Mastering Scholarly Writing
Remove or Replace: Header Is Not Doc TitleOutline Worksheet
Introduction
In paper
An opening statement that frames your focus
Autism self-management treatment without child's vocalization. Inappropriate language replacement with verbal labeling will be more functional than the normal verballing.
Who
The psychologists are working towards developing a stimuli language that will help autistic students improve their learning and responding skills. Echolalia's language has always responded inappropriately to questions that should replace verbal representation for more effectiveness.
What
Children with
autism are normally rejected and treated differently from others. Standardizing their learning skills or rather simplifying their response through verbal stimulation will, in turn, raise self-management.
When
The program generalization and maintenance will take place in phases. They are evolving from the initial settings to the new vocalization.
Where
The research will be conducted in a wide range to ensure more participants are reached out.
Why?
The intended project will ease communication between autism-affected children and others as well as between themselves.
Body Paragraph 1
In paper
Topic sentence
Coming up with the visual language entails the incorporation of knowledge from the physician to the verbal developer.
Observation 1
In an experiment to test the language, the sequence wording in a sentence or a question must be repeated for emphasis regardless of verbalization.
Support 1
Though verbalization may have considered most accurate concerning autism, errors may occur, which may amount to the incorrect response. Therefore, the tutor must proofread the question to ensure correctness. A combination of correct and incorrect verbiage will add up to an incorrect and inappropriate presentation.
Conclusion
The tutor should go through the verbalized questions to ensure no errors may lead to incorrect responses. This will improve the efficiency and effectiveness of audiotaped or videos as intended.
Body Paragraph 2
In paper
Topic sentence
Young children diagnosed with autism made it necessary to come up with some ways for self-development.
Observation 1
From the research, communication improvement will improve their learning skills and how the affected interact with other children. Autism children are frequently discriminated against due to a lack of mutual understanding.
Support 1
On the conducted research, according to Karl, his module went through upon the third trial. This is a positive indication that verbalization can be depended upon when questioning.
Conclusion
Though the stimuli differed from one participant to the other, at least there is a mutual language used by both the tutor and the respondent. This indicates a positive step towards verbalization.
Body Paragraph 3
In paper
Topic sentence
It's essential to note that it can lead to communication breakdown on echolalia treatmen ...
How to Prevent Autism by Teaching At-Risk Infants and Toddlers to Talk
Presented at: Florida Association for Behavior Analysis Convention
September 2006
Authors: Philip W. Drash, Ph.D., BCBA,
Autism Early Intervention & Prevention Center, Tampa, FL
and
Roger M. Tudor, Ph.D.
Westfield State College, Westfield, MA
How to Prevent Autism by Teaching At-Risk Infants and Toddlers to Talk
Presented at: Florida Association for Behavior Analysis Convention
September 2006
Authors: Philip W. Drash, Ph.D., BCBA,
Autism Early Intervention & Prevention Center, Tampa, FL
and
Roger M. Tudor, Ph.D.
Westfield State College, Westfield, MA
• During the past years the understanding and the measurement of stuttering appear to have been dominated by different concept of the stuttering behaviour. It should be noted that is also common for stuttering events to be described as moments of fluency, disfluency or dysfluency, these terms are essentially interchangeable to some authors. But others distinguish between normal disfluencies and abnormal dysfluencies (Quesel, 1988). The traditional view is that the speech behaviours that listeners identify as stuttering are at once the disfluencies and stuttering that is a stuttering is a dysfluency or a speech interruption.
• Option that is perceived by the speaker or the listener as an abnormal or stuttered disfluency rather than the normal disfluency. It is the symptomatic many of the difficulties in the stuttering measurement that such disagreements exist over these basic behavioural descriptors.
• Johnson and Johnson 1959 recognised that the speech of those who stutter does contain distinctive intervals of non-fluency that could be labelled moments of stuttering (Johnson and Knott 1936) Moments of stuttering are bouts of non- fluency accompanied by some reaction on the part of the speaker or another listener that caused the entire event to be labelled as stutter. Marcel Wingate 1964 proposed a standard definition of stuttering that incorporate much of Johnson concept of stuttering and at the same time focused attention the behaviours that the listeners seem to associate with the label stuttering. Wingate definition drew heavily on his experience with children.
• Disruption in the fluency of verbal expression which is characterized by involuntary audible or silent repetition or prolongations in the utterance of short speech elements namely sound, syllables and the words of one syllable. These disruptions usually occur frequently or a marked in character and are not readily controllable (Wingate).
• Occasions of stuttering are defined simply as those events that an observer recognizes as stuttering behaviour. Because they exceed some threshold for stuttering identification.
Getting rid of speech difficulties and swallowing disordersBrandon Ridley
Speech, language, and swallowing disorders are common challenges many children across the globe face. About 11% of the total population of these children (explicitly falling in the age group three to six years) have the highest recorded cases of these disorders, followed by those between the ages of seven and ten years (9.3%), and finally, preteens and teenagers with ages ranging from 11 to 17 years (4.9%).
Therapies To Break The Chains Of DisabilitiesBrandon Ridley
>> Sports-Related Concussions Among Canadians: The Risks And The Treatment
>> Can we help teachers help kids with dyslexia?
>> Dysarthria: Did You Know There Is Only One Treatment Option Available?
>> Autism Rates Are Escalating, Be Prepared As A Parent
>> Concussions: What To Know And What To Ask
Find out more at https://therapyspot.ca/
Running Head: DYSLEXIA 1
DYSLEXIA 5
Dyslexia Psychological Assessment
Matthew Rosario
SNHU
Dyslexia Psychological Assessment
Dyslexia is a broad term for disorders that entail difficulty in learning to read or interpret words, letters, and other symbols, but it does not affect general intelligence. There have been important advances in research in dyslexia over the past twenty years. The results have been considerable although there has not been a clear explanation that is accepted of what exactly dyslexia constitutes. Identification is still puzzled with arguments in spite of the emergence of some new tests to recognize dyslexia as an identifiable condition. Furthermore, there is still a continuing debate on the cost of dyslexia as an identifiable condition (Goswami, 2012).
Dyslexia is described as a difficulty with word recognition when speaking out loud. These problems are not particular to specific languages and the individual’s concerned intelligence. It is a syndrome which is a compilation of related characteristics that vary in degree from one person to another. Dyslexia may overlap with connected conditions and in childhood; its effects may be recognized as a behavioral or emotional disorder. Dyslexia seems to be more common with males and females. The evidence implies that in three-thirds of cases, it has a genetic origin but in some cases, birth complications may play an important role.
A researcher argues that there is inherited, sensory, motor and psychosomatic evidence that this condition is a neurological condition affecting the brain development. He also argues that visual system gives the main entry in both lexical and the sub- lexical means for reading and this should be taken as the most significant sense for reading. Early detection and right interference can reduce its effects. People who have dyslexia learn to accommodate to a bigger or a smaller degree depending on their character and the kind of support they have got from home and at school (Goswami, 2012).
Dyslexia affects 10 in 100 individuals many of whom stay undiagnosed and do not get. If dyslexia is not recognized earlier, the person suffering from it may face a problem of underemployment, difficulty in getting used to the academic environments, difficulty performing job duties, and self-confidence that is very low. The individuals who have been diagnosed are likely to have some struggling in writing and reading (Reiter, Tucha & Lange, 2008).
Dyslexia is a particular reading disorder, and it does not interfere with the intelligence of an individual. There are a lot of intelligent people who have dyslexia, and they are creative enough even to think that they learned and read. An assessment is a process of collecting information to classify the factors causing difficulties to a student with learning to spell and read. The information is collected from ...
Fluency disorder (Stuttering also known as stammering)Emmanuel Raj
Introduction, aetiology, Epidemiology, Clinical features, Theories, Scale, Diagnosis, Assessment, management of stuttering.
Fluency: continuity, smoothness, rate, and effort in speech production.
All speakers are disfluent at times. They may hesitate when speaking, use fillers (“like” or “uh”), or repeat a word or phrase. These are called typical disfluencies or non-fluencies (ASHA - American Speech-Language-Hearing Association).
Types of fluency disorders
Stuttering
Cluttering
Normal Non-fluency
Stuttering (Stammering) the most common fluency disorder, is an interruption in the flow of speaking characterised by specific types of disfluencies, including:
Prolongations unnatural stretching of a sound (e.g., “Ssssssssometimes we stay home”);
Repetitions of sounds, syllables, and monosyllabic words (e.g., “Look at the b-b-baby,” “Let’s go out-out-out”);
Hesitations usage of fillers (“like” or “uh”),
Blocks inability to initiate speech sounds/difficulty getting a word/pausing in between words
CLASSIFICATION OF STUTTERING:
DEVELOPMENTAL STUTTERING:
It is initially noted in children between three and eight years of age
Approx. 75 % of pre-schoolers with developmental stuttering spontaneously recover within 4 years.
Normal non fluency:
As children pass through normal language development they will be disfluent in certain period when compared to others.
ACQUIRED STUTTERING:
Neurogenic stuttering: usually follows a neurologic event, such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, or other brain damage.
stuttering occurs at the beginning of the words and the secondary behaviours are more obvious than with acquired stuttering.
Cause:
Cerebrovascular accident (stroke), with or without aphasia, Head trauma, Ischemic attacks (temporary obstruction of blood flow in the Brain)
Signs and symptoms:
Repetitions, Excessive levels of normal disfluencies , Extraneous movements
Psychogenic stuttering: It is rare and usually occurs in adults with a history of psychiatric problems following a psychological event or emotional trauma; there may be no other known aetiology.
Causes:
Depression, Emotional responses to traumatic events, Anxiety
Signs and symptoms:
Rapid repetitions of initial sounds
Epidemiology:
The prevalence of stuttering over the whole population was 0.72%, with higher prevalence rates in younger children (1.4–1.44) and lowest rates in adolescence (0.53).
Male-to-female ratios ranged from 2.3:1 in younger children to 4:1 in adolescence, with a ratio of 2:1 across all ages according to ASHA
In India it is estimated that approx. 10% of cases with communication disorders may have stuttering according to AIISH.
Aetiology:
A variety of factors may influence stuttering events, although the etiology of the condition is unclear
Possible contributing factors include cognitive processing abilities, genetics, gender of the patient, and environmental influences.
'ADHD, Autism, and Asperger's' Topic 11 - Revision and Exam Tips.
The views expressed in this presentation are those of the individual Simon Bignell and not University of Derby.
The Kioko Center has been providing expert occupational and speech therapy services to children and young adult. We have developed the highest quality standards for our therapies and services. Our staff are highly trained and prepared to integrate the latest therapy techniques into your child’s sessions.
Kioko Center provides comprehensive, individualized therapies which facilitate overall development and independence of a child. We serve the schools, therapists, and families that support them. We are a pediatric therapy organization that specializes in occupational therapy and speech therapy.
Homework assignmentPlease annotate one artwork you like from this.docxAbramMartino96
Homework assignment:
Please annotate one artwork you like from this week’s textbook
reading or Smarthistory. Whenever I am writing for research
presentation or publication, this is how I begin. The point is to make
sure you’re not missing anything in terms of basic data or
interpretive frameworks. When I take notes on a lecture at a
conference, this is the way I like to organize my notes, as well.
Format
Identify the artwork
Identify Period Style
Identify Subject Matter
Discuss Historical Context
Discuss Visual Elements (Line, Color, Texture, Composition etc.)
Discuss Its Place in Ideas or Culture of the Time
.
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense an.docxAbramMartino96
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense and Defense Support of Civil Authorities (DSCA), which are missions executed by the Department of Defense (DOD), most specifically by the Combatant Command, United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). In supporting the nation when requested by DHS, FEMA, or other lead federal agencies, or as directed by the president or the secretary of defense, DOD provides many unique capabilities for crisis response. One specific function used most notably during the post-Hurricane Katrina period was the use of airborne assets to provide damage assessments and to gauge the extent of the sea surge at various times during the recovery.
The function of deploying such assets is traditionally called
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
(ISR). Yet the U.S. military cannot legally collect intelligence on U.S. citizens. Consequently, the action, as performed during the hurricane recovery operations described here, is known as
incident awareness and assessments
(IAA). For some, the difference between these terms is merely semantics; for many, IAA differs both symbolically and practically from ISR, if not in how information is collected, then in how it is used and the motivation behind the collection. (The Web site for IAA reference is under Web sites references below.)
Assignment Guidelines
Address the following in 5–7 paragraphs:
Do you believe the distinction between ISR and IAA lies simply with terminology (and therefore there is little or no difference) or that there is a separation between the concepts? Explain and defend your answer fully. You may choose to research the topic more fully.
Contemplating the ethics of using IAA in the homeland, list at least 3 benefits of its use where ethics might potentially be secondary.
List at least 2–3 costs or opposing views to its use and how IAA—or the information gathered—might be misused or abused.
What if criminal activity (like acres of tended marijuana) was observed during IAA missions intended to conduct damage assessments? How should such information be handled?
Do you believe converting the term
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
to
incident awareness and assessments
for operations conducted in the homeland was wise or frivolous (or described otherwise)? Explain and defend your answer fully.
What is the value of using carefully selected terminology for operations in the homeland?
How does the symbolism of IAA potentially aid homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
How does the symbolism of ISR potentially hinder homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
Among the Web sites listed for this unit, you will find the Air Forces North (AFNORTH) Incident Awareness and Assessment Handbook, June 2010.
Why do you think this manual on IAA is available from open-source sites?
Do you think there might be ethical considerations to publicizing the use and purposes of IAA? Name and discuss at least 1.
More Related Content
Similar to Mastering Scholarly WritingRemove or Replace Header Is Not Do
• During the past years the understanding and the measurement of stuttering appear to have been dominated by different concept of the stuttering behaviour. It should be noted that is also common for stuttering events to be described as moments of fluency, disfluency or dysfluency, these terms are essentially interchangeable to some authors. But others distinguish between normal disfluencies and abnormal dysfluencies (Quesel, 1988). The traditional view is that the speech behaviours that listeners identify as stuttering are at once the disfluencies and stuttering that is a stuttering is a dysfluency or a speech interruption.
• Option that is perceived by the speaker or the listener as an abnormal or stuttered disfluency rather than the normal disfluency. It is the symptomatic many of the difficulties in the stuttering measurement that such disagreements exist over these basic behavioural descriptors.
• Johnson and Johnson 1959 recognised that the speech of those who stutter does contain distinctive intervals of non-fluency that could be labelled moments of stuttering (Johnson and Knott 1936) Moments of stuttering are bouts of non- fluency accompanied by some reaction on the part of the speaker or another listener that caused the entire event to be labelled as stutter. Marcel Wingate 1964 proposed a standard definition of stuttering that incorporate much of Johnson concept of stuttering and at the same time focused attention the behaviours that the listeners seem to associate with the label stuttering. Wingate definition drew heavily on his experience with children.
• Disruption in the fluency of verbal expression which is characterized by involuntary audible or silent repetition or prolongations in the utterance of short speech elements namely sound, syllables and the words of one syllable. These disruptions usually occur frequently or a marked in character and are not readily controllable (Wingate).
• Occasions of stuttering are defined simply as those events that an observer recognizes as stuttering behaviour. Because they exceed some threshold for stuttering identification.
Getting rid of speech difficulties and swallowing disordersBrandon Ridley
Speech, language, and swallowing disorders are common challenges many children across the globe face. About 11% of the total population of these children (explicitly falling in the age group three to six years) have the highest recorded cases of these disorders, followed by those between the ages of seven and ten years (9.3%), and finally, preteens and teenagers with ages ranging from 11 to 17 years (4.9%).
Therapies To Break The Chains Of DisabilitiesBrandon Ridley
>> Sports-Related Concussions Among Canadians: The Risks And The Treatment
>> Can we help teachers help kids with dyslexia?
>> Dysarthria: Did You Know There Is Only One Treatment Option Available?
>> Autism Rates Are Escalating, Be Prepared As A Parent
>> Concussions: What To Know And What To Ask
Find out more at https://therapyspot.ca/
Running Head: DYSLEXIA 1
DYSLEXIA 5
Dyslexia Psychological Assessment
Matthew Rosario
SNHU
Dyslexia Psychological Assessment
Dyslexia is a broad term for disorders that entail difficulty in learning to read or interpret words, letters, and other symbols, but it does not affect general intelligence. There have been important advances in research in dyslexia over the past twenty years. The results have been considerable although there has not been a clear explanation that is accepted of what exactly dyslexia constitutes. Identification is still puzzled with arguments in spite of the emergence of some new tests to recognize dyslexia as an identifiable condition. Furthermore, there is still a continuing debate on the cost of dyslexia as an identifiable condition (Goswami, 2012).
Dyslexia is described as a difficulty with word recognition when speaking out loud. These problems are not particular to specific languages and the individual’s concerned intelligence. It is a syndrome which is a compilation of related characteristics that vary in degree from one person to another. Dyslexia may overlap with connected conditions and in childhood; its effects may be recognized as a behavioral or emotional disorder. Dyslexia seems to be more common with males and females. The evidence implies that in three-thirds of cases, it has a genetic origin but in some cases, birth complications may play an important role.
A researcher argues that there is inherited, sensory, motor and psychosomatic evidence that this condition is a neurological condition affecting the brain development. He also argues that visual system gives the main entry in both lexical and the sub- lexical means for reading and this should be taken as the most significant sense for reading. Early detection and right interference can reduce its effects. People who have dyslexia learn to accommodate to a bigger or a smaller degree depending on their character and the kind of support they have got from home and at school (Goswami, 2012).
Dyslexia affects 10 in 100 individuals many of whom stay undiagnosed and do not get. If dyslexia is not recognized earlier, the person suffering from it may face a problem of underemployment, difficulty in getting used to the academic environments, difficulty performing job duties, and self-confidence that is very low. The individuals who have been diagnosed are likely to have some struggling in writing and reading (Reiter, Tucha & Lange, 2008).
Dyslexia is a particular reading disorder, and it does not interfere with the intelligence of an individual. There are a lot of intelligent people who have dyslexia, and they are creative enough even to think that they learned and read. An assessment is a process of collecting information to classify the factors causing difficulties to a student with learning to spell and read. The information is collected from ...
Fluency disorder (Stuttering also known as stammering)Emmanuel Raj
Introduction, aetiology, Epidemiology, Clinical features, Theories, Scale, Diagnosis, Assessment, management of stuttering.
Fluency: continuity, smoothness, rate, and effort in speech production.
All speakers are disfluent at times. They may hesitate when speaking, use fillers (“like” or “uh”), or repeat a word or phrase. These are called typical disfluencies or non-fluencies (ASHA - American Speech-Language-Hearing Association).
Types of fluency disorders
Stuttering
Cluttering
Normal Non-fluency
Stuttering (Stammering) the most common fluency disorder, is an interruption in the flow of speaking characterised by specific types of disfluencies, including:
Prolongations unnatural stretching of a sound (e.g., “Ssssssssometimes we stay home”);
Repetitions of sounds, syllables, and monosyllabic words (e.g., “Look at the b-b-baby,” “Let’s go out-out-out”);
Hesitations usage of fillers (“like” or “uh”),
Blocks inability to initiate speech sounds/difficulty getting a word/pausing in between words
CLASSIFICATION OF STUTTERING:
DEVELOPMENTAL STUTTERING:
It is initially noted in children between three and eight years of age
Approx. 75 % of pre-schoolers with developmental stuttering spontaneously recover within 4 years.
Normal non fluency:
As children pass through normal language development they will be disfluent in certain period when compared to others.
ACQUIRED STUTTERING:
Neurogenic stuttering: usually follows a neurologic event, such as traumatic brain injury, stroke, or other brain damage.
stuttering occurs at the beginning of the words and the secondary behaviours are more obvious than with acquired stuttering.
Cause:
Cerebrovascular accident (stroke), with or without aphasia, Head trauma, Ischemic attacks (temporary obstruction of blood flow in the Brain)
Signs and symptoms:
Repetitions, Excessive levels of normal disfluencies , Extraneous movements
Psychogenic stuttering: It is rare and usually occurs in adults with a history of psychiatric problems following a psychological event or emotional trauma; there may be no other known aetiology.
Causes:
Depression, Emotional responses to traumatic events, Anxiety
Signs and symptoms:
Rapid repetitions of initial sounds
Epidemiology:
The prevalence of stuttering over the whole population was 0.72%, with higher prevalence rates in younger children (1.4–1.44) and lowest rates in adolescence (0.53).
Male-to-female ratios ranged from 2.3:1 in younger children to 4:1 in adolescence, with a ratio of 2:1 across all ages according to ASHA
In India it is estimated that approx. 10% of cases with communication disorders may have stuttering according to AIISH.
Aetiology:
A variety of factors may influence stuttering events, although the etiology of the condition is unclear
Possible contributing factors include cognitive processing abilities, genetics, gender of the patient, and environmental influences.
'ADHD, Autism, and Asperger's' Topic 11 - Revision and Exam Tips.
The views expressed in this presentation are those of the individual Simon Bignell and not University of Derby.
The Kioko Center has been providing expert occupational and speech therapy services to children and young adult. We have developed the highest quality standards for our therapies and services. Our staff are highly trained and prepared to integrate the latest therapy techniques into your child’s sessions.
Kioko Center provides comprehensive, individualized therapies which facilitate overall development and independence of a child. We serve the schools, therapists, and families that support them. We are a pediatric therapy organization that specializes in occupational therapy and speech therapy.
Similar to Mastering Scholarly WritingRemove or Replace Header Is Not Do (20)
Homework assignmentPlease annotate one artwork you like from this.docxAbramMartino96
Homework assignment:
Please annotate one artwork you like from this week’s textbook
reading or Smarthistory. Whenever I am writing for research
presentation or publication, this is how I begin. The point is to make
sure you’re not missing anything in terms of basic data or
interpretive frameworks. When I take notes on a lecture at a
conference, this is the way I like to organize my notes, as well.
Format
Identify the artwork
Identify Period Style
Identify Subject Matter
Discuss Historical Context
Discuss Visual Elements (Line, Color, Texture, Composition etc.)
Discuss Its Place in Ideas or Culture of the Time
.
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense an.docxAbramMartino96
Homeland Security efforts are ably reinforced by Homeland Defense and Defense Support of Civil Authorities (DSCA), which are missions executed by the Department of Defense (DOD), most specifically by the Combatant Command, United States Northern Command (USNORTHCOM). In supporting the nation when requested by DHS, FEMA, or other lead federal agencies, or as directed by the president or the secretary of defense, DOD provides many unique capabilities for crisis response. One specific function used most notably during the post-Hurricane Katrina period was the use of airborne assets to provide damage assessments and to gauge the extent of the sea surge at various times during the recovery.
The function of deploying such assets is traditionally called
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
(ISR). Yet the U.S. military cannot legally collect intelligence on U.S. citizens. Consequently, the action, as performed during the hurricane recovery operations described here, is known as
incident awareness and assessments
(IAA). For some, the difference between these terms is merely semantics; for many, IAA differs both symbolically and practically from ISR, if not in how information is collected, then in how it is used and the motivation behind the collection. (The Web site for IAA reference is under Web sites references below.)
Assignment Guidelines
Address the following in 5–7 paragraphs:
Do you believe the distinction between ISR and IAA lies simply with terminology (and therefore there is little or no difference) or that there is a separation between the concepts? Explain and defend your answer fully. You may choose to research the topic more fully.
Contemplating the ethics of using IAA in the homeland, list at least 3 benefits of its use where ethics might potentially be secondary.
List at least 2–3 costs or opposing views to its use and how IAA—or the information gathered—might be misused or abused.
What if criminal activity (like acres of tended marijuana) was observed during IAA missions intended to conduct damage assessments? How should such information be handled?
Do you believe converting the term
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
to
incident awareness and assessments
for operations conducted in the homeland was wise or frivolous (or described otherwise)? Explain and defend your answer fully.
What is the value of using carefully selected terminology for operations in the homeland?
How does the symbolism of IAA potentially aid homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
How does the symbolism of ISR potentially hinder homeland security professionals in performing their jobs?
Among the Web sites listed for this unit, you will find the Air Forces North (AFNORTH) Incident Awareness and Assessment Handbook, June 2010.
Why do you think this manual on IAA is available from open-source sites?
Do you think there might be ethical considerations to publicizing the use and purposes of IAA? Name and discuss at least 1.
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this repo.docxAbramMartino96
Homecoming is an annual tradition in the United States. In this report you are going to provide a background information about Homecoming (for example, what is homecoming, what type of activities do people do, why it is celebrated in the U.S….) You must report your findings in an essay format (at least two long paragraphs) and cite any resources that you use.
.
Homer
Assignment
II
Read
three
of
the
books
from
The
Odyssey
including
Book
I.
Choose
one
character
and
trace
that
character’s
traits
throughout
your
reading
assignment.
Write
a
five-‐paragraph
character
analysis-‐interesting
insights
about
the
character-‐of
the
character
of
your
choice.
Choose
from
the
books
listed
below:
Book
I:
You
MUST
read
Book
I.
Invocation
and
part
summary
–council
of
the
gods-‐
Athena
visits
Telemachos
in
Ithaka
and
urges
him
to
go
in
search
of
his
father-‐the
suitors
feast
in
the
house
of
Telemachos.
Book
VIII:
Odysseus
at
the
games
of
the
Phaiakians-‐
he
is
asked
top
tell
his
name
and
his
story.
Book
XIII:
Return
of
Odysseus
to
Ithaka-‐
hi
is
landed,
alone-‐
strange
return
of
the
Phaiakian
ship-‐Athena
comes
to
Odysseus
and
advises
him.
Book
XVI:
Telemachos
visits
Eumaios-‐Odyssues
reveals
himself
to
Telemachos-‐Penelope
and
suitors
learn
that
Telemachos
has
returned-‐
night
at
the
house
of
Eumaios.
Book
XXI:
The
test
of
the
bow-‐the
suitors
fail-‐Odysseus
succeeds.
Book
XXII:
The
killing
of
the
suitors-‐punishment
of
the
faithless
maids
and
thrall.
Book
XXIII:
Recognition
of
Odysseus
by
Penelope-‐reunion-‐Odysseus
goes
to
Laertes’
farm.
.
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of t.docxAbramMartino96
Homelessness in America has been a problem since the settlement of the country.
How has society’s response to that population changed over time? Consider the following in your response: Cite references. Min 200 words
·
How has society’s response to that group changed over the past 300 years?
·
How has it changed in your lifetime?
·
What changes do you anticipate in society’s response in the next 50 years?
·
What factors have influenced those changes?
.
Homework Assignments One pagewhat the functional currency .docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignments One page
what the functional currency for Johnson& Johnson
Research your JOHNSON&JOHNSON and report on any major issue(s) of international taxation that is (are) addressed in this chapter.
Post this assignment in the chapter conference.
Discuss how your JOHNSON&JOHNSON handles transfer pricing.
Topics of discussion can include but are not limited to:
Are transfers from a subsidiary to its parent (upstream)? From the parent to a subsidiary (downstream)?
Or from one subsidiary to another of the same parent?
Transfer pricing methods?
What are the objectives of your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs transfer pricing practices?
What law(s) govern your JOHNSON&JOHNSONs practices?
What method is used?
The enforcement of transfer pricing regulations in the country where you JOHNSON&JOHNSON is located?
.
Homework Assignment Company Research This assignment req.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment: Company Research
This assignment requires you to research a company which is (
The Union Pacific Railroad
)
. You are to assume that you will be interviewing with this company for a job right after graduation. As such, you want to perform in-depth research about your company so you will be the best prepared candidate to be interviewed. Your goal is to learn as much as you can about the company including their strengths and weaknesses. Your research should include
Marketing issues due
·
Product market (major products)
·
Geographic market (where it operates –
local, regional, national, international)
·
Competitors
·
Brands
Current issues
·
Effect of current economic recession
·
Opportunities for and threats to the company based on current and projected events
·
Strengths and Weaknesses
·
Career opportunities
Financial issues
·
Trend analysis (e.g. trends in income, stock price, dividends)
·
Financial stability
Management issues
·
Core competency
·
Innovation (evidence that the company is or is not innovative)
·
Ethics and social responsibility (evidence of the company’s values and how those values have been reflected in its conduct)
·
Sustainability
Overview of the company
·
History
·
Mission
·
Vision
·
Organizational Structure
·
Primary industry(ies) in which it operates
Written Summary and Reference List
·
A five to eight page well organized executive summary of your company as well as a list of the references used. The reference list should be formatted according to APA style. Additionally, your team must provide evidence of “collaborative effort”, (Meeting Agendas, Minutes, etc.)
.
Homework Assignment #1Directions Please answer each of the foll.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment #1
Directions: Please answer each of the following questions in as detailed a manner as possible, and be sure to include all appropriate material discussed in the lectures and the assigned reading material.
1) Define what we mean by money and how it is used in the day to day functioning of the U.S. economy. Be sure to include the major components that make up what is defined as money and which of these components is used most widely to identify what money is. Also, include the major functions that money serves as a part of the overall economy and how banks act to create and maintain money.
2) Name and discuss the four major theories that address the term structure of interest rates. In your discussion, indicate the strengths and weaknesses of each of the theories and which theory or theories appear to be the most well accepted as explanations of term structure.
3) Explain the role that money plays under the Classical Macroeconomic Model. As a part of your discussion, include the impact the Quantity Theory of Money and Say’s Law have on this model and state in algebraic terms how the money supply relates to prices.
4) Compare and contrast pure discount bonds with coupon bonds and provide at least one example of such government or corporate bonds that can be bought and sold by investors. Describe the way interest rates are determined for these bonds by using the appropriate formula or formulas and explain the overall relationship between bond prices and interest rates.
.
Homework Assignment 9Due in week 10 and worth 30 pointsSuppose t.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment 9
Due in week 10 and worth 30 points
Suppose that there are two (2) candidates (i.e., Jones and Johns) in the upcoming presidential election. Sara notes that she has discussed the presidential election candidates with 15 friends, and 10 said that they are voting for candidate Jones. Sara is therefore convinced that candidate Jones will win the election because Jones gets more than 50% of votes.
Answer the following questions in the space provided below:
Based on what you now know about statistical inference, is Sara’s conclusion a logical conclusion? Why or why not?
How many friend samples Sara should have in order to draw the conclusion with 95% confidence interval? Why?
How would you explain your conclusion to Sara without using any statistical jargon? Why?
.
Homework Assignment 4 Guidelines1. Write the paper in Microsoft Wo.docxAbramMartino96
Homework Assignment 4 Guidelines
1. Write the paper in Microsoft Word or in a comparable program saved as a Word document.
2. The text should be in 12 point CG Times, Times Roman, or New Times Roman.
3. Single spacing is fine but skip a line between questions.
4. Use a spell checker!
5. Include the corresponding question before each answer in your document.
6. Use Chicago or Turabian style citations to inform me of exactly where you found the information to answer the questions. The citation formatting does not need to be perfect, but do your best. For citation guides please see http://hub.miracosta.edu/library/ResearchGuides/Chicago.pdf
7. The title of the assignment in the Bb Section Folder is a hyperlink that opens the Assignment Submission window. Click to open. Upload your file. Copy the text of your assignment into the Assignment Materials text box on the assignment upload page. Make sure the formatting is cool by previewing before you submit.
8. Submit the assignment before the deadline.
Part A) A Reaction to Racism in American Literature, Art, and Music In the latter part of the 19th century, "Realism" became the dominant feature in American literature and influenced the Progressive Era writers of the early 20th century. In the years immediately following World War I, a number of American authors of the realist school began to explore race relations. Dramatists such as Eugene O'Neill and Paul Green wrote plays based on African American themes. O'Neill's The Emperor Jones (1920) and All God's Chillun Got Wings (1924) were immensely popular. Green won the Pulitzer Prize for In Abraham's Bosom, a play performed by a predominately African American cast in a period when few African American artists were able to find work outside vaudeville or minstrel shows. At the same time, a number of African American writers came to prominence writing novels and poetry based on their experiences as African Americans. This literary movement, originally centered in Harlem, New York, became known as the "Harlem Renaissance" (1920s-1930s). It was the outgrowth of a number of factors including the Great Migration to northern cities and the growing anger over both overt and covert racism. Authors, musicians, and painters gathered in Harlem and in other large urban areas throughout the North and developed a distinctly African American cultural movement cognizant of the political, economic, and social issues of prejudice and discrimination that were part of the Black experience in America. Historians have described the Harlem Renaissance as a period in which the African American writer ". . . had achieved a degree and kind of articulation that make it possible for him to transform his feelings into a variety of literary forms. Despite his intense feelings of hate and hurt, he possessed sufficient restraint and objectivity to use his materials artistically, but no less effectively." (John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans, .
Hi we are a group doing a research and we split up the work ev.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
we are a group doing a research and we split up the work every one took apart and my part is to do
the Value Chain Analysis only
FOR the
company in question
(
company info you will find it in the attachment
)
so
there is no need to do introduction or anything
else just go directly to the topic and start doing the Value Chain Analysis
instruction in general
1-
12 font Double space
2-
2-3 pages maximum
3-
Add appendix
4-
Reliable sources important
I will check plagiarism just in case
Specific
my part is to do the value chain analysis only again do not write introduction or any thing just start with the analysis
please do not waste my and your time
read the attachment carefully first then start do the reaserch
if you have any regards
contact me
.
hi I need research paper about any topics in Manufacturing Proc.docxAbramMartino96
hi
I need research paper about any topics in
Manufacturing Processes
a.
To introduce students to some of the fundamentals of materials (behavior and manufacturing properties)
b.
To give students a working knowledge of production processes of casting, forming and shaping, machining and machine tools, sheet metal, and joining processes
c.
To introduce students computer integrated manufacturing, flexible manufacturing systems and other modern technologies in manufacturing
d.
To give students common aspects of manufacturing including statistical control and life expectancy of some products.
e.
Students will design a simple artifact, present case studies or designs, and write reports
.
HMIS Standards Please respond to the followingFrom the e-A.docxAbramMartino96
"HMIS Standards"
Please respond to the following:
From the e-Activity, determine a key factor that has delayed the widespread implementation of electronic health records in health care organizations. Provide an example of the effects of each factor to support your rationale.
Determine two areas where HIPPA has influenced the development of HIMS standards. Justify your response.
.
Hi i need a paper about (Head On )German film ( Turkey part)3 to.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
i need a paper about (Head On )German film ( Turkey part)
3 to 5 sentences each
Summary:
Time context:
Details about the film:
Thesis: explain
Characters:
Camera technique:
Light:
Music:
Situation effects:
Power struggle:
Sources: 3 academic
.
Hi i have new work can you do it, its due in 6 hours Boyd, Ga.docxAbramMartino96
Hi
i have new work can you do it, it's due in 6 hours
Boyd,
Gayle M.,
Jan Howard,
and
Robert A. Zucker
.
Alcohol Problems among Adolescents: Current Directions in Prevention Research.
Psychology Press
, 2013.
Lowe, Geoff
,
David R. Foxcroft,
and
David Sibley
.
Adolescent Drinking and Family Life
.
Taylor & Francis, 1993
.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Underage Drinking: A Major Public Health Challenge
. Apr. 2003. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
Office of Juvenile Jus
tice and Delinquency Prevention.
Effects and Consequences of Underage Drinking
. Sept.
2012
. Web. 10 Oct. 2016.
I want you to chose any two of these sources and write two pergraph for each, total 4 pergraghs. Can you do it?
.
HIT Management and Implementation Please respond to the followi.docxAbramMartino96
"HIT Management and Implementation"
Please respond to the following:
Determine a key process in the delivery of health care services that would be more efficient and effective through the application of a specific model of HIT. Support your response.
Analyze the barriers to the implementation of HIMS in a complex adaptive system (CAS). Propose a strategy to help reduce the level of resistance from the clinical staff during a transition from CAS to HIMS innovations. Provide a rationale to support your response
"Innovationin HIMS"
Please respond to the following:
•Compare and contrast the functionality and efficiency of the complaint-push model and data-pull model within the process of health care service delivery. Recommend a strategy improving the effectiveness of each method for delivering patient care.
•Determine a significant aspect of a complex health care system that represents barriers to a more rapid diffusion of HIT. Next, suggest how these barriers can be removed or minimized. Support your rationale.
.
History and TheoryConsiderthe eras, life histories.docxAbramMartino96
History and Theory
Consider
the eras, life histories, and personalities of Freud and Rogers.
Identify
two research articles published in the last 5 years: one that investigates a psychoanalytic or Freudian construct and one that investigates a client-centered, humanistic, or Rogerian construct.
Write
a 700- to 1,050-word paper about Freud and Rogers that addresses the following:
Provide a summary of each article, highlighting the processes that contemporary psychologists use to develop the theories of Freud and Rogers.
Explain their views of human nature and their worldviews as expressed in their respective theories.
Which aspect of their theory do you think would be different if they were alive and working today?
Explain how social and cultural factors influenced the development of Freud's and Rogers' respective theories of personality.
Do
NOT
use about.com, psychology.about.com, ask.com, simplypsychology.org, AllPsych.com, SparkNotes.com, wikipedia, or other sources that are not scholarly in nature.
You
MUST
have a minimum of 2 scholarly sources as references. You may use your textbook but it does not count as one of these sources.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Read the Case of Jim in Chapter 6
Each team member should discuss the case using the humanistic theory as a model. Then use the humanistic theory to discuss how you would use it to assess the client.
Post an initial response
to this case analysis (approximately 350 words with at least 1 scholarly source).
THE CASE OF JIM
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL: PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY
Jim completed ratings of the concepts self, ideal self, father, and mother using the semantic differential (
Chapter 5
), a simple rating scale. Although the semantic differential is not the exact measure recommended by Rogers, its results can be related to Rogerian theory since its procedures have a phenomenological quality and assess perceptions of self and ideal self.
First, consider how Jim perceives his self. Based on the semantic differential, Jim sees himself as intelligent, friendly, sincere, kind, and basically good—as a wise person who is humane and interested in people. At the same time, other ratings suggest that he does not feel free to be expressive and uninhibited. Thus, he rates himself as reserved, introverted, inhibited, tense, moral, and conforming. There is a curious mixture of perceptions: being involved, deep, sensitive, and kind while also being competitive, selfish, and disapproving. There is also the interesting combination of perceiving himself as being good and masculine but simultaneously weak and insecure. One gets the impression of an individual who would like to believe that he is basically good and capable of.
History of an argument Are there too many people There h.docxAbramMartino96
History of an argument: Are there too many people?
There have been several points in history at which someone has argued that we have too many people, and that this will be a problem.
Please do some research and choose at least one of these arguments to discuss in some detail in a paper of about 2-3 pages.
Who was making the argument?
Which people were identified as being too many?
Was a solution proposed, and if so, what was it?
Did the predicted overpopulation crisis come to pass, and why or why not?
How many people would be about right?
How many are too many?
Who decides?
What are the criteria for the decision?
The usual formatting and proper mechanics of good writing apply.
.
history essays- 1000 words each essay- mla and 2 works cited. every .docxAbramMartino96
history essays- 1000 words each essay- mla and 2 works cited. every question should be submitted in its own sheet.
1.Trace the patterns of international migration since 1970, with reference to at least two examples. How do these differ from migration patterns of a century earlier?
2.
Discuss advantages and disadvantages of globalization in contemporary world. Who has benefited and who has not? Has globalization brought the world together or driven it further apart?
.
Historical Background of Housing PolicyHousing is one of the requi.docxAbramMartino96
Historical Background of Housing Policy
Housing is one of the requirements in human life
(not true!)
. Therefore,
it
greatly influences the day to day life of citizens in a country as well as the country's economy. As a result of
its
importance, there
should be
secure policies in the state that protect citizens against exploitation and the economy of the nation
This is not a neutral statement of the evidence
(Turis, 2011).
Good
housing provided with essential social amenities means healthy lives for the citizens since
they will be enjoying all the services
. Poor housing, for instance, can result in health issues for the individuals of a given society. Crime rates are also found to be higher in places with inadequate housing and this
becomes a threat
may be a threat
to the security of the community.
The housing policy
,
??????
therefore, was formed
so as to
address the housing challenges facing the nation and its citizens (Turis, 2011).
indent
To deal with the housing problems
(what housing problems?)
the Section 8 Housing Choice Voucher program
(The correct name is Section 8 of the Housing Act of 1937 (42 U.S.C. § 1437f)
was established in 1974 as the Housing Act (Turis, 2011). This housing policy enables low income earners
to pay for houses of their choice
in the private market. The state funds the program and as a result, it benefits over five million low-income families as it enables them to pay for the housing
with ease
. Provision of
the
vouchers is one of the
policies
ways
in which
the state addresses the housing problem for its citizens (Turis, 2011). Compared to other policies
such as….
, vouchers provide a wider range of shelter and they are less expensive. For the low-income earners to use the vouchers, the kind of houses they find
should not
exceed the maximum allowable rent by the vouchers and must be in line with the program policies. The program also
covers a wide variety of houses
which include single family home; this was aimed at small families. Apartments and houses in towns are also covered by the program.
This description of the HCV is not clear.
indent
The housing voucher programs is managed by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (Kotz, 2012)
.
Public Housing Agencies (PHAs) are
the ones
responsible for carrying out the local programs outlines
(Kotz, 2012)
.
The mode of operation of this program is that an individual finds a suitable house for them to live and they pay rent to the landlords. The subsidy for the rent is paid by the PHAs to the owners of the house directly, and the person receiving such voucher will have to pay the remaining amount of money to the landlord (Kotz, 2012)
.
Therefore, in this program, the kind of benefits the citizens receive is subsidies on the rent they pay to the owners. A Certain amount is paid by the PHAs on the behalf of the low-income families, which makes houses relatively cheaper for citizens to choose where they want to li.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Mastering Scholarly WritingRemove or Replace Header Is Not Do
1. Mastering Scholarly Writing
Remove or Replace: Header Is Not Doc TitleOutline Worksheet
Introduction
In paper
An opening statement that frames your focus
Autism self-management treatment without child's vocalization.
Inappropriate language replacement with verbal labeling will be
more functional than the normal verballing.
Who
The psychologists are working towards developing a stimuli
language that will help autistic students improve their learning
and responding skills. Echolalia's language has always
responded inappropriately to questions that should replace
verbal representation for more effectiveness.
What
Children with
autism are normally rejected and treated differently from
others. Standardizing their learning skills or rather simplifying
their response through verbal stimulation will, in turn, raise
self-management.
When
The program generalization and maintenance will take place in
phases. They are evolving from the initial settings to the new
vocalization.
Where
2. The research will be conducted in a wide range to ensure more
participants are reached out.
Why?
The intended project will ease communication between autism-
affected children and others as well as between themselves.
Body Paragraph 1
In paper
Topic sentence
Coming up with the visual language entails the incorporation of
knowledge from the physician to the verbal developer.
Observation 1
In an experiment to test the language, the sequence wording in a
sentence or a question must be repeated for emphasis regardless
of verbalization.
Support 1
Though verbalization may have considered most accurate
concerning autism, errors may occur, which may amount to the
incorrect response. Therefore, the tutor must proofread the
question to ensure correctness. A combination of correct and
incorrect verbiage will add up to an incorrect and inappropriate
presentation.
Conclusion
The tutor should go through the verbalized questions to ensure
no errors may lead to incorrect responses. This will improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of audiotaped or videos as
intended.
Body Paragraph 2
3. In paper
Topic sentence
Young children diagnosed with autism made it necessary to
come up with some ways for self-development.
Observation 1
From the research, communication improvement will improve
their learning skills and how the affected interact with other
children. Autism children are frequently discriminated against
due to a lack of mutual understanding.
Support 1
On the conducted research, according to Karl, his module went
through upon the third trial. This is a positive indication that
verbalization can be depended upon when questioning.
Conclusion
Though the stimuli differed from one participant to the other, at
least there is a mutual language used by both the tutor and the
respondent. This indicates a positive step towards verbalization.
Body Paragraph 3
In paper
Topic sentence
It's essential to note that it can lead to communication
breakdown on echolalia treatment, thus causing stigmatization
in autism-affected children.
Observation 1
4. Autism Spectrum Disorder(ASD) can be reduced by treatment
intervention, especially when examined at an earlier stage.
Therefore, to enhance the treatment, participant features,
echolalia type, research, and design indicators must be
considered before prescribing any treatment.
Support 1
Although there is no single treatment that can be fully
described, physicians often combine several methods to achieve
the set goal. After behavior analysis, the treatment endorsed is
evaluated according to the despondence, mainly in visual cues
and verbal modeling.
Conclusion
Due to the lack of a specific treatment, medics should examine
the autism and describe the type of treatment to the patient. A
follow-up on the method used is also necessary.
Conclusion
In paper
Restatement of thesis statement
The main aim is to attain a common verbalized method that can
be recognized internationally and used during the examination.
The method should also ensure communication between autism
and other people.
Summary of introduction (who, what, when, where, why, and
how) 1 or two sentences
For the research's success, the intended purpose, participant,
research methods, and time must be observed.
Summary of body paragraph 1
5. Dealing with autism disorder entails a collaboration from
medics, parents, and the affected kids. This will help in
verbalization or echolalia destruction and self-development and
building self-esteem in the young affected children.
Summary of body paragraph 2
Eradicating stigmatization among young children diagnosed
with autism is the main goal. However, attaining a common
language is complicated due to different responses from various
participants. Thus verbalization stimuli must be tested regularly
before approval as the official examination language.
Summary of body paragraph 3
Through teamwork, the intended verbalization will work. This
entails awareness through mass education and special training
programs to the affected.
Overall ending thought/sentence for the reader
Society should learn to embrace and appreciate children with
autism; this will reduce stigmatization. Engaging them in daily
activism and motivation will boost their self-esteem as they are
no less human beings. Learning verbalization to enhance
communication is also necessary.
�
1
4
6. REVIEW PAPER
Treatment of Echolalia in Individuals with Autism Spectrum
Disorder: a Systematic Review
Leslie Neely1 & Stephanie Gerow2 & Mandy Rispoli3 &
Russell Lang4 & Nathan Pullen4
Received: 15 October 2015 /Accepted: 25 November 2015
/Published online: 4 December 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract Echolalia can lead to communication breakdowns
that increase the likelihood of social failure and stigmatization
in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In an effort
to facilitate evidenced-based intervention and inform future
research, this systematic review analyzes peer-reviewed stud-
ies involving the treatment of echolalia in individuals with
ASD. Using predetermined inclusion criteria, a total of 11
studies were identified, reviewed, and summarized in terms
of the following: (a) participant characteristics (e.g., verbal
and cognitive functioning), (b) type of echolalia (e.g., delayed
or immediate), (c) intervention procedures, (d) intervention
outcomes, (e) maintenance and generalization of outcomes,
and (f) research design and other indicators of rigor (i.e., cer -
tainty of evidence). Nine studies successfully reduced echola-
lia in a total of 17 participants. However, only six of those nine
studies met criteria to be classified as providing the highest
level of certainty (i.e., conclusive). The findings of this review
suggest that a number of treatment options can be considered
promising practices for the treatment of echolalia in children
with ASD. Although no single treatment package can be de-
scribed as well-established evidence-based practice, all 11
studies involved behavior analytic intervention components,
suggesting strong support for operant-based treatments. In
7. particular, behavior analytic interventions demonstrating
conclusive levels of evidence included cues-pause-point, dif-
ferential reinforcement of lower rates of behavior, script train-
ing plus visual cues, and verbal modeling plus positive rein-
forcement for appropriate responses. Implications for practi-
tioners and directions for future research are offered.
Keywords Autism spectrum disorder . Echolalia .
Treatment . Systematic review
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder
characterized by deficits in social communication skills and
excesses in repetitive and restrictive patterns of behaviors
(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [5th
ed.; DSM-5]; American Psychiatric Association [APA] 2013).
The combination of behavioral excesses and deficits can man-
ifest as a repetitive, restricted pattern of vocal behavior called
echolalia (Stribling et al. 2007). Echolalia is typically defined
as the socially awkward or inappropriate verbatim repetition
of part or all of a previously spoken utterance (Karmali et al.
2005; Stribling et al. 2007; Valentino et al. 2012). The initial
utterance, that is then repeated, may come from another per-
son in the environment or from a recording (television or
audio source) and maybe immediate or delayed. Immediate
echolalia occurs when the latency between initial utterance
and repetition is within a few seconds, whereas delayed
echolalia occurs when the time between the initial utterance
and the repetition involves longer durations, inclusive of
repetitions occurring days after the initial utterance being
echoed (Foxx et al. 2004; Hetzroni and Tannous 2004).
Another form of echolalia is palilalia. Palilalia involves the
repeating of one’s own words in a quiet whispered voice
immediately following the initial typical volume utterance
(Karmali et al. 2005).
8. * Leslie Neely
[email protected]
1 Department of Educational Psychology, The University of
Texas at
San Antonio, 501 W. Cesar E. Chavez Blvd., San
Antonio, TX 78207-4415, USA
2 Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
3 Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
4 Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, USA
Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91
DOI 10.1007/s40489-015-0067-4
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1007/s40489-015-
0067-4&domain=pdf
Although language repetition is part of typical child
development (Howlin 1982). some children with ASD en-
gage in echolalia that persists past the early childhood
developmental period (Barrera and Sulzer-Azaroff 1983;
Neely 2014; Fay 1969). In addition, children with ASD
often engage in echolalia that lacks social context Lovaas
et al. 1973) and occurs at a higher rate than in typically
developing children (Fay 1973).
Echolalia may (a) complicate educational programs de-
signed to improve speech, (b) contribute to communication
breakdowns, (c) increase the likelihood of social failure or
stigmatization, and (d) increase the risk of challenging behav-
ior (Light et al. 1998; Valentino et al. 2012). For example,
Valentino et al. (2012) identified a 3-year-old male with
ASD who repeated the instruction Bsay^ during echoic train-
ing. The immediate echolalia was interfering with instruction
9. and complicating the educational program aimed at teaching
the child to tact. Previous research aimed at identifying the
operant function of echolalia suggests that the complete range
of functions found to maintain other behaviors (e.g., automatic
reinforcement, socially mediated positive reinforcement, and
socially mediated negative reinforcement) may also reinforce
and maintain echolalia (Goren et al. 1977; Healy and Leader
2011).
A descriptive review by Kavon and McLaughlin (1995)
identified two interventions with preliminary support for the
treatment of echolalia (i.e., cues-pause-point and more general
verbal prompting interventions). Cues-pause-point is a behav-
ioral intervention that has been evaluated for the treatment of
immediate echolalia. Cues-pause-point was introduced by
McMorrow and Foxx (1986) in their treatment of a 21-year-
old male with ASD. The cues-pause-point intervention con-
sists of a trainer providing a visual cue to the learner to remain
silent (cue). The trainer then maintains the visual cue while
providing instructions about the upcoming teaching session.
The trainer poses a question and provides a short pause fol-
lowing the question (pause). Finally, the trainer points to a
card to prompt the learner to verbalize the answer to the ques -
tion (point). For example, to teach the individual with ASD to
respond appropriately to the question, BWhat is your name?,^
the trainer held up an index finger to cue silence (cue), stated,
BI’m going to ask you some questions, do your best to answer
them correctly^ (pause), asked the question, pointed to a card
with the person’s name prompting the correct response
(point), and then provided reinforcement contingent on the
correct response. Following the initial study by McMorrow
and Foxx, follow-up studies extended the procedure to indi-
viduals with less developed language skills (McMorrow et al.
1987) and individuals with intellectual disabilities (Foxx,
Faw, McMorrow, Kyle, & Bittle 1988) and then demonstrated
that reductions of echolalia following cues-pause-point could
10. be maintained up to 57 months following the cessation of the
intervention (Foxx and Faw 1990).
Kavon and McLaughlin’s (1995) review categorized the
remaining interventions as verbal prompting interventions.
Studies in that category used a combination of reinforcement,
prompting, and error correction to reduce echolalia but did not
utilize the more specific sequence of cues-pause-point (e.g.,
Freeman et al. 1975; Lovaas 1977). For example, Freeman
et al. (1975) used positive reinforcement for correct
responding to questions and an error prevention procedure
(consisting of interrupting the echolalia) to treat the echolalia
of a 5-year-old male with autism. The intervention produced
decreases in echolalia that maintained following the with-
drawal of intervention. Although the review by Kavon and
McLaughlin provides evidence in support of these interven-
tions, additional studies have emerged over the last 20 years
and an updated systematic review appears warranted.
Therefore, the purpose of this review is to update and ex-
tend the previous review by Kavon and McLaughlin by (a)
utilizing broader inclusion criteria not limited to behavioral
(operant) approaches, (b) conducting a systematic review of
the literature, (c) rating each included study’s certainty of ev-
idence (quality of research design and controls) so results can
be considered in light of each study’s methodological rigor,
and (d) identifying advances in treatment that may have de-
veloped since the previous review. A review of this nature is
intended to offer directions for future research and to provide
guidance to practitioners interested in the use of evidence-
based treatments for echolalia in children with ASD.
Method
Search Procedures
11. Four electronic databases were searched to identify potential
studies for this review: ERIC (EBSCO), Medline, Psychology
and Behavioral Sciences Collection, and PsycINFO. There
were no limitations on publication year, but results were lim-
ited to English language, peer-reviewed research. Terms to
describe individuals with an ASD were combined with terms
to describe echolalia. The terms for individuals with an ASD
included BAsperger,^ Bautis*,^ Bdevelopmental disab*,^
BASD,^ and BPDD-NOS.^ The terms searched to describe
echolalia included Becholal*,^ Brepetitive speech,^ Brepetitive
verbal*,^ Brepetitive talking,^ Brepetitive communication*,^
and Bpalilalia.^ Following the initial search, the last name of
the first author of each included study was also entered into
PsychINFO to identify any other potentially relevant studies
that had been published by that author. Finally, the reference
list of Kavon and McLaughlin (1995) was examined for ad-
ditional studies meeting inclusion criteria.
These search procedures were conducted in May 2014,
updated in April 2015, and yielded a total of 568 articles
(534 from the original search and 34 from the updated search).
Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91 83
The title and abstracts of the 568 articles were screened using
the predetermined inclusion criteria (see BInclusion Criteria^
section) to identify articles for potential inclusion in this re -
view. Following this screening of title and abstracts, a total of
46 articles were identified for further review.
Inclusion Criteria
The 46 articles were then downloaded and evaluated based on
the pre-set inclusion criteria. Studies were included if they (a)
12. included a participant diagnosed with ASD or was described
as an individual with Bautistic-like behaviors^ (included due
to the age of the literature base), (b) implemented an interven-
tion and reported outcomes for echolalia (inclusive of palilalia
and defined as repetition of a previously spoken word or
phrase) as a dependent variable, (c) employed an experimental
design (inclusive of single-case and group experimental de-
signs), and (d) echolalia outcomes for the individual with
ASD could be disaggregated from participants without ASD
and target behaviors other than echolalia. Studies which im-
plemented interventions for individuals with ASD who uti -
lized echolalic speech but did not present outcomes related
to the echolalia were excluded (e.g., Barrera and Sulzer -
Azaroff 1983; Charlop-Christy and Kelso 2003; Charlop
1983). Studies which evaluated echolalia under different con-
ditions but did not implement an intervention to address echo-
lalia were also excluded (e.g., Rydell and Mirenda 1994;
Violette and Swisher 1992). In addition, studies which imple-
mented interventions to treat other repetitive speech (i.e.,
noncontextual vocal stereotypy, such as a sound rather than a
word or phrase) were excluded (e.g., Mancia et al. 2000; Ahearn
et al. 2000; Taylor et al. 2005). Studies excluded because data
on echolalia were not disaggregated from other outcomes in-
volving other topographies of behavior were Arntzen et al.
(2006) and Mancia et al. (2000). For example, Arntzen et al.
(2006) taught a 44-year-old woman functional verbal responses
and tracked subsequent decreases in aberrant verbal behavior.
Although aberrant verbal behavior included repetitive echolalic
responses, the aberrant verbal behavior also included
Bpsychotic^ verbalizations and results for the two were
collapsed into one dependent variable. Finally, Cohen (1981)
was excluded because the figure referenced in the article was
not included in the article and was not accessible to the authors
after multiple attempts to locate the figure through university-
based library services. Ultimately, a total of 11 studies met
inclusion criteria and were included in this review.
13. Descriptive Synthesis
Included studies were reviewed and summarized based on the
following categories: (a) participant characteristics (e.g., ver-
bal and cognitive functioning), (b) type of echolalia (e.g., de-
layed or immediate), (c) intervention procedures, (d)
intervention outcomes, (e) maintenance and generalization
of outcomes, and (f) research design and other indicators of
rigor (i.e., certainty of evidence). Participant description in-
cluded the number of participants with ASD, their ages, and
gender. Participant verbal and cognitive functioning was cod-
ed using reported standardized assessments or was gleaned
from detailed descriptions of participant functioning.
Echolalia was coded as either immediate, delayed, or palilalia,
and when noted in the reviewed study, the operant function of
echolalia was noted. Various procedural aspects were coded to
identify intervention protocols or components (e.g., cues-
pause-point protocol, script training, or reinforcement
procedures)
Intervention outcomes were summarized and coded as nega-
tive, mixed, or positive. As all 11 studies employed single-case
research designs, study outcomes were determined based on vi-
sual analysis criteria for single-case research outlined by
Kennedy (2005). A study was rated as having negative results
if there was no reduction observed in echolalia as indicated by a
flat or increasing trend in the intervention phase as compared to
the baseline phase. Studies were coded as having mixed results
if
some, but not all, of the participants demonstrated a reduction
in
echolalia during the intervention phase relative to the baseline
phase. Positive results indicated that echolalia decreased in all
participants during intervention phase as relative baseline.
14. The study’s capacity to provide a certainty of evidence was
rated as suggestive, preponderant, or conclusive, with conclu-
sive being the highest rating (Schlosser 2009; Simeonsson and
Bailey 1991; Smith 1981). Studies rated as conclusive had the
following: (a) an experimental design capable of establishing
experimental control (e.g., ABAB, multiple-baseline design,
alternating treatments design), (b) sufficient interobserver
agreement (IOA) collected on the observed educator behav-
iors (i.e., agreement coefficients above 80 % and IOA collect-
ed for a minimum of 20 % of the sessions), (c) intervention
procedures detailed enough to promote replication of the pro-
cedures, (d) operationalized descriptions of the dependent var -
iable, and (e) demonstrated convincing effects of the interven-
tion for every participant (i.e., received a rating of positive
results). A study rated as preponderant met most of the criteria
for a Bconclusive^ study, but results may have demonstrated
Bmixed^ effects of the intervention for some or all of the
participants with ASD. Any study that (a) lacked an experi-
mental design capable of establishing experimental control,
(b) did not meet the minimum IOA criterion, (c) did not
operationally define the intervention procedures, (d) or did
not operationally define the dependent variable were auto-
matically rated as offering suggestive evidence.
Interrater Reliability
Inclusion Criteria To ensure accurate application of the in-
clusion criteria, two raters reviewed each of the 46 articles,
84 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91
resulting from the systematic search and initial title/abstract
review, for potential inclusion. Agreement was reached on
15. whether to include or exclude a study on 100 % of the articles.
Descriptive Synthesis To establish interrater reliability (IRR)
for the data summaries, two independent raters coded five of
the 11 included articles (46 %). A third rater reviewed the
independent data summaries and made a decision as to wheth-
er the summaries agreed. IRR was calculated based on wheth-
er the two raters agreed on the extracted data. There were a
total of 30 items in which there could be agreement or dis-
agreement (i.e., five studies with six data categories each).
IRR was calculated using percent agreement by dividing the
total number of agreements by the sum of the agreements and
disagreements and multiplying by 100 % to convert to a per-
centage. Initial agreement for the coding of studies was 90 %.
In instances of disagreement, the raters discussed until 100 %
agreement was reached.
Results
Table 1 created from the coded study summarizes and displays
each study according to the following: (a) participant charac-
teristics (e.g., verbal and cognitive functioning), (b) type of
echolalia (e.g., delayed or immediate), (c) intervention proce-
dures, (d) intervention outcomes, (e) maintenance and gener -
alization of outcomes, and (f) research design and other indi -
cators of rigor (i.e., certainty of evidence).
Participant Characteristics
The 11 studies included a total of 25 participants with ASD.
Ten of the 11 studies reported the gender of their participants
with 17 male and 5 female participants. One study did not
report participants’ gender (Laski et al. 1988). All of the stud-
ies reported the participants’ ages, with a mean reported age of
8 years (range 3–21 years) across studies.
16. Ten studies (90 %) reported information regarding partici -
pants’ verbal or cognitive functioning. Four studies (36 %)
reported results from standardized cognitive assessments
(i.e., Stanford-Binet, Merrill-Palmer, and Peabody Picture
Vocabulary Test (PPVT)) with three studies including four
participants with extremely low cognitive functioning (16 %;
Handen et al. 1984; McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Nientimp and
Cole 1992) and one study including one participant with
below-average to average cognitive functioning (4 %;
Freeman et al. 1975). Three studies (27 %) reported results
from standardized language assessments (i.e., Alpern-Boll
and PPVT-III) indicating extremely low verbal abilities and
below-average cognitive functioning for eight of the 25 par-
ticipants (32 %; Foxx et al. 2004; Karmali et al. 2005; Palyo
et al. 1979). Five of the studies reported descriptive
information regarding the language functioning of partici-
pants, all of which suggested below-average verbal abilities
for 16 of the 25 participants (64 %; Ganz et al. 2008; Hetzroni
and Tannous 2004; Karmali et al. 2005; Laski et al. 1988;
Valentino et al. 2012).
Type of Echolalia
Across the 11 studies, five targeted immediate echolalia only
(45 %; Foxx et al. 2004; McMorrow and Foxx 1986;
Nientimp and Cole 1992; Palyo et al. 1979; Valentino et al.
2012), two targeted delayed echolalia only (18 %; Ganz et al.
2008; Handen et al. 1984), and three studies (27 %) targeted
both immediate and delayed echolalia (Freeman et al. 1975;
Hetzroni and Tannous 2004; Laski et al. 1988). Finally, one
study targeted palilalia (Karmali et al. 2005). No study report-
ed operant functions of target behaviors.
Intervention Procedures
17. All of the 11 studies employed an intervention with behavioral
analytic components (e.g., differential reinforcement, model -
ing, prompting). Five of the 11 studies (45 %) evaluated the
effects of specific treatment package on echolalia (i.e., cues -
pause-point; Natural Language Paradigm, and computer-
based intervention). Cues-pause-point was the most frequent
treatment package evaluated (n=3; 27 %; Foxx et al. 2004;
McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Valentino et al. 2012). For exam-
ple, Valentino and colleagues (2012) evaluated the use of
cues-pause-point to treat a 3-year-old male child who echoed
the instruction say during echoic training. Decreased echolalia
and increase appropriate responding (e.g., repeating the target
word without echoing say) were noted.
Laski et al. (1988) trained parents to implement the Natural
Language Paradigm within a clinical setting and then assessed
the effects of the parent implemented program on child com-
munication outcomes. Parents were taught to use direct rein-
forcement of verbal attempts, to promote turn-taking with play
items, to vary stimuli and exemplars, and to utilize shared
control (i.e., rotating between child-led and parent-led activi-
ties). Although appropriate vocalizations were the primary
dependent variable, child engagement in echolalia was mea-
sured as an ancillary variable with mixed results noted for the
effects of the Natural Language Paradigm on echolalia.
The final treatment package was a computer program enti-
tled BI Can Word It Too^ that was available in both Arabic and
Hebrew (Hetzroni and Tannous 2004). The program presented
participants with a simulated situation in which a parent asked
the participant a question. The participant would then choose
the appropriate sentence or question option, and an animation
of their choice would be played. For example, if the question
was Bwhat would you like to play with^ and the participant
selected the option BI want to play ball with you,^ an
18. Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91 85
T
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1
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te
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ti
on
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ud
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Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91 87
animation of a father and child playing ball would appear.
The participant was then observed in their classroom, and
data were collected on appropriate and inappropriate verbal
behavior. Results were mixed with some participants
demonstrating improvement in echolalia and some demon-
strating no improvement.
The remaining six studies employed a variety of behavior
analytic interventions to treat echolalia. Behavioral compo-
nents included error correction and differential reinforcement
(n=2; Freeman et al. 1975; Palyo et al. 1979). differential
reinforcement of lower rates (n=1; Handen et al. 1984).
modeling and positive reinforcement (n=2; Karmali et al.
2005; Palyo et al. 1979). modeling (n=1; McMorrow and
Foxx 1986). time delay and differential reinforcement (n=1;
Nientimp and Cole 1992). and visual cues with differential
reinforcement (n=1; Ganz et al. 2008). For example,
Handen and colleagues (1984) implemented differential rein-
forcement of lower rates (DRL) of behavior to decrease the
echolalia of a 16-year-old male with ASD. The intervention
occurred over an 18-month time frame and involved pro-
viding the participant with tokens for engaging in lower
rates of echolalia than a predetermined criterion. When
the participant engaged in echolalia below the target
rate, he exchanged the tokens for a tangible item from
his reinforcement menu. The intervention was effective
118. in reducing the participant’s engagement in echolalia;
however, after intervention was removed, the partici-
pant’s echolalia returned to baseline levels.
In another study, Ganz et al. (2008) taught two children
with ASD who engaged in echolalia to engage in reciprocal
social-communicative responses (e.g., compliments, ques-
tions, and statements corresponding to the current activity).
Responses were taught by providing visual scripts of the target
response and systematically fading scripts over three phases.
To reduce echolalia, a visual cue was presented which sig-
naled to the participant that they should cease talking (i.e., a
3″×3″ line drawing of a face with a finger in front of the
mouth indicating Bquiet^). This visual cue was introduced
only if the participant engaged in echolalia. Results indicated
clear decreases in echolalia.
Intervention Outcomes
The data from nine of the studies indicated that the results
were positive for all participants (Foxx et al. 2004; Freeman
et al. 1975; Ganz et al. 2008; Handen et al. 1984; Karmali et al.
2005; McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Nientimp and Cole 1992;
Palyo et al. 1979; Valentino et al. 2012). Data from two of the
studies suggested mixed results with some participants dem-
onstrating improved behavior and some demonstrating no im-
provement (Hetzroni and Tannous 2004; Laski et al. 1988).
The first study( Laski et al. 1988) measured echolalia as an
ancillary dependent variable and provided pre- and post-
treatment means for echolalia, with no differences noted in
one setting (i.e., the break room). The second study
(Hetzroni and Tannous 2004) utilized a multiple baseline de-
sign across settings to evaluate the effects of their technology-
based intervention on participant echolalia. However, de-
creases in echolalia were not demonstrated for all three set-
119. tings for any of the participants undercutting the experimental
control of the multiple baseline design. The two studies with
mixed results represented 8 of the 25 participants.
Maintenance and Generalization
Five of studies assessed maintenance of behavior change
(Foxx et al. 2004; Handen et al. 1984; Nientimp and Cole
1992; Palyo et al. 1979; Valentino et al. 2012). and one study
was published as a long-term follow-up to the McMorrow and
Foxx study (1986; Foxx and Faw 1990). The timing of the
collection of maintenance data ranged from immediately fol-
lowing the conclusion of the intervention (Foxx et al. 2004;
McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Nientimp and Cole 1992) to
57 months after the intervention (Foxx and Faw 1990). All
studies reported that echolalia levels at maintenance were be-
low baseline levels. Seven studies assessed stimulus general -
ization (Foxx et al. 2004; Hetzroni and Tannous 2004;
Karmali et al. 2005; McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Nientimp
and Cole 1992; Palyo et al. 1979; Valentino et al. 2012) in-
cluding generalization across settings, people, materials, and
different preceding utterances (questions). Four studies report-
ed positive results for generalization (Foxx et al. 2004;
Karmali et al. 2005; Palyo et al. 1979; Valentino et al.
2012). Two studies reported that generalization occurred for
some participants but not for all (Hetzroni and Tannous 2004;
Nientimp and Cole 1992). One study found that results did not
generalize for the participants (McMorrow and Foxx 1986).
Certainty of Evidence
Six of the studies were categorized as offering a conclusive
level of evidence with positive results, sufficient research de -
sign and IOA data, and detailed procedural descriptions (Foxx
et al. 2004; Ganz et al. 2008; Handen et al. 1984; Karmali et al.
2005; McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Valentino et al. 2012). Five
120. studies were categorized as suggestive (Freeman et al. 1975;
Hetzroni and Tannous 2004; Laski et al. 1988; Nientimp and
Cole 1992; Palyo et al. 1979). Of the five studies, three did not
demonstrate experimental control (Freeman et al. 1975;
Nientimp and Cole 1992; Palyo et al. 1979). two studies had
mixed results (Hetzroni and Tannous 2004; Laski et al. 1988).
and one study did not assess IOA (Freeman et al. 1975). None
of the studies was classified at the preponderant level of
evidence.
88 Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91
Discussion
The purpose of this review was to identify promising practices
for decreasing echolalia in individuals with ASD. This sys-
tematic literature review synthesized 11 studies which
employed a variety of behavioral interventions. Of the 11
studies, nine reported positive results for 17 participants, and
two of the studies reported mixed results for two participants.
When examining the quality of the literature base, six of the 11
studies were classified as providing conclusive evidence.
Ultimately, the findings of this review indicate that the litera-
ture base cannot conclusively support any one approach for
the treatment of echolalia in individuals with ASD.
Implications for Research
The first purpose of this review was to update the previous
review by Kavon and McLaughlin (1995) to identify effective
interventions for the treatment of echolalia in individuals with
ASD. Although no single intervention procedure or package
met any of the commonly used criteria for classification as a
well-established or evidence-based practice (e.g., Chambless
121. and Holland 1998; Odom and Wolery 2003). a number of
themes emerged. First, of the six studies classified as conclu-
sive, all contained behavioral analytic intervention compo-
nents (e.g., programmed reinforcement contingencies) sug-
gesting support for operant-based treatments in the reduction
of echolalia for individuals with ASD. When considering im-
mediate echolalia, the cues-pause-point intervention was iden-
tified as effective in three studies (Foxx et al. 2004;
McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Valentino et al. 2012). This con-
clusion supports the previous descriptive review identifying
cues-pause-point as a potentially effective intervention for im-
mediate echolalia. Of note, only two studies have evaluated
the effects of cues-pause-point since the previous review
(Kavon and McLaughlin 1995) highlighting the need for more
research in this area.
Conclusive studies evaluating interventions for delayed
echolalia also utilized behavioral analytic components. Three
interventions, DRL of behavior (Handen et al. 1984). script
training plus visual cues (Ganz et al. 2008). and tact modeling
plus positive reinforcement for appropriate responses
(Karmali et al. 2005). were all identified as effective for de -
layed echolalia. Of particular interest is the study by Ganz
et al. (2008) which utilized visual cues to signal to the partic -
ipant that they should cease talking. In addition, visual scripts
were provided to prompt the target response. Although not
inclusive of all the elements of cues-pause-point, Ganz et al.
did implement a cue to remain silent and a point to prompt the
correct answer. In addition, the DRL of behavior intervention
by Handen et al. (1984) utilized differential reinforcement
which was a contingency in effect in the cues-pause-point
interventions. Overall, the research combined provides
preliminary support for operant-based behavioral interven-
tions in general and cues-pause-point in particular.
122. As the interventions evaluated in these studies align with
the operant conditioning paradigm, it is alarming that none of
the studies assessed the operant function of echolalia. In other
forms of challenging behavior (e.g., aggression, property de-
struction, and self-injury), identifying the function of the be-
havior via a functional analysis procedure (Iwata et al.
1982/1994; Lydon et al. 2012) is associated with better re-
sponse to treatment (e.g., Didden et al. 2006). Of particular
concern is that echolalia may serve various social as well as
non-social communicative functions for individuals with ASD
(Goren et al. 1977; Healy and Leader 2011). If echolalia is
reduced during treatment but a functionally equivalent re-
placement behavior is not taught, this could limit the mainte-
nance and generalization of the behavioral change
(Schreibman and Carr 1978). In addition, as there is diver -
gence within the field regarding whether echolalia is nonfunc-
tional (e.g., Lovaas, Schreibman, and Koegel 1974). a neces-
sary part of developing functional communication (e.g.,
Roberts 2014). or serves a social function (e.g., Prizant and
Duncan 1981). identifying the function of echolalia would
help guide future research and practice.
One potential strength of this literature base is the assess-
ment of maintenance of behavioral change following cessa-
tion of the intervention phase. Of the six articles that assessed
the maintenance of behavioral change, all reported positive
results indicating levels of echolalia maintained below base-
line levels during follow-up sessions. However, although sev-
en of the studies did evaluate the generalization of the results
across stimuli, people, and settings, results were mixed with
only four reporting successful generalization. Future re-
searchers might consider evaluating interventions to promote
sustained behavioral change (e.g., fading, multiple exemplar
training; Valentino et al. 2012).
Implications for Practice
123. A second purpose of this review was to offer guidance to
practitioners interested in the use of evidence-based treatments
for individuals with ASD. Given the limited number of con-
clusive studies, recommendations as to an evidence-based in-
tervention for decreasing echolalia cannot be drawn.
However, the results of this review did suggest that cues-
pause-point, which was investigated by three different studies
with positive results and conclusive levels of evidence, is po-
tentially effective for immediate echolalia (Foxx et al. 2004;
McMorrow and Foxx 1986; Valentino et al. 2012). Although
these results support the conclusions from previous research
that cues-pause-point is potentially effective (Kavon and
McLaughlin 1995). practitioners should use caution when
implementing this intervention due to the limited number of
studies. In particular, practitioners should closely monitor the
Rev J Autism Dev Disord (2016) 3:82–91 89
intervention effects through ongoing progress monitoring and
rely on objective data to evaluate the effectiveness of the
intervention.
Limitations of this Review
There are a couple of limitations of this review to consider.
First, the definition of echolalia used by the authors was
intended to distinguish echolalia from vocal stereotypy.
However, it was difficult to identify a definition of echolalia
that was accepted throughout the literature base. In addition,
as none of the studies reported the function of the target echo-
lalia behavior, it is uncertain whether echolalia was isolated
from other forms of vocal stereotypy. A second limitation is
the age of the literature base. Of the 11 studies reviewed, six of
124. the studies were published over 20 years ago. As research
quality indicators have evolved dramatically in the past
20 years, the age of this literature base may have been a factor
in the conclusiveness of the evidence. In addition, since the
review by Kavon and McLaughlin (1995). only five additional
studies have been published on this topic. Therefore, there is a
need to update and expand this literature base to promote the
use of evidence-based practices in the treatment of echolalia
for individuals with ASD. A third limitation is the procedures
used to code intervention outcomes as applied to this literature
base. Study results were rated as Bpositive,^ mixed, or
Bnegative^ with mixed indicating that some but not all partic-
ipants demonstrated improvements in behavior. Five of the 11
included studies contained only one subject with ASD, there-
fore restricting the rating of the outcomes to either negative or
positive. Although restricted codes could have negatively im-
pacted intervention outcome ratings, all of the studies with one
subject received positive ratings. However, the limited num-
ber of subject limits the external validity of the conclusions. A
fourth limitation is the absence of large-scale randomized con-
trol trials in the resulting literature base. Although this might
be a reflection of the exceptionality of the population, the
exclusive use of single-subject designs limits the external va-
lidity of this literature base. A fifth limitation of this review is
the focus on individuals with ASD. Future researchers might
consider expanding to include other developmental disabil -
ities to ensure a more comprehensive review. Such an analysis
might allow for distinctions relevant to the presentation and/or
treatment of echolalia in children with ASD relative to indi -
viduals with other forms of disability.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Funding The authors report no funding for this manuscript.
Conflict of Interest The authors report no conflicts of interest.
125. Ethical Approval This article does not contain any studies with
human
participants performed by any of the authors.
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Treatment of Echolalia in Individuals with Autism Spectrum
�Disorder: a Systematic ReviewAbstractMethodSearch
ProceduresInclusion CriteriaDescriptive SynthesisInterrater
ReliabilityResultsParticipant CharacteristicsType of
EcholaliaIntervention ProceduresIntervention
OutcomesMaintenance and GeneralizationCertainty of
EvidenceDiscussionImplications for ResearchImplications for
PracticeLimitations of this ReviewReferences*Indicates studies
which were included in this review
ment program to reduce stereotypic (repetitive) behav-
iors. Four children diagnosed with autism were referred
because of high frequency of stereotypic behaviors (e.g.,
arm flapping, finger flexing, humming, nonsense vocal-
izations). After self-management procedures were taught,
stereotypic behaviors decreased to zero levels for all chil -
dren, however, the two children with vocal stereotypies
required a longer period of self-management before de-
creases were noted. Similarly, Stahmer and Schreibman
(1992) investigated the effects of self-management pro-
cedures for a variety of target behaviors including in-
137. creasing appropriate play skills, and reducing stereotypic
behaviors of three children with autism. Participants were
7 to 13 years old and were referred for treatment by their
parents due to destructive and obsessive behavior with
toys in unsupervised settings. Appropriate play increased
for all three children during treatment, fading, posttreat-
ment, and follow-up observations and self-stimulatory
behavior decreased to zero levels. Results from these
studies indicated the successful use of self-management
to reduce inappropriate behaviors (R. L. Koegel &
Koegel, 1990), to increase schedule following (Newman,
Buffington, O’Grady, Poulson, & Hemmes, 1995), and
INTRODUCTION
Self-management procedures, as reported in the
literature, have incorporated components of self-
assessment, self-recording, and self-reinforcement (R. L.
Koegel & Frea, 1993). Applications of self-management
to children with autism have evolved from procedures to
(a) improve on task behaviors of children with retarda-
tion, learning disabilities, and behavior disorders; and
(b) to decrease disruptive, inappropriate, or stereotypic
behaviors (Gardner, Clees, & Cole, 1983; L. K. Koegel,
Koegel, Hurley, & Frea, 1992; Reese, Sherman, & Shel-
don, 1984; Shapiro, McGonigle, & Ollendick, 1980; Stah-
mer & Schreibman, 1992). In an exemplary study, R. L.
Koegel and Koegel (1990) assessed whether children with
autism could be taught to use a self-management treat-
Brief Reports
Brief Report: Reduction of Inappropriate Vocalizations for
a Child with Autism Using a Self-Management Treatment
Program
139. Gardens
Children’s Project, 650 Minnesota Avenue, 2nd floor, Kansas
City,
Kansas 66101.
to increase social behaviors (R. L. Koegel & Frea, 1993;
Stahmer & Schreibman, 1992).
The purpose of the present study was to extend
the literature on classroom-based self-management
procedures. The investigation examined the effects of
self-management procedures for a 12-year-old girl di-
agnosed with autism and moderate mental retardation.
Three inappropriate behaviors were identified for the
participant (i.e., vocalizations, facial movements,
body movements); however, self-management proce-
dures were applied to only one behavior (i.e., vocal-
izations) and collateral effects were observed for the
others. Because studies indicated that the reduction of
vocalizations requires longer durations of treatment
in children with autism (R. L. Koegel & Koegel,
1990), the amount of time required to teach the self-
management procedures and the levels to which tar-
get behaviors decreased were investigated.The present
study, therefore, focused on the reduction of vocaliza-
tions with effects noted for (a) change in the target be-
havior, (b) change in collateral behaviors, (c) the
treatment effects across tasks, (d) the accuracy of the
student’s self-recording, and (e) time required to teach
the procedures.
METHOD, STUDY 1
140. Participant and Settings
Target student.The participant, Keri, a 12-year-
old African American girl, was diagnosed with autism
and moderate mental retardation. Keri attended sum-
mer school in a self-contained, special education
classroom located in an urban, elementary school set-
ting. On the Wecshler Intelligence Scale for Children
(Wecshler, 1974), Keri scored a 46 on the perfor-
mance subtest. No information concerning her verbal
subtest was provided. Her estimated full IQ range was
between 42 and 55. She read sight words and simple
sentences, had good verbal comprehension, and re-
sponded correctly to yes/no questions. She indepen-
dently participated in prevocational and leisure
activities. Of primary concern to her teacher was her
verbal behavior. Keri’s verbal communication (two-
to-three-word phrases) was continuously interrupted by
noises (humming, whistling, tongue clucking); and per-
severative vocalizations. She also exhibited stereotypic
body and facial movements. Assessments and inter-
views indicated that these behaviors were primarily
maintained by sensory stimulation. Keri’s teachers re-
ported that her vocalizations were very disruptive, and
interfered with her academic and social learning. Keri
600 Mancina, Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, and Parrett
was most attentive in quiet environments with one-to-one
teaching situations.
Treatment Providers/Observers.All three indi-
viduals who participated in this study including the first
author, a research associate, and a doctoral student had
at least 5 years experience using behavioral techniques
to teach children with autism, behavior disorders,
141. and/or other developmental disabilities. Treatment
providers also served as observers for the study.
Setting. The experimental sessions were con-
ducted in a special education classroom (20 × 40 m),
located in a public school, 4 to 5 days a week. Sessions
lasted 5 minutes each. Four to six sessions were con-
ducted every morning within a 3-hour period. Keri fol-
lowed her regular morning schedule of activities with
self-management sessions conducted during typical
tasks (i.e., leisure, prevocational, and reading). Keri
was seated at her own desk located in the back of the
classroom. One treatment provider and one observer
sat in chairs placed on each side of her, and five stu-
dents were also working at individual desks.
Dependent Variables and Measurement
Dependent Variable/Target Behavior.The ob-
server recorded occurrence or nonoccurrence of three
categories of behavior: (a) vocalizations, (b) facial
movements, (c) and body movements during 10-second
intervals for 5 minutes. Occurrence of self-injurious be-
havior within 10-second intervals was also recorded.
The occurrence of vocalizations was identified as the tar -
get behavior, however, all three behaviors were mea-
sured to examine collateral effects of the self-management
procedures. Vocalizations were defined as (a) noises such
as humming, whistling, tongue clucking, and (b) perse-
verative (repeated) and echolalic words or phrases. Fa-
cial movements were recorded as any nonfunctional
movements of the face including exaggerated eye
blinks, rolling eyes, noncontextual smiling, tongue pro-
trusions, and raising and lowering of eyebrows. Body
movements were defined as any nonfunctional body
movements including hand and finger manipulations,
142. stomping feet, head butts, elbow jabs, and head jerks.
Any occurrence of self-injury, such as hand biting or
hitting her head, was recorded.
Observations.Data were collected by the treat-
ment providers. They randomly rotated between teach-
ing and supervising the self-management procedures
and recording the data. Data were collected using a 10-
second whole interval recording procedure to record
the occurrence or nonoccurrence of (a) target vocal -
izations, (b) facial movements, (c) and body move-
ments. When a self-injurious behavior was observed,
the observer placed a circle around the interval to in-
dicate the occurrence of a self-injurious behavior. Data
were recorded during leisure, prevocational, and read-
ing tasks. Data were not taken during self-reinforcement
(see Procedures).
Reliability. Interobserver reliability was collected
for each behavior during baseline and treatment
phases, for 38% (n = 36) of all sessions, using video-
tapes of sessions. The primary observer and the treat-
ment provider viewed the tapes simultaneously, while
scoring independently. An agreement was scored if
both observers recorded a “+” or when both recorded
a “−” for each behavior in an interval. Reliability was
measured by calculating the number of agreements be-
tween the two observers divided by the number of
agreements and disagreements, multiplied by 100. The
mean percentage of reliability for vocalizations was
95% (R = 63–100%), 87% (R = 63–100%) for facial
movements, and 89% (R = 75–100%) for body move-
ments.
143. Experimental Design and Procedures, Study 1
A multiple-baseline design (Kazdin, 1984) across
tasks was used to teach Keri to use self-management
procedures. Occurrences of the inappropriate vocal-
izations and collateral behaviors were recorded during
experimental conditions: baseline (A) and treatment
phases (B). Treatment (self-management) was only ap-
plied to inappropriate vocalizations, as the teacher de-
termined this to be the most problematic behavior.
Baseline (A).Data were collected during Keri’s
participation in leisure, prevocational, and reading tasks,
as included in her IEP and presented to her by the class-
room teacher. Baseline data were collected over 11 days
for the leisure task, 20 days for the prevocational task,
and 32 days for the reading task, Leisure task materials
included coloring and sticker books, drawing boards,
memory match games, photograph albums, and puzzles.
Prevocational materials/activities included sorting,
stamping, and collating items. Materials used during the
reading tasks included flash cards, worksheets, and the
student’s Edmark® reading book.
Treatment Phases (B).Self-management proce-
dures, adapted from a training manual by R. L. Koegel,
Koegel, and Parks (1990), were implemented first dur-
ing leisure tasks followed by, prevocational, and read-
ing tasks. The treatment procedures incorporated the use
of (a) the same classroom materials as used in baseline
tasks, (b) self-management materials, and (c) the teach-
ing of self-management including: identification of be-
Reduction of Inappropriate Vocalizations 601
144. haviors, self-recording, self-reinforcement, independent
use of the program, and assessing student accuracy.
Teaching the self-management programtook place
in Keri’s summer school classroom. Self-management
materials served as stimuli for Keri to perform the
self–management procedures and included a Timex dig-
ital watch with a repeat alarm to signal 10-second in-
tervals, self-recording sheets (i.e., a sheet of paper with
12 empty boxes with the words “quiet” and “noisy”
written beside them), visual prompts (i.e., 4 inch × 6
inch quiet card), and reinforcers. Keri was taught to
correctly identify her target behavior (i.e., vocaliza-
tions) through modeling. The treatment provider mod-
eled quiet and noisy behavior, asked Keri “Was I quiet
or noisy?” (with gestures toward cards with the words
quiet and noisy), reinforced correct responses and cor -
rected errors. When Keri responded correctly during 8
of 10 trials for five consecutive sessions, Keri was then
required to model quiet and noisy behavior in 8 of 10
trials (emphasis on quiet behavior), for three consecu-
tive sessions (emphasis on quiet).
Keri was then taught to assess target behavior
using the self-recording sheet. Training and continued
practice followed the instruction (i.e., “Get ready, show
me quiet.”) and an instruction to record in the quiet
box (or noisy box). Once Keri consistently marked the
box that described the behavior she was modeling, she
was taught self-recording using the watch, with initial
intervals of 5 seconds, as the longest observed dura-
tion that Keri could work, play, or sit without dis-
playing the target behavior (vocalizations). The watch
was started when the treatment provider gave the in-
struction to work quietly (“Get ready. Show me quiet
when you color.”). When the watch beeped, the treat-
145. ment provider stopped the watch, and Keri was asked
“Were you quiet or noisy?”. When Keri responded
(“quiet” or “noisy”) she was instructed to check that
particular box (e.g., “That’s right. You were quiet.
Check the quiet box.”). If Keri was incorrect in her re-
sponse, she was verbally corrected and instructed to
mark the appropriate box. Keri often said the word
“quiet” during the interval. This was considered an ap-
propriate verbalization. During intervals when Keri
was noisy, the treatment provider prompted her to be
quiet (e.g., “That’s noisy. Show me quiet. That’s bet-
ter. That’s quiet.”).
After Keri could successfully self-record her be-
haviors when signaled by the watch, she was taught
self-reinforcement.Before presentation of each new
self-recording sheet, a variety of rewards (e.g., pop-
corn, cereal, stickers, raisins,) were shown to Keri.
Keri was instructed to (a) select six small rewards (six
602 Mancina, Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, and Parrett
in the interval beeps from 5 seconds to 10 seconds. The
prompt-fading sequence was faded to, “Were you quiet
or noisy?,” to “Check it,” and finally to a gestural
prompt (a point to the paper). Also, verbal prompts to
be quiet during the interval were only given during the
intervals after Keri was noisy, and prompts were tied
to the self-management procedure and materials. Cri-
teria for implementation to the second (third) task was
completion of the self-management steps, successful in-
crease to 10-second intervals, and decreases in vo-
calizations to 50% or less of the intervals for five
sessions.
146. pieces of cereal, popcorn, raisins), (b) write the name
of the reward at the top of the self-recording sheet,
and (c) put the rewards on her desk above her self-
recording sheet. Edibles were earned for quiet boxes.
She was instructed to do the same for the one “spe-
cial” reward (tape player, sticker, soda, or several
pieces of the smaller rewards), which she selected to
earn for reaching performance criteria (3 of 6 quiet
intervals, then 4 of 6).
Teaching independence in self-recordingfollow-
ing successful self-management, consisted of
(a) gradual fading of verbal prompts, and (b) an increase
Fig. 1. Percentage occurrence of vocalizations during leisure,
prevocational, and reading tasks for Study 1.
Results and Discussion
Overall the target behavior, vocalizations, decreased
while collateral behaviors, facial and body movements,
showed variable changes with minimal generalization of
effects (Fig. 1 and Table I). During all tasks, the occur -
rence of vocalizations, facial movements, and body
movements ranged from 80–100% during baseline. Dur-
ing the treatment phase for leisure tasks (28 sessions),
self-management decreased vocalizations to 50% of the
intervals or less after 18 sessions. When self-management
was applied during prevocational tasks, the vocalizations
decreased to less than 50% occurrence after four sessions,
and continued to decrease to 20% occurrence or less. Dur-
ing reading tasks, the occurrence of vocalizations once
more decreased below 50% occurrence within the first
147. three sessions of self-management.
Though vocalizations remained below 50% oc-
currence, facial and body movements continued to
occur at higher rates than the target behavior. As de-
picted in Table I (means by condition, and last five ses-
sions of treatment), no change in facial movements
occurred following treatment for vocalizations during
leisure tasks, with some generalization of effects to
final sessions during prevocational and reading tasks.
Limited generalization was noted in the occurrence of
body movementsfollowing treatment for vocalizations.
Keri’s self-injurious behavior was recorded during
baseline and intervention. A total of 49 instances of
self-injury were noted during sessions. The frequency
was similar during baseline and treatment.
Results from Self-Management Procedures
Keri’s accuracy in self-recording her quiet and
noisy behavior was recorded during treatment phases
(5 sessions for leisure tasks, 3 sessions for prevocational
Reduction of Inappropriate Vocalizations 603
tasks, and 4 sessions for reading tasks). She averaged
85% accuracy per session with a range of 78–92%. The
initial teaching of the self-management steps required
6 days of intensive instruction for an average of 3 hours
a day, with training continuing during the leisure tasks
until Keri’s vocalizations decreased to 50% occurrence
or less. Keri required 2 days of teaching before vocal -
izations decreased to 50% occurrence during the prevo-
cational tasks, and required only 1 day of teaching during
reading. While vocalizations decreased, she did not reach
independence, still needing verbal and gestural prompts
148. to use the program.
STUDY 2: SELF-MANAGEMENT WITH THE
TEACHER AS TREATMENT PROVIDER
A continuation of self-management was conducted
with Keri in Study 2, beginning in the fall term with in-
corporation of the following procedures: (a) training the
classroom teacher as treatment provider in the self-man-
agement procedures, (b) lengthening the duration of the
interval for quiet behavior, (c) increasing the number of
intervals on the self-recording sheet, (d) gradually fad-
ing verbal prompts to increase independence, (e) fading
tangibles to natural reinforcers, and (f) fading the prox-
imity and presence of the treatment provider.
Participant, Setting, Design, and Procedures
The teacher, a paraprofessional, and five students
with autism, were present in the classroom. The class-
room teacher had 11 years of teaching experience in
special education classroom settings. Self-management
procedures were implemented during scheduled class-
room tasks involving leisure, prevocational, and read-
ing activities, as in Study 1. Self-management procedures
were conducted approximately 20–30 minutes a day,
four to five times a week.
Dependent Measures and Design.Dependent mea-
sures were identical to those in Study 1 with the same
definitions for the target and collateral behaviors. Oc-
currence of inappropriate vocalizations, facial and body
movements were recorded during continuous 10-second
observations for 5-minute sessions. Observers for Study
2 included the first author and a research assistant with
9 years of teaching experience with children with
149. autism. Reliability was computed for 9% of the data
files (14 of 137 sessions). Mean agreement was 91% (R
= 83–100%) for vocalizations, 83% (R = 52–100%) for
facial movements, and 80% (R = 67–100%) for body
movements. A multiple-baseline design was used to
evaluate treatment effects across tasks.
Table I. Means for Facial and Body Movement, Self-Injurious
Behavior Across Conditions During Study 1
Task Baseline Treatment for vocalizations
Mean percentage occurrence—Facial Movements
Leisure 89 83 (87, final 5 sessions)
Pre-Voc 92 74 (68, final 5 sessions)
Reading 94 84 (73, final 5 sessions)
Mean percentage occurrence—Body Movements
Leisure 83 84 (79, final 5 sessions)
Pre-Voc 87 79 (82, final 5 sessions)
Reading 95 89 (81, final 5 sessions)
Frequency of self-injurious behavior
Leisure 0.250 0.285 (0.00, final 5 sessions)
Pre-Voc 0.060 0.625 (0.00, final 5 sessions)
Reading 0.176 0.100 (0.20, final 5 sessions)
Baseline. Baseline observations occurred during
Keri’s regular leisure, prevocational and reading tasks
with the same materials used in Study 1 and no self-
management procedures.
Self-Management Procedures.In Study 2, the role
of the treatment provider was transferred to the class-
150. room teacher. Teacher training included (a) task analy-
sis of each component of self-management procedures,
(b) videotaped examples of the student using self-man-
agement procedures, (c) modeling of prompting and self-
management procedures by the first author, and (d)
604 Mancina, Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, and Parrett
monitoring and feedback concerning her performance as
treatment provider for 5 days of training. Once the
teacher training was completed, self-management pro-
cedures identical to those used in Study 1 were imple-
mented: (a) identification of target behavior, (b)
recording of the target behavior, (c) self-recording using
the watch, and (d) self-reinforcement.
During the treatment phase, the number of self-
recording boxes per page was increased from 6 to 10.
The duration of intervals ranged from 10–40 seconds,
and was variable throughout all treatment phases. If Keri
Fig. 2. Percentage occurrence of vocalizations during leisure,
prevocational, and reading tasks for Study 2.
Reduction of Inappropriate Vocalizations 605
exhibited vocalizations and was not successful (i.e., did
not earn a reward using the self-management procedures)
on three consecutive self-recording sheets, the duration
of the interval was lowered. Also, the number of suc-
cessful (i.e., quiet) intervals required to receive a reward
was increased to 8 of 10 quiet intervals.
In Study 2, limited independence with self-man-
151. agement procedures was obtained. Verbal prompts and
gestural prompts were faded; however, Keri frequently
required gestural prompts toward the end of the ses-
sions. Because Keri continued to require prompts to re-
main on-task, proximity by the treatment provider was
limited to the area within the classroom.
Results and Discussion
In Study 2, vocalizations decreased, facial move-
ments remained unchanged, and body movements de-
creased. As depicted in Figure 2, baseline levels of
vocalizations were high (76–97%), with a decrease to
41% occurrence in the first treatment session, and con-
tinued decreases to near zero levels. Self-management
during prevocational tasks decreased vocalizations to
below 20% after the first treatment session, with zero
levels during several sessions of the treatment phase.
During reading, vocalizations decreased to lower lev-
els; however, the decrease was variable, ranging from
0–60% occurrence. An increase in final sessions ap-
peared to be related to task difficulty. Facial movements
showed some variability but continued to occur at
higher rates than vocalizations. Body movements de-
creased to lower levels during treatment for vocaliza-
tions, indicating some generalization of treatment
effects. Self-injurious behavior was somewhat lower
during the Study 2 period, except during frustrating
tasks (see Table II).
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Similar to positive findings in prior research (e.g.,
R. L. Koegel & Koegel, 1990; Reese, Sherman, & Shel-
don, 1984), self-management was highly effective in
152. decreasing inappropriate vocalizations. In general,
treatment effects were slower during the initial program
(Study 1, Task 1) with quicker results for the second
and third tasks and during Study 2. In addition, both
teachers reported that Keri was much quieter with more
appropriate behavior when using the self-management
program. Generalization of treatment effects were noted
for one of two collateral behaviors. Though the findings
were encouraging, a limitation was that Keri did not learn
complete independence, nor were procedures able to be
faded within the period of study. Larger changes in tar-
get and collateral behaviors may have been obtained with
(a) the use of behavioral programming to address behav-
iors such as noncompliance, (b) an augmentative com-
munication system, and (c) programs to increase social
competencies. Longer treatment may also be necessary
for students with (a) lower cognitive ability, (b) high
rates of challenging behaviors, rates, and (c) a long his-
tory of behaviors with insufficient interventions (R. L.
Koegel, Koegel, Van Voy, & Ingham, 1988).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the Office of Spe-
cial Education and Rehabilitation Services, U.S. De-
partment of Education, Grant H023C00024 to the
University of Kansas.
REFERENCES
Gardner, W. I., Clees, T. J., & Cole, C. L. (1983). Self-
management
of disruptive verbal ruminations by a mentally retarded adult.
Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 4, 41–58.
Kazdin, A. E. (1984). Behavior modification in applied settings
153. (3rd ed.). Homewood, IL: Dorsey.
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Hurley, C., & Frea, W. D. (1992).
Im-
proving social skills and disruptive behavior in children with
autism through self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 25, 341–354.
Koegel, R. L., & Frea, W. D. (1993). Treatment of social
behavior
in autism through the modification of pivotal social skills. Jour -
nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 26, 367–377.
Koegel, R. L., & Koegel, L. K. (1990). Extended reductions in
stereo-
typic behavior of students with autism through a self-manage-
ment treatment package. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis,
23, 119–128.
Table II. Means for Facial and Body Movements, Self-Injurious
Behavior Across Conditions During Study 2
Task Baseline Treatment for vocalizations
Mean percentage occurrence—Facial Movements
Leisure 71 72 (62, final 5 sessions)
Pre-Voc 84 82 (89, final 5 sessions)
Reading 83 80 (78, final 5 sessions)
Mean percentage occurrence—Body Movements
Leisure 71 52 (35, final 5 sessions)
Pre-Voc 82 66 (58, final 5 sessions)
Reading 85 74 (59, final 5 sessions)
Frequency of self-injurious behavior
Leisure 0.000 0.090 (0.00, final 5 sessions)
154. Pre-Voc 0.000 0.000 (0.00, final 5 sessions)
Reading 0.420 1.500 (2.80, final 5 sessions)
606 Mancina, Tankersley, Kamps, Kravits, and Parrett
munity group homes: The role of self-recording and peer-
prompted self-recording. Analysis and Intervention in Develop-
mental Disabilities, 4, 91–107.
Shapiro, E. S., McGonigle, J. J., & Ollendick, T. (1980). An
analy-
sis of self-assessment and self-reinforcement in a self-managed
token economy with mentally retarded children. Applied Re-
search in Mental Retardation, 1, 227–240.
Stahmer, A. C., & Schreibman, L. (1992). Teaching children
with
autism appropriate play in unsupervised environments using a
self-management treatment package. Journal of Applied Be-
havior Analysis, 25, 447–459.
Wechsler, D. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for
Children-Revised. San Antonio: Psychological Corp.
Koegel, R. L., Koegel, L. K., & Parks, D. R. (1990). How to
teach
self-management skills to people with severe disabilities: A
training manual. Unpublished manuscript, University of Cali-
fornia, Santa Barbara.
Koegel, R. L., Koegel, L. K., Van Voy, K., & Ingham, J. C.
(1988).
Within-clinic versus outside-of-clinic self-monitoring of artic-
155. ulation to promote generalization. Journal of Speech and Hear -
ing Disorders, 53, 392–399.
Newman, B., Buffington, D. M., O’Grady, M. A., Poulson, C.
L., &
Hemmes, N. S. (1995). Self-management of schedule following
in three teenagers with autism. Behavior Disorders, 20, 190–
196.
Reese, R. M., Sherman, J. A., & Sheldon, J. (1984). Reducing
agi-
tated-disruptive behavior of mentally retarded residents of com-
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3
156. Academic Journal Observations
Cassandre Moise
Capella University
Description of the Writing in Journals
1. Scope; Main Ideas
The combined objectives of ABA field journals reviewed is to
predict and control behaviours regarded crucial socially. Each
of the journal articles contend to sufficiently cover the various
subfields of ABA field of study .They are all aligned to the
basic goal of enhancing performance through alteration of
environmental factors influencing socially important
behaviours. In addition, the articles covers components of ABA
field for instance, shaping, prompting, chaining and prompt
fading. Lastly, the articles covers the dimensions of ABA and
their relevance.
157. 2. Structure
APA format is effectively applied in the Journal articles to
clearly provide significant understanding of the field’s diverse
and complex topics. The ideas concerning ABA field are
presented with optimal clarity for a wide range of readers to
conceptualize the basics. Paragraphs are written long to detailed
but a brief to the point description of the individual subject. An
average the articles have 4 to 6 sentences paragraphs (APA
style).In addition, the article bodies are well structured with
suitable introduction and conclusions of their topic coverage.
3. Comparison of Ideas and Styles in the Journals
Application of other styles apart from APA facilitates
broad presentation of the main ideas covered in the journal
articles. In contrast, the content of particular theme of ABA
may slightly vary from one journal to another. Furthermore
authors have highlighted their ideas through cautious, well
researched and convincing discussions that genuinely captures
the reader’s attention. It is evident that the nature of content
presentation quietly affects the reader’s morale and captivation
to continue reading about a certain article topic.
References
Averina, M., Nilssen, O., Brenn, T., Brox, J., Arkhipovsky, V.
L., & Kalinin, A. G. (2005). Social and lifestyle determinants of
depression, anxiety, sleeping disorders and self-evaluated
quality of life in Russia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric
Epidemiology, 40(7), 511-518.
Kodak, T., & Piazza, C. C. (2008). Assessment and behavioral
treatment of feeding and sleeping disorders in children with
autism spectrum disorders. Child and adolescent psychiatric
clinics of North America, 17(4), 887-905.
Van Tongerloo, M. A., Bor, H. H., & Lagro-Janssen, A. L.
(2012). Detecting autism spectrum disorders in the general
practitioner’s practice. Journal of autism and developmental
158. disorders, 42(8), 1531-1538.
Drafting Your Text Scoring Guide
Due Date: Unit 5
Percentage of Course Grade: 10%.
CRITERIA NON-PERFORMANCE BASIC PROFICIENT
DISTINGUISHED
Introduce thesis
within context for
appropriate
audience.
25%
Does not introduce
thesis within context
for appropriate
audience.
Introduces thesis,
but the context is not
clearly connected to
159. the appropriate
audience.
Introduces thesis
within context for
appropriate
audience.
Introduces thesis within
context for appropriate
audience, providing a clear
connection to the topic,
purpose, and aspects.
Incorporate
evidence with
coherent placement
that supports
structure of
arguments.
25%
Does not incorporate
evidence with
coherent placement
that supports
structure of
arguments.
Incorporates
evidence in only a
basic fashion,
lacking evidence-
based reasoning.
160. Incorporates
evidence with
coherent
placement that
supports structure
of arguments.
Incorporates evidence with
coherent placement that
supports the structure of
arguments, using clear and
direct reasoning.
Present a clear and
complete argument.
25%
Does not present a
clear and complete
argument.
Presents only a
basic argument.
Presents a clear
and complete
argument.
Presents a well-developed,
clear and complete
argument.
Utilize proper
mechanics including
spelling, grammar,
161. and APA formatting
25%
Does not utilize
proper mechanics
including spelling,
grammar, and APA
formatting.
Utilizes most, but not
all, proper
mechanics including
spelling, grammar,
and APA formatting.
Utilizes proper
mechanics
including spelling,
grammar, and APA
formatting.
Utilize proper mechanics
including spelling, grammar,
and APA formatting in a
comprehensive and
informed fashion.