficient than mitochondrial ETC. The ETC couples electron transfer with proton pumping to build a proton gradient and facilitate ATP synthesis through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and produces ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain generates the most ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, which uses a proton gradient established by pumping protons across membranes to power ATP synthase. Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in aerobic cellular respiration. Overall, cellular respiration breaks down glucose and other fuels to extract energy, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products.
Respiration is the process by which organisms break down glucose and other organic molecules to release energy. It occurs via aerobic respiration, which uses oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. The electron transport system transports electrons and protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, establishing a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to synthesize ATP via oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthase consists of F0, which forms a channel for proton flow, and F1, where ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate using the energy from proton flow down their gradient.
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
Biochem Respiratory chain and Oxidative phosphorylationBlazyInhumang
The electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttle electrons from electron carriers to oxygen. As electrons are passed through four protein complexes, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, generating an electrochemical gradient. ATP synthase harnesses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP, producing the majority of a cell's ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The ETC and oxidative phosphorylation are essential metabolic pathways that generate energy to power cellular functions.
1) The document is an assignment submission on the electron transport chain from a student at PrimeAsia University.
2) It provides an overview of the electron transport chain as a series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial inner membrane that pass electrons from NADH and FADH2 through redox reactions to generate a proton gradient.
3) This proton gradient is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP through chemiosmosis, completing oxidative phosphorylation.
This document provides an overview of chemioenergetics and oxidative phosphorylation. It discusses how mitochondria convert food into ATP through a series of redox reactions known as the electron transport chain located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. These reactions establish a proton gradient that is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP, producing ATP. Specifically, it describes (1) the structure and function of the electron transport chain complexes and enzymes, (2) how the chemiosmotic theory and proton gradient underlie ATP production, and (3) the binding change mechanism of ATP synthesis by ATP synthase. The document concludes that oxidative phosphorylation is the key process by which mitochondria generate cellular energy in the form of ATP.
The electron transport chain (ETC) transports electrons from electron donors like NADH to molecular oxygen. It consists of protein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Complexes I, III, and IV pump protons out of the matrix, building up an electrochemical gradient used for ATP synthesis. Electrons flow from complex to complex via mobile carriers like coenzyme Q and cytochrome c. This transfers energy from electrons to protons, conserving energy as ATP. Mitochondria contain many copies of the ETC to generate sufficient ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
ETC is the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen via electron carriers. This releases energy to drive ATP synthesis from ADP and Pi. Multiple protein complexes make up the electron transport chain, passing electrons from one complex to the next until reaching oxygen. As electrons are passed, protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, building up a proton gradient used for ATP production.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intellige...University of Maribor
Slides from talk:
Aleš Zamuda: Remote Sensing and Computational, Evolutionary, Supercomputing, and Intelligent Systems.
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Inter-Society Networking Panel GRSS/MTT-S/CIS Panel Session: Promoting Connection and Cooperation
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
2. OVERVIEW
• Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation re-oxidize NADH and
FADH2 and trap the energy released as ATP.
• In eukaryotes, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation occur
in the inner membrane of mitochondria whereas in prokaryotes the
process occurs in the plasma membrane.
4. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
• This is the final common pathway in aerobic cells by which
electrons derived from various substrates are transferred to
oxygen. Electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of highly
organized oxidation-reduction enzymes.
• The inner membrane transport only specific substances such as
ATP, ADP, pyruvate, succinate, α-ketoglutarate, malate and
citrate etc. The enzymes of the electron transport chain are
embedded in the inner membrane in association with the
enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation.
5. COMPLEX OR COMPONENTS OF ETC
• The electron transport chain in the mitochondrial membrane
has been separated in 4 (four) complexes from Complex I-IV.
• Complex I, also called NADH ubiquinone oxidoreductase or
NADH dehydrogenase, is a large enzyme composed of 42
different polypeptide chains. High-resolution electron
microscopy shows Complex I to be L-shaped, with one arm of
the L in the membrane and the other extending into the matrix.
7. COMPLEX II
Succinate to ubiquinone
• It is smaller and simpler than
Complex I.
• Flow of electrons from succinate to
CoQ occurs via FADH2
• It does not pump protons across the
mitochondrial membrane, hence this
protein complex does not contribute
to proton gradient that lead to ATP
production.
8. COMPLEX III
UBIQUINONE TO CYTOCHROME C
• The transfer of electrons from
ubiquinol (QH2) to
cytochrome c.
• Functions as
i. Proton pump, and
ii. Catalyze transfer of electrons
It is believed that 4 (four)
protons are pumped across the
mitochondrial membrane
during the oxidation.
9. COMPLEX IV
CYTOCHROME C TO O2
• Complex IV, also called
cytochrome oxidase, carries
electrons from cytochrome c to
molecular oxygen, reducing it to
H2O.
• This is the terminal component of
ETC. It catalyses the transfer of
electrons from Cyt-c to molecular
O2 via Cyt-a, Cu++ ions and Cyt-
a3.
10. Summary of the flow of electrons and protons
through the four complexes of the respiratory
chain
11.
12. PROTON-MOTIVE FORCE
• For each pair of electrons transferred to O2, four protons are
pumped out by Complex I, four by Complex III, and two by Complex
IV. This introduces proton motive force.
• The proton-motive force, has two components:
I. The chemical potential energy due to the difference in
concentration of a chemical species (H) in the two regions
separated by the membrane.
II. The electrical potential energy that results from the separation of
charge when a proton moves across the membrane.
13. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
• The chemiosmotic model, proposed by Peter Mitchell, is the
paradigm for this mechanism.
• According to chemiosmotic theory applied to mitochondria, electrons
from NADH and other oxidizable substrates pass through a chain of
carriers arranged asymmetrically in the inner membrane. Electron
flow is accompanied by proton transfer across the membrane,
producing both a chemical gradient and an electrical gradient.
• The inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to protons,
protons can reenter the matrix only through proton-specific
channels. The proton-motive force that drives protons back into the
matrix provides the energy for ATP synthesis.
14.
15. What would happen to the energy stored in the proton
gradient if not used to synthesize ATP or other cellular work?
• It would be released as heat, and interestingly enough, some types of cells
deliberately use the proton gradient for heat generation rather than ATP
synthesis. This might seem wasteful, but it's an important strategy for
animals that need to keep warm.
• Hibernating mammals (such as bears) have specialized cells known as brown
fat cells. In the brown fat cells, uncoupling proteins are produced and
inserted into the inner mitochondrial membrane. These proteins are simply
channels that allow protons to pass from the intermembrane space to the
matrix without traveling through ATP synthase. By providing an alternate
route for protons to flow back into the matrix, the uncoupling proteins allow
the energy of the gradient to be dissipated as heat.