This study examined the effects of white noise and instrumental music on off-task behavior in two students with ADHD - one taking stimulant medication and one not. The dependent variable was off-task behavior such as talking off-topic or looking away from assignments. Researchers observed the students during independent work and recorded off-task behavior over 15-minute sessions under different conditions: baseline, white noise, and instrumental music. Preliminary results suggested white noise and music may reduce off-task behavior for both students compared to baseline. Further research is needed to better understand how auditory stimuli impact students with ADHD, both with and without medication.
DSM proposal for Sensory Processing Disorder. Of interest to those who want to know more in general, or know more about SPD as it compares to ASD or Misophonia.
ADHD is becoming much prevalent in childhood and adolescent , comorbidities like learning disability, anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder and tourette syndrome . Regarding the treatment we have to put in mind the comorbid disorder . Amphetamine Methylphenidate, Atomoxetine and behavioral treatment are considered of value in treating ADHD and comorbidities , ,
Efficacy of Interpersonal Protection Model in Child Sexual Abuse with Cogniti...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : Child sexual abuse predominantly affects brain structures. Children cognitive functioning is associated with caregivers’ attachment based experiences and attachment is often formed on the basis of interpersonal protection model. Till date few studies demonstrated the efficacy of interpersonal protection model in the recovery of cognitive deficits in sexual abuse case. The purpose of the study was to examine the improvement in cognitive functions of a victim of sexual abuse by employing therapeutic strategies of interpersonal protection model. Individual case study followed by assessment of neuropsychological deficit of a 10-year old girl was conducted; who was referred for neuropsychological assessment and psychological management. She had completed the assessment by taking frequent gaps. Total 10 therapeutic sessions were rendered to the child and mother. Post therapy assessment revealed substantial improvement in the frontal lobe functions of verbal working memory and set shifting component of executive function. Further this technique may assist clinicians and researchers in managing such cases of abuse.
DSM proposal for Sensory Processing Disorder. Of interest to those who want to know more in general, or know more about SPD as it compares to ASD or Misophonia.
ADHD is becoming much prevalent in childhood and adolescent , comorbidities like learning disability, anxiety, depression, autism spectrum disorder and tourette syndrome . Regarding the treatment we have to put in mind the comorbid disorder . Amphetamine Methylphenidate, Atomoxetine and behavioral treatment are considered of value in treating ADHD and comorbidities , ,
Efficacy of Interpersonal Protection Model in Child Sexual Abuse with Cogniti...inventionjournals
ABSTRACT : Child sexual abuse predominantly affects brain structures. Children cognitive functioning is associated with caregivers’ attachment based experiences and attachment is often formed on the basis of interpersonal protection model. Till date few studies demonstrated the efficacy of interpersonal protection model in the recovery of cognitive deficits in sexual abuse case. The purpose of the study was to examine the improvement in cognitive functions of a victim of sexual abuse by employing therapeutic strategies of interpersonal protection model. Individual case study followed by assessment of neuropsychological deficit of a 10-year old girl was conducted; who was referred for neuropsychological assessment and psychological management. She had completed the assessment by taking frequent gaps. Total 10 therapeutic sessions were rendered to the child and mother. Post therapy assessment revealed substantial improvement in the frontal lobe functions of verbal working memory and set shifting component of executive function. Further this technique may assist clinicians and researchers in managing such cases of abuse.
Dr. Michael H. Bloch - Simposio Internacional 'La enfermedad de la duda: el TOC'Fundación Ramón Areces
El 14 de noviembre de 2013, la Fundación Ramón Areces organizó y acogió en su sede un Simposio Internacional sobre 'La enfermedad de la duda: el TOC'. El Trastorno Obsesivo-Compulsivo (TOC) es un problema de salud pública, poco conocido, que afecta a un porcentaje de la población en torno a un 1-2% y que la Organización Mundial de la Salud ha situado entre las diez entidades que producen más discapacidad.
TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO SPEECH THERAPY WITH CHILDREN WITH ALALIASubmissionResearchpa
The article discloses the practical side of the transdisciplinary approach in speech therapy work and rehabilitation of children with alalia. In diagnosing speech disorders, the author believes that the behavior of children with alalia is closely related to the physiological activity of the brain, that diagnosis of speech disorders based on EEG and neuropsychological methods, as well as knowledge of the insufficiency of individual brain structures, which is supported by data from electroencephalographic research, are important for speech therapists in complex rehabilitation. Binaural therapy (individual alpha balance correction program) was used for children after EEG diagnosis of their dominant alpha rhythm, which matched their dominant rhythm in the selected time interval by Karimova Shoira Tursunovna 2020. TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO SPEECH THERAPY WITH CHILDREN WITH ALALIA. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 8 (Sep. 2020), 238-241. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i8.574 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/574/549 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/574
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Many People have their own opinions on exactly what techniques constitute Black Hat SEO. Black Hat SEO is basically using any unethical (Devious) methods to rank higher on search engines. mahesh gangurde seo tutorial
Dr. Michael H. Bloch - Simposio Internacional 'La enfermedad de la duda: el TOC'Fundación Ramón Areces
El 14 de noviembre de 2013, la Fundación Ramón Areces organizó y acogió en su sede un Simposio Internacional sobre 'La enfermedad de la duda: el TOC'. El Trastorno Obsesivo-Compulsivo (TOC) es un problema de salud pública, poco conocido, que afecta a un porcentaje de la población en torno a un 1-2% y que la Organización Mundial de la Salud ha situado entre las diez entidades que producen más discapacidad.
TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO SPEECH THERAPY WITH CHILDREN WITH ALALIASubmissionResearchpa
The article discloses the practical side of the transdisciplinary approach in speech therapy work and rehabilitation of children with alalia. In diagnosing speech disorders, the author believes that the behavior of children with alalia is closely related to the physiological activity of the brain, that diagnosis of speech disorders based on EEG and neuropsychological methods, as well as knowledge of the insufficiency of individual brain structures, which is supported by data from electroencephalographic research, are important for speech therapists in complex rehabilitation. Binaural therapy (individual alpha balance correction program) was used for children after EEG diagnosis of their dominant alpha rhythm, which matched their dominant rhythm in the selected time interval by Karimova Shoira Tursunovna 2020. TRANSDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO SPEECH THERAPY WITH CHILDREN WITH ALALIA. International Journal on Integrated Education. 3, 8 (Sep. 2020), 238-241. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v3i8.574 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/574/549 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/574
Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (adhd)Joy Maria Mitchell
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder. ADHD is the commonly studied and
diagnosed as psychiatric disorder. Here we shall see the relation between extraversion and ADHD, neuroticism,
biological relation, Environmental factors and with diagnosis of ADHD. It is known that Genetics is one of the factors
that may contribute to, or exacerbate ADHD. Recent research probing towards the environmental and Genetic factors
causing ADHD differences is the main source for investigation
Many People have their own opinions on exactly what techniques constitute Black Hat SEO. Black Hat SEO is basically using any unethical (Devious) methods to rank higher on search engines. mahesh gangurde seo tutorial
An overview of a three-year project on ‘Pro-poor responses to wildlife crime’ by IIED principal researcher Dilys Roe.
The presentation was for the Uganda Wildlife Authority Planning Workshop in July 2015.
In this webinar, Dr. Olivia Raynor and Kecia Weller discuss:
- What Employment First is and is not
- About some of the benefits of working
- About the California Employment Consortium for Youth with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (CECY)
- What things you can do if you want to work
Dr. Olivia Raynor is Director and Kecia Weller is Self Advocacy and Community Liaison at the Tarjan Center at UCLA. Dr. Raynor and Ms. Weller are also members of the Employment First Committee of the State Council on Developmental Disabilities. Dr. Raynor is also the Director of CECY.
In this webinar, speaker Shea Tanis, PhD, past-chair of the National Sibling Leadership Network, co-founder of Colorado Sibling Leadership Network Chapter - Sibling Tree, and Associate Director of the Coleman Institute for Cognitive Disabilities at the University of Colorado, discusses:
- The evolution of the sibling relationship across the lifespan and generations
- Collective Family Empowerment and the importance of future planning
- The changing landscape of disability programs and services with siblings as professionals, advocates, and caregivers
- The sibling movement and how you can support siblings
In this webinar, Christofer Arroyo, an advocate with the State Council on Developmental Disabilities in the Los Angeles office, will discuss:
- What a Person-Centered Plan is
- Why it is part of Self-Determination
- How it can be used with IPPs and IEPs now
- Who develops it
- How it is developed
- How it is used to plan the individual’s services
In this webinar, Dr. Nora Baladerian, licensed clinical psychologist, discusses:
- The Do's and Don'ts of having sex
- Different kinds of sexuality
- Possible outcomes of having sex
- When, where and with whom it's OK to have sex
Running Head EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETYEFFECTS OF MUSIC.docxjeanettehully
Running Head: EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETY
EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETY AND SCORE 12
The Effects of Music on Testing Anxiety and Performance
Jane Doe
University of Southern Mississippi
The Effects of Music on Testing Anxiety and Performance
Stress and college go hand in hand, and oftentimes a student’s most stressful day is the day of an exam. Test anxiety is nothing new, yet it is a real issue among university students. Universities are already a high stress environment, and the fear of failing can be overwhelming (Smyth & Banks, 2015). Constant stress can be not only be detrimental to a young person’s health and emotional wellbeing, but can also affect that person’s performance (Chapell, et al., 2005). Music is simple tool that could be used to aid in decreasing test anxiety and increase success for students (Lilley, Oberle, & Thompson, 2014).
Anxiety can be described as a natural reaction to uncertainty, fear, or a perceived threat in one’s environment. Test anxiety is a common and real worry that university students suffer from; they have psychological and physiological responses to the uncertainty of their testing performance and the implications of their scores (Lilley, Oberle, & Thompson, 2014). Research can support that exams are a legitimate source of anxiety for students. In a study done by Smith and Banks (2015), interviews they conducted with students in an Irish school system shows that the vast majority of students surveyed placed heavy personal burden on their performance in their final examinations due to the effect the results had on their future. The anxiety related to the fear of failing this examination pushed some students in Smith and Bank’s study to spend copious amounts of time on homework and studying, causing an excess amount of stress on their mind and body. On the opposite end of the spectrum, some students felt they were unable to focus on completing an acceptable amount of work, and that that their anxiety kept them from preforming as well. Physical manifestations of anxiety, such as upset stomachs, and feelings of hopelessness were reported as well (Smyth & Banks, 2015).
Testing anxieties can lead to a decrease in academic performance for an otherwise successful student. In one study lead by Chapell (2005), 5,551 graduate and undergraduate students were assessed for anxiety level as well as grade point average. The participants in Chapell’s study were split into groups of graduates and undergraduates; male and female; and low, moderate, and high test anxiety. Students were asked about their cumulative grade point average and were administered a questionnaire that assessed their testing anxiety. Generally speaking, the results showed that students who reported having low test anxiety also had an average 3.77 GPA, while students who showed signs of high test anxiety had an average GPA of 3.61 (Chapell, et al., 2005).
Stress can not only cause drops in performance, but also can be de ...
Running Head EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETYEFFECTS OF MUSIC.docxtodd271
Running Head: EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETY
EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON TEST ANXIETY AND SCORE 12
The Effects of Music on Testing Anxiety and Performance
Jane Doe
University of Southern Mississippi
The Effects of Music on Testing Anxiety and Performance
Stress and college go hand in hand, and oftentimes a student’s most stressful day is the day of an exam. Test anxiety is nothing new, yet it is a real issue among university students. Universities are already a high stress environment, and the fear of failing can be overwhelming (Smyth & Banks, 2015). Constant stress can be not only be detrimental to a young person’s health and emotional wellbeing, but can also affect that person’s performance (Chapell, et al., 2005). Music is simple tool that could be used to aid in decreasing test anxiety and increase success for students (Lilley, Oberle, & Thompson, 2014).
Anxiety can be described as a natural reaction to uncertainty, fear, or a perceived threat in one’s environment. Test anxiety is a common and real worry that university students suffer from; they have psychological and physiological responses to the uncertainty of their testing performance and the implications of their scores (Lilley, Oberle, & Thompson, 2014). Research can support that exams are a legitimate source of anxiety for students. In a study done by Smith and Banks (2015), interviews they conducted with students in an Irish school system shows that the vast majority of students surveyed placed heavy personal burden on their performance in their final examinations due to the effect the results had on their future. The anxiety related to the fear of failing this examination pushed some students in Smith and Bank’s study to spend copious amounts of time on homework and studying, causing an excess amount of stress on their mind and body. On the opposite end of the spectrum, some students felt they were unable to focus on completing an acceptable amount of work, and that that their anxiety kept them from preforming as well. Physical manifestations of anxiety, such as upset stomachs, and feelings of hopelessness were reported as well (Smyth & Banks, 2015).
Testing anxieties can lead to a decrease in academic performance for an otherwise successful student. In one study lead by Chapell (2005), 5,551 graduate and undergraduate students were assessed for anxiety level as well as grade point average. The participants in Chapell’s study were split into groups of graduates and undergraduates; male and female; and low, moderate, and high test anxiety. Students were asked about their cumulative grade point average and were administered a questionnaire that assessed their testing anxiety. Generally speaking, the results showed that students who reported having low test anxiety also had an average 3.77 GPA, while students who showed signs of high test anxiety had an average GPA of 3.61 (Chapell, et al., 2005).
Stress can not only cause drops in performance, but also can be de.
1
JOURNAL SUMMARY 2
Journal Summary
[Insert Name]
Lamar University
Journal Summary
Van der Donk, Hiernstra-Beernink, Tjeenk-Kalff, van der Leij and Lindaur (2013) conducted a study to determine the effects of executive functioning and working memory interventions on academic achievement and classroom behavior in students diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). This study consisted of two randomly selected groups of 175 students each between the ages of 8 and 12 that had a single, prior diagnosis of ADHD. The students were either assigned to a computer-based or a teacher instructed intervention. Students were selected from various elementary schools from two Dutch regions. The interventions were implemented by developmental psychologists that underwent a three-hour training course for their respective intervention. Group monitoring by a licensed clinical staff, recording observations of implementation, and reviewing student work samples were methods used to authenticate intervention fidelity. The computer-based intervention consisted of working memory tasks that adapted to the students’ skill level in a game format. The teacher instructed intervention consisted of several visual and verbal tasks that addressed five executive functions that are critical for success within a classroom setting. Both interventions were implemented 5 times a week for 45 minutes for a duration of 5 weeks. Various assessment methods including standardized tests and checklists were administered at baseline, at the conclusion of the intervention period, and six months after the intervention period to measure academic performance and classroom behavior. Results of the study showed a notable increase in academic performance and a statistically significant improvement in student behavior in the classroom.
Strengths and Weaknesses
This study had several strengths and limitations. One strength of the study was the randomization of the test groups. Randomly assigning subjects is the best practice to ensure efficacy. Each group was comprised of 175 students which is an adequate sample size to determine valid results. Measures were taken to verify the fidelity of intervention implementation. One limitation of this study was the content and applicability of the test groups differed greatly making it difficult to compare the efficacy of the interventions. Single tasks were used to assess the effects of working memory training which made results ambiguous as to whether academic and behavior improvement was due to the changes in ability or due to assessed tasks resembling practiced tasks.
Instructional Implications
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that in 2016, 9.4% of children ages 4-17 were diagnosed with ADHD in the United States. 62% of children diagnosed with ADHD are taking some sort of medication. These medications help alleviate behavior sympt.
Running head Advanced behavioral analysis and its successful use .docxjoellemurphey
Running head: Advanced behavioral analysis and its successful use in the treatment of autism 1
Advanced behavioral analysis and its successful use in the treatment of autism 2Advance Behavioral Analysis And Its Successful Use In The Treatment Of Autism
Darin Bullock
Columbia Southern University
Advance Behavioral Analysis and its Successful use in the Treatment of Autism
Fryling, M. J., Wallace, M. D., & Yassine, J. N. (2012). Impact of Treatment Integrity on Intervention Effectiveness. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis , 449-53.
In this article, Fryling et al. proposes that by using Advanced Behavioral Analysis (ABA) in the proper way, the integrity will be maintained and will be more effective. They state “treatment integrity has cogent implications for intervention effectiveness.” They propose that by proper training and understanding of ABA, the integrity can be maintained. Proper use of reinforcements with appropriate behavior showed signs of improvement. They point out that DiGennaro et al. “demonstrated a relation between improved integrity and intervention effectiveness when they compared procedures aimed at improving special educators’ integrity in classrooms.” They proposed that by having effective intervention and integrity, problem behaviors decreased in a classroom setting.
Layne, C. M. (2007). Early Identification of Autism: Impications for Counselors. Journal of Counseling and Development , 110-114.
Layne discusses screening tools and diagnostic assessments used to identify autism in children around the age of 2. Layne also discusses the impact this diagnosis can have on families as well as counselors. She states autism “impairs language, social interactions, and play skills, as well as cognitive and adaptive functioning.” She proposes that 1 out of 166 children will be diagnosed with autism. She proposes and commends the diligence in early diagnosis stating it is more than likely due to the diligence of parents, clinicians, and teachers. Public awareness has helped as well and the fact that either autism is increasing, or clinicians are more apt to diagnose children with autism rather than another developmental disability.
Pulse International. (2012, Aug 14). Early Intervention has considerable impact on reducing symptoms and increasing child's ability to learn new skills.
An article by Pulse International quotes Prof. Mohamed Chetouani at a press conference on Monday, 23 July 2012. The article speaks of warning signs of autism characterized by social symptoms, communications deficits, and repetitive behaviors. The child should then be evaluated by specialized professionals so appropriate treatment can be initialized. The articles states, “Early intervention has considerable impact on reducing symptoms and increasing a child’s ability to learn new skills.” It was proposed that there are items in place to diagnose children with autism after the age of two, but “information on autism in the first two years of life i ...
Mastering Scholarly WritingRemove or Replace Header Is Not DoAbramMartino96
Mastering Scholarly Writing
Remove or Replace: Header Is Not Doc TitleOutline Worksheet
Introduction
In paper
An opening statement that frames your focus
Autism self-management treatment without child's vocalization. Inappropriate language replacement with verbal labeling will be more functional than the normal verballing.
Who
The psychologists are working towards developing a stimuli language that will help autistic students improve their learning and responding skills. Echolalia's language has always responded inappropriately to questions that should replace verbal representation for more effectiveness.
What
Children with
autism are normally rejected and treated differently from others. Standardizing their learning skills or rather simplifying their response through verbal stimulation will, in turn, raise self-management.
When
The program generalization and maintenance will take place in phases. They are evolving from the initial settings to the new vocalization.
Where
The research will be conducted in a wide range to ensure more participants are reached out.
Why?
The intended project will ease communication between autism-affected children and others as well as between themselves.
Body Paragraph 1
In paper
Topic sentence
Coming up with the visual language entails the incorporation of knowledge from the physician to the verbal developer.
Observation 1
In an experiment to test the language, the sequence wording in a sentence or a question must be repeated for emphasis regardless of verbalization.
Support 1
Though verbalization may have considered most accurate concerning autism, errors may occur, which may amount to the incorrect response. Therefore, the tutor must proofread the question to ensure correctness. A combination of correct and incorrect verbiage will add up to an incorrect and inappropriate presentation.
Conclusion
The tutor should go through the verbalized questions to ensure no errors may lead to incorrect responses. This will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of audiotaped or videos as intended.
Body Paragraph 2
In paper
Topic sentence
Young children diagnosed with autism made it necessary to come up with some ways for self-development.
Observation 1
From the research, communication improvement will improve their learning skills and how the affected interact with other children. Autism children are frequently discriminated against due to a lack of mutual understanding.
Support 1
On the conducted research, according to Karl, his module went through upon the third trial. This is a positive indication that verbalization can be depended upon when questioning.
Conclusion
Though the stimuli differed from one participant to the other, at least there is a mutual language used by both the tutor and the respondent. This indicates a positive step towards verbalization.
Body Paragraph 3
In paper
Topic sentence
It's essential to note that it can lead to communication breakdown on echolalia treatmen ...
Mastering Scholarly WritingRemove or Replace Header Is Not DoAbramMartino96
Mastering Scholarly Writing
Remove or Replace: Header Is Not Doc TitleOutline Worksheet
Introduction
In paper
An opening statement that frames your focus
Autism self-management treatment without child's vocalization. Inappropriate language replacement with verbal labeling will be more functional than the normal verballing.
Who
The psychologists are working towards developing a stimuli language that will help autistic students improve their learning and responding skills. Echolalia's language has always responded inappropriately to questions that should replace verbal representation for more effectiveness.
What
Children with
autism are normally rejected and treated differently from others. Standardizing their learning skills or rather simplifying their response through verbal stimulation will, in turn, raise self-management.
When
The program generalization and maintenance will take place in phases. They are evolving from the initial settings to the new vocalization.
Where
The research will be conducted in a wide range to ensure more participants are reached out.
Why?
The intended project will ease communication between autism-affected children and others as well as between themselves.
Body Paragraph 1
In paper
Topic sentence
Coming up with the visual language entails the incorporation of knowledge from the physician to the verbal developer.
Observation 1
In an experiment to test the language, the sequence wording in a sentence or a question must be repeated for emphasis regardless of verbalization.
Support 1
Though verbalization may have considered most accurate concerning autism, errors may occur, which may amount to the incorrect response. Therefore, the tutor must proofread the question to ensure correctness. A combination of correct and incorrect verbiage will add up to an incorrect and inappropriate presentation.
Conclusion
The tutor should go through the verbalized questions to ensure no errors may lead to incorrect responses. This will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of audiotaped or videos as intended.
Body Paragraph 2
In paper
Topic sentence
Young children diagnosed with autism made it necessary to come up with some ways for self-development.
Observation 1
From the research, communication improvement will improve their learning skills and how the affected interact with other children. Autism children are frequently discriminated against due to a lack of mutual understanding.
Support 1
On the conducted research, according to Karl, his module went through upon the third trial. This is a positive indication that verbalization can be depended upon when questioning.
Conclusion
Though the stimuli differed from one participant to the other, at least there is a mutual language used by both the tutor and the respondent. This indicates a positive step towards verbalization.
Body Paragraph 3
In paper
Topic sentence
It's essential to note that it can lead to communication breakdown on echolalia treatmen ...
·Response GuidelinesReply to the posts of two peer.docxlanagore871
·
Response Guidelines
Reply to the posts of two peers in this discussion. You may want to share insights you have related to your peer's application of research concepts, or ask a clarifying question. You may choose to comment on how the article presented by your peer is relevant to your own professional interests. Each peer response need to have at least two references.
1
st
Peer posting
Chang et al. (2016) conducted a study to determine if there was an answer to the contradicting study results regarding the brain activity in schizophrenics and their siblings. Earlier research has given mixed results stating that schizophrenics have excessive brain activity and others show that they have incoherent activity. The same mixed results showed up in research on siblings of schizophrenics. This study used amplitudes of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) as well as regional homogeneity (Reho). The used the ALFF and Reho to track the intensity as well as any synchronization of local spontaneous neuronal activity among three groups of participants (Chang et al., 2016).
Repovs and Barch (2012) conducted a study using a similar research design but instead they were looking for how functional connectivity may differ in schizophrenics when there is no cognitive task involved, a light cognitive task, and then a more demanding cognitive task. The study used participants who were diagnosed with schizophrenia and their siblings, and health individuals and their siblings. These four different groups helped to determine if there was any difference between a sibling of an individual with schizophrenia compared to siblings that were not impaired. The study focused on the working memory of the individuals. fMRI scans were used as well as other basic imaging and recall memory assessment activities (Repovs & Barch, 2012).
The study conducted by Chang et al. (2016) was using reliable testing techniques in regards to the neuronal activity that was tracked. The sample size was not very large but did have the randomized factor by comparing the results to not one but two variables (siblings and non-related healthy individuals). Had the sample size been larger the results could likely be more generalizable. The participants were gathered using participants from a other studies the researchers had done. There were 27 participants who were diagnosed with schizophrenia, 27 non effected siblings, and 27 healthy unrelated participants. The research design was used to map the activity in the brain of all three groups in different circumstances so they could compare the results to find any commonalities or clear differences. This method of research helped to determine if there was any validity to the claims of either excessive brain activity or incoherent activity in schizophrenics and their siblings. This study seems to be a quasi-experimental study since it has a group used for comparison but it does not use random assignment (Sherperis, Young & .
1. Running head: EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 1
Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior for Students with ADHD
Erin Bosman
University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire
Author Note
Erin Bosman, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire.
The current study was conducted as a fulfillment of a paper for University of
Wisconsin – Eau Claire Psychology 390: Advanced Behavior Analysis, supervised by Dr.
Kevin Klatt.
Correspondence concerning this research should be addressed to Erin Bosman,
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire, Eau Claire, WI 54701.
Email: bosmanen@uwec.edu
2. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 2
Abstract
There has been a significant amount of research done on increasing attention in
school, and decreasing off- task behaviors. Particularly, in children with
neurodevelopmental or learning disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is often associated with careless mistakes in schoolwork or
other activities, difficulty sustaining attention, and easily distracted (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). White noise played through headphones was used as a
classroom intervention to reduce off-task for two children with ADHD. Subsequently,
one of the children was taking a stimulant medication for his ADHD.
KEYWORDS ADHD, off-task behavior, white noise, academic performance
3. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 3
Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior for Students with ADHD
ADHD is often associated with sustaining attention, and being easily distracted or
displaying off-task behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention researchers found that less than 1 in 3 children with
ADHD receive both medication treatment and behavioral therapy. According to the CDC,
The preferred treatment approach for children ages 6 and older with ADHD is behavioral
therapy, and recommended before using medical treatment.
CDC Researchers found that approximately forty three percent of children are
treated with medication alone, and only thirteen percent are treated with behavioral
therapy alone ("Key Findings," 2016). Stimulant medication has been shown to appear to
improve behavioral symptoms and academic performance in individuals with ADHD
(Mcinnes, Bedard, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2007). However, as previously stated
behavioral therapy should be attempted first, or concurrently with medication. The
purpose of this study is to observe the effect of noise on academic performance for
individuals with ADHD, as a potentially effective behavioral treatment, that can be used
either independently or concurrently with stimulant medication. This expands on prior
research that has focused either specifically on individuals taking stimulant medication or
individuals with no medication, rather than comparing them concurrently. White noise is
described as a continuous sound from 20 to 20,000 Hz (Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and
Merle Johnson, 2014). Various studies have shown that noise appears to positively effect
on-task behavior for individuals with ADHD.
According to Söderlund, Sikström, and Smart (2007), stochastic resonance is the
idea that an optimal amount of noise under certain circumstances may be beneficial for
4. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 4
cognitive performance. These researchers observed participants self-performance on both
a high memory and low memory task in the presence of or absence of white noise. Their
research showed that noise appears to lead to a positive significant effect of cognitive
performance for individuals with ADHD. However, noise appeared to have a negative
effect for individuals that did not have ADHD. They explained their research by
concluding that the results showed stochastic resonance. This was the first study to
specifically look into stochastic resonance for individuals with ADHD and the
researchers considered a variety of limitations. The researchers recommend that further
researchers examine more levels of noise, measure dopamine levels, and look into the
interaction between noise and medication.
Söderlund, Sikström, Loftesnes, and Sonuga-Barke (2010) advanced research by
examining the effects of background white noise on memory performance for inattentive
school children. Focusing on fifty-one secondary school aged children, they hypothesized
that a moderate amount of noise would enhance the performance of inattentive children,
but decrease the performance of attentive children, showing stochastic resonance similar
to the previously discussed study by Söderlund, Sikström, and Smart (2007). They
rejected the null hypothesis, as previous research in the area has done.
Focusing primarily on extra task stimulation with academic task performance for
children with ADHD Abikoff, Courtney, Szeibel, and Koplewicz (1996) used 3 levels of
extra task stimulation- high stimulation (music), low stimulation (speech), and no
stimulation (silence). Their research resulted in the conclusion that auditory stimulation
did not negatively affect participants with disabilities, or in the control group. It did
appear to benefit the academic performance of those with ADHD, while nondisabled
5. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 5
participants performed similarly under all 3 conditions. This experiment focused on
arithmetic tasks and suggests that further research evaluates the influence of visual and
auditory factors, novelty of distractors, task content, difficult level, length of the task, and
presence or absence of the experimenter.
Cook, Johnson, and Bradley-Johnson (2015) observed the effects of white noise
on problem behaviors for a child with ADHD. They observed the participant while
listening to white noise, while taking stimulant medication, and while both listening to
white noise and taking stimulant medication. They found that off-task behavior decreased
for the individual in all three conditions. Off task behaviors decreased by 45% when both
white noise and stimulant medication were used concurrently. Limitations with this study
were that it only had one participant, the study ended when the school year ended, but
could have used a final phase, and the participant’s teacher found the intervention to be
difficult to implement.
Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and Merle Johnson (2014) focused on the effects of
white noise on off task behavior for students with ADHD. They observed 3 participants
who had been diagnosed with ADHD, all in different classes. They all were also taking
stimulant medications. The researchers used an ABCAC design: Baseline (A),
headphones with no white noise (B), and headphones with white noise (C). The results
showed that white noise appeared to result in lower levels of off-task behavior.
Concluded limitations were that some conditions were changed before previous phases
were stabilized, a functional analysis could have been helpful to determine the function of
the effects of white noise, the study could have looked at individuals who are not on
medication as well, and it could include other interventions commonly used instead of
6. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 6
white noise.
The present study, a systematic replication of Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and Merle
Johnson (2014) focuses on students with ADHD. Cook, et al. (2014) focused only on
students with ADHD taking stimulant medication. The aim of this study is to extend
research by looking into the effect of white noise on students with ADHD that are taking
medication and those that are not taking medication. This study also adds an additional
variable of instrumental music to compare with white noise.
Method
Participants and Setting
Participants included two students who had been diagnosed with ADHD. Both
participants attended a public school. Both students were in the same third grade class,
with a class size of 25 students. All were struggling academically. John had been
prescribed stimulant medication. One participant was taking stimulant medication, and
one was not. John was prescribed 7.5 mg of Adderall while the other participant, Ben,
had not been prescribed medication. Medication for John was administered before school,
and dosage remained constant across all phases. All sessions were conducted in the
participants’ classroom while they worked on independent homework assignments.
Equipment
White noise generators were used to generate the white noise used to increase
participant’s focus. Volumes were calibrated by an audiology technician and were
recalibrated during the study with a portable decibel reader (Tenma Sound Level Meter,
Model 72–935). For the first type of behavioral intervention, white noise was delivered
7. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 7
through Sony MDR-E818LP Fontopia headphones. The teacher's computer and speakers
was used to play the instrumental music, for the second type of behavioral intervention.
Dependent Variables and Measurement
Off-task behavior was operationally defined as talking to another student or the
teacher about something unrelated to the assignment, standing or walking while not
attending to the task, and looking at something other than the assignment or turning their
head away from the task. Observers recorded off-task behavior for approximately 15
minutes, unless the student finished the assignment early, during an independent
homework assignment 3 days per week. Therefore, Session durations averaged 15 min
for both John and Ben. Observers began to record off-task behavior at the beginning of
the participant’s assignments and stopped after the 15 minutes were complete.
For each assignment, a response product in the form of a completed worksheet
was generated to generate interobserver agreement. The teacher and experimenter
recorded the total number of task items, the number of items completed, and the number
of items completed correctly on the assignment. These data were summarized as the
percentage of items completed and the percentage answered correctly.
Procedure and Design
An ABCDACD single subject design was used. During baseline (A), no
headphones or white noise was presented. During Condition B, headphones only (no
white noise) were presented. Condition B was primarily to allow participants to adjust to
wearing the headphones. During Condition C (headphones plus white noise),
implemented the first type of behavioral intervention. White noise was delivered through
the headphones. During Condition D (music), the second type of behavioral intervention
8. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 8
was implemented. Instrumental music was delivered through speakers on the teacher's
computer throughout the classroom. Prior to conducting the experiment, the experimenter
gave the teacher's instructions on how to effectively operate equipment and implement
the experiment. To reduce possible stigma, the teacher instructed students not to touch
the white noise generators or the computer as well as describing white noise and the
potential benefits of white noise of music in the classroom. The researcher then allowed
everyone in the class an opportunity to listen to white noise through the headphones.
During Conditions B (headphones only) and C (headphones plus white noise),
white-noise generators were placed under each participant’s desks. However, the
generators were turned on only during Condition C. Participants wore headphones during
Conditions B and C until assignment completion or the end of the 15-minute period. The
white noise could be heard only by the participants who wore the headphones and not by
other students in the classroom.
Throughout each condition, tape was placed over the volume dials to prevent
participants or other classmates from adjusting volume levels. Participants were required
to keep the headphones on throughout the entire task during condition B and condition C.
During condition D, instrumental music was played through speakers on the teacher’s
computer at a low level. During all conditions, the teacher managed their class as usual.
After the teacher passed out the worksheets, no further instruction or vocal prompt was
delivered.
Results
Figure 1 depicts the percentage of intervals of off-task behavior for John and Ben.
For all participants, off-task behavior during the headphones plus white-noise condition
9. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 9
was lower than those during the baseline, headphones-only condition, and the music
condition. Off-task behavior was also lower during the music condition than it was during
the headphones-only or baseline condition. However, off task behavior decreased the
most during the white-noise condition. Results indicated that both these students
displayed lower levels of off-task behavior while they listened to white noise, suggesting
that this noise can reduce off-task behavior for students with ADHD on stimulant
medication and students with ADHD who are not prescribed medication.
Interobserver agreement was collected. Agreement was calculated by dividing the
number of intervals that both observers recorded off-task behavior by the total number of
intervals observed and converting the result into a percentage. Overall mean interobserver
agreement was 94%. Mean item-by-item agreement between the teacher and the observer
was 98%.
Discussion
Based on the results of this study and when taking in consideration the results of
past studies, it appears that white noise may be a useful option for individuals with
ADHD. It may be an effective option for several reasons. A significant reason for white
noise to be used for intervention is that it can be easily implemented in classrooms or at
home with little attention from the child's teacher or guardian. As discussed previously, it
is preferred that behavioral intervention is attempted either before or concurrently with
medication and white noise appears to be an effective form of behavioral intervention,
based both on this study and prior research. In addition, white noise also can be used both
at home and in public settings, making it a highly convenient form of behavioral
intervention.
10. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 10
The results of this study, a systematic replication of Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and
Merle Johnson (2014) did not replicate the results exactly, but were similar. Cook, et al.
(2014) focused only on students with ADHD taking stimulant medication. I had one
participant taking stimulant medication, and one who did not. Another difference in my
study was the added condition of instrumental music. Limitations in prior research
discussed that future researchers should compare different types of participants, as well
as different behavioral interventions which lead to my decision to primarily change these
two things. Cook, et al. (2014) used three children who were in different classes, and all
taking stimulant medication. I used two children, all in the same class and only one of
them was prescribed medication.
The results for Cook, et al. (2014) found that the percentage of items completed
were consistent across participants, and for all conditions. However, results did indicate
that white noise appeared to result in less off-task behavior for all individuals. This
systematic replication of Cook, et al. has similar results, but expands research by
comparing an additional behavioral intervention (Condition D) with white noise as well
as having one participant not taking medication. The results for this replication indicate
that both behavioral interventions of white noise and instrumental music lowered the
amount of off-task behavior for individuals with ADHD. However, White noise appeared
to lower the amount of off-task behavior more significantly than instrumental music did.
This research extended previous research on noise as an effective behavioral
intervention however, further research can expand on the topic as there are a variety of
limitations with this study. Future research could benefit from using a larger sample size;
the more participants that the intervention is effective for, the more reliable it is. The
11. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 11
current study only used two participants. The design type may make it difficult for a large
sample size, but future research could try to include at least six participants, three
prescribed with stimulant medication and three without medication. Furthermore, it could
be beneficial to look into more forms of behavioral intervention in comparison with white
noise. The current study focused on both white noise and music as potential behavioral
interventions, but it could be useful to compare with other common interventions as well.
In conclusion, results of this study indicate that white noise and music are both
effective behavioral interventions for children with ADHD. However, white noise does
appear to be slightly more effective than music. Both participants, were more attentive
and showed less off-task behaviors during intervention phases compared with baseline
data whether or not they were taking stimulant medication. This signifies that this is an
effective behavioral intervention both used singularly and used concurrently with
stimulant medication.
12. Running head: Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior 12
Figure 1. Percentage of intervals off-task for John and Ben.
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13. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF- TASK BEHAVIOR 13
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