This document discusses five major educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, existentialism, and pragmatism. Perennialism focuses on teaching reasoning and wisdom through subjects and doctrine with a highly disciplined approach. Essentialism emphasizes teaching intellectual and moral standards through a core curriculum of essential knowledge and skills. Progressivism believes education should focus on the whole child through active learning rooted in the learner's experiences. Existentialism rejects set truths and focuses on helping students understand themselves and accept responsibility for their own development. Pragmatism sees education as a means to solve problems and believes learning happens through active experimentation.

1. Educational
Philosophies
Definition/Philosophers Implication/Application
Perennialism
One should teach the things that
one deems to be of everlasting importance
to all people everywhere. Believe that the
most important topics develop a person.
Since details of fact change constantly,
these cannot be the most important.
Therefore, one should teach principles, not
facts. Since people are human, one should
teach first about humans, not machines or
techniques. Since people are people first,
and workers second if at all, one should
teach liberal topics first, not vocational
topics. The focus is primarily on teaching
reasoning and wisdom rather than facts,
the liberal arts rather than vocational
training.
The most conservative, traditional,
or inflexible of the five philosophies is
perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily
from classical definitions of education.
Perennialists believe that education, like
human nature, is a constant. Because the
distinguishing characteristic of humans is
the ability to reason, education should
focus on developing rationality. Education,
for the perennialist, is a preparation for life,
and students should be taught the world's
permanencies through structured study.
For the perennialist, reality is a world of
reason. Such truths are revealed to us
through study and sometimes through
divine acts. Goodness is to be found in
rationality itself. Perennialists would favor a
curriculum of subjects and doctrine, taught
through highly disciplined drill and behavior
control. Schools for the perennialist exist
primarily to reveal reason by teaching
eternal truths. The teacher interprets and
tells. The student is a passive recipient.
Because truth is eternal, all change in the
immediate school environment is largely
This philosophy promulgates
teacher as a manager in
attaining pleasant and positive
classroom atmosphere where
they solely manipulate the
teaching- learning process by
integrating and preserving the
tradition of culture, in which it is
defined as the set of learned
behaviors, beliefs, attitudes,
values that are characteristics of
a particular society or population
(Ember, 1999).
Even though the learners
are cosidered to be the first
customers of the teaching-
learning process but the
teachers do not let their
experiences and interests to
dictate what they teach for they
apply their own or perceived
strategies which is believed to
be true as a way of feeding and
disciplining the learners’ minds.
In fact, this philosophy
contradicts to the dynamics of
teaching where continuous
interaction is being deprived
since the teachers dominated
the process of information
transmission and formulation of
ideas.

2. superficial.
Secular perennialism
Suggests something that lasts an
indefinitely long time, recurs again and
again, or is self-renewing. As promoted
primarily by Robert Hutchins and Mortimer
Adler, a universal curriculum based upon
the common and essential nature of all
human beings is recommended.
Comprises the humanist and
scientific traditions
Espouse the idea that education
should focus on the historical development
of a continually developing common base
of human knowledge and art, the timeless
value of classic thought on central human
issues by landmark thinkers, and
revolutionary ideas critical to historical
paradigm shifts or changes in world view.
A program of studies which is highly
general, nonspecialized, and
nonvocational is advocated.
Religious Perrenialism
Perennialism was originally religious
in nature, developed first by Thomas
Aquinas in the thirteenth century in his
work De Magistro.
Essentialism
"Gripping and enduring interests frequently
grow out of initial learning efforts that are
not appealing or attractive."
William Bagley
Essentialism refers to the "traditional" or
"Back to the Basics" approach to
education. It is so named because it strives
to instill students with the "essentials" of
academic knowledge and character
development. Believe that there is a
common core of knowledge that needs to
be transmitted to students in a systematic,
The prime scope of this
philosophy is the promulgation
of conserving moral values
which forms or shapes the
individual as a useful citizen in
his own community and
preserving intellectual
knowledge which serves as a
powerful weapon in formulating
brilliant ideas in the midst of
battling the modern world of
information that would make a
great soceital change and
sustainable development in this
fast- gearing world.
Further, the teachers should

3. disciplined way.
 The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards
that schools should teach. The
core of the curriculum is
essential knowledge and skills
and academic rigor. Although
this educational philosophy is
similar in some ways to
Perennialism, Essentialists
accept the idea that this core
curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical,
preparing students to become
valuable members of society. It
should focus on facts-the
objective reality out there--and
"the basics," training students to
read, write, speak, and compute
clearly and logically. Schools
should not try to set or influence
policies. Students should be
taught hard work, respect for
authority, and discipline.
Teachers are to help students
keep their non-productive
instincts in check, such as
aggression or mindlessness.
emotionally developed and
intellectually matured enough in
transmitting indespensable
learning that would feed the
learners’ minds to be more
equipped and globally
competitive.
Apparently, teachers are called
the “fountain of information” in
such a way that they teach from
the heart and not from the book;
imparting more than enough
knowledge . Additionally, it
would be such an impossible
thing to hear if a teacher
becomes a paragon of virtue
since there is no one possesses
perfection but with that
imperfection, they gain mastery
of basic skills in enhancing the
students’ simple innate abilities
to profound state.
Progressivism
"We may, I think, discover certain common
principles amid the variety of progressive
schools now existing. To imposition from
above is opposed expression and
cultivation of individuality; to external
discipline is opposed free activity; to
learning from texts and teachers, learning
through experience; to acquisition of'
isolated skills and techniques by drill is
opposed acquisition of them as means of
attaining ends which make direct vital
“Change is the only constant in
this world”, a very common
mantra but it is worth living for.
In fact, in the book English
Expressways for secondary (p.
45), George Bernard Shaw
discussed that there are two
kinds of people in the world, the
reasonable and unreasonable.
The reasonable man adapts
himself to the world; the

4. appeal; to preparation for a more or less
remote future is opposed making the most
of the opportunities of present life; to
statistics and materials is opposed
acquaintance with a changing world."
John Dewey
 believe that education should
focus on the whole child, rather
than on the content or the
teacher. This educational
philosophy stresses that
students should test ideas by
active experimentation. Learning
is rooted in the questions of
learners that arise through
experiencing the world. It is
active, not passive. The learner
is a problem solver and thinker
who makes meaning through his
or her individual experience in
the physical and cultural context.
Effective teachers provide
experiences so that students can
learn by doing. Curriculum
content is derived from student
interests and questions. The
scientific method is used by
progressivist educators so that
students can study matter and
events systematically and first
hand. The emphasis is on
process-how one comes to
know. The Progressive
education philosophy was
established in America from the
mid 1920s through the mid
1950s. John Dewey was its
foremost proponent. One of his
tenets was that the school
unreasonable one persists in
trying to adapt the world to
himself. Therefore, all progress
depends on the unreasonable
man.
In addition, the teachers used
themselves as bridges over
which they invite their students
to cross over the defiance of
learning situations and giving
them quintessential range of
information that would respond
to their needs and the
destitution of the working
industry. The exposure of the
students to new technological
manoeuvre, scientific and social
developments helped them to
embrace education as a key to
change their lives and boost
their way of thinking through
problem- solving method in
achieving progress.
Moreover, the teachers are
probably using one of the
learning styles coined by
Harvey F. Silver which is the
mastery (sensing- thinking) style
where the learners learns best
from drill, demonstration,
practice and hands- on
experience. If the students
become mastery learners, they
prefers to learn by seeing
tangible results, practicing what
they have learned and being
active rather than passive. True
indeed, experience is the best
teacher and it can never be
found even in the greatest book
in the world since we should
consider the big difference of
imagination from actuality.

5. should improve the way of life of
our citizens through
experiencing freedom and
democracy in schools. Shared
decision making, planning of
teachers
with students, student-selected
topics are all aspects. Books are
tools, rather than authority.
Dewey taught that people are social
animals who learn well through active
interplay with others and that our learning
increases when we are engaged in
activities that have meaning for us. Book
learning, to Dewey, was no substitute for
actually doing things. Fundamental to
Dewey's epistemology is the notion that
knowledge is acquired and expanded as
we apply our previous experiences to
solving new, meaningful problems.
Education, to Dewey, is a reconstruction of
experience, an opportunity to apply
previous experiences in new ways. Relying
heavily on the scientific method, Dewey
proposed a five step method for solving
problems:
1. Become aware of the problem;
2. define it;
3. Propose various hypotheses to
solve it;
4. Examine the consequences of each
hypothesis in the light of previous
5. Experience; and
Test the most likely solution.
Existentialism
"Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is
playing and no child ever gets enough
play. The Summer hill theory is that when
a child has played enough he will start to
work and face difficulties, and I claim that
this theory has been vindicated in our
pupils' ability to do a good job even when it
This philosophy supports the
ninth intelligence as one of the
multiple intelligencess
possessed by humans
authored by Howard Gardner
which is the existentialist
intelligence. It is the ability of an
individual to question existing

6. involves a lot of unpleasant work."
A. S. Neill
Man is nothing else but what he makes of
himself. Such is the first principle of
existentialism.' '
Jean Paul Sartre
Existentialism as a Philosophical Term
The existentialist movement in education is
based on an intellectual attitude that
philosophers term existentialism. Born in
nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism
is associated with such diverse thinkers as
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a
passionate Christian, and
Friedrich
Nietzsche (1811 1900)
who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist
and coined the phrase God is dead. While
the famous existentialists would
passionately disagree with one another on
many basic philosophical issues, what they
shared was a respect for individualism. In
particular, they argued that traditional
approaches to philosophy do not
adequately respect the unique concerns of
things in the world and their
essence respectively.
Basically, existentialism
allows students to express
theirselves creatively in a way
that they could formulate their
own formulas in reaching the
pedestal of success and the
plinth of victory rather than
copying acts and deeds from a
historical model. This is one of
the avenues in promoting
freedom of choice on what field
of interest they will engage to in
preparing theirselves in the
future battles of real life.
In connection, vocational
education is given high regards
as a means of teaching students
about themselves and
developing their potentials to
compete in the global context in
the near future. In fact, this
philosophy connects with the
idea of Harvey F. Silver about
the four learning styles and one
of which is the self- expressive
(intuitive feeling) style where
learners learns best from
creative and artistic activities,
open- ended discussions and
social values and prefers to
learn by being creative and
using imagination, planning and
organizing work in their own
creative ways, searching for
altenative solutions to problems
beyond those normally
considered and discussing real
problems and looking for real
solutions.
Therefore,this philosophy
builds firm foundation of
relationship between teachers
and students where openness

7. each individual.
Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of
existentialism--that "existence precedes
essence"--means that there exists no
universal, inborn human nature. We are
born and exist, and then we ourselves
freely determine our essence (that is, our
innermost nature). Some philosophers
commonly associated with the existentialist
tradition never fully adopted the "existence
precedes essence" principle.
Nevertheless, that principle is fundamental
to the educational existentialist movement.
Existentialism as an Educational
Philosophy
Just as its namesake sprang from a strong
rejection of traditional philosophy,
educational existentialism sprang from a
strong rejection of the traditional,
essentialist approach to education.
Existentialism rejects the existence of any
source of objective, authoritative truth
about metaphysics, epistemology, and
ethics. Instead, individuals are responsible
for determining for themselves what is
"true" or "false," "right" or "wrong,"
"beautiful" or "ugly." For the existentialist,
there exists no universal form of human
nature; each of us has the free will to
develop as we see fit.
In the existentialist classroom, subject
matter takes second place to helping the
students understand and appreciate
themselves as unique individuals who
accept complete responsibility for their
thoughts, feelings, and actions. The
teacher's role is to help students define
their own essence by exposing them to
various paths they may take in life and
creating an environment in which they may
freely choose their own preferred way.
and honesty are considered to
be the core values. In this
manner, students can act justly
in their respective soceities and
become the agent or catalyst of
change.

8. Since feeling is not divorced from reason in
decision making, the existentialist
demands the education of the whole
person, not just the mind.
Although many existentialist educators
provide some curricular structure,
existentialism, more than other educational
philosophies, affords students great
latitude in their choice of subject matter. In
an existentialist curriculum, students are
given a wide variety of options from which
to choose.
To the extent that the staff, rather than the
students, influence the curriculum, the
humanities are commonly given
tremendous emphasis. They are explored
as a means of providing students with
vicarious experiences that will help
unleash their own creativity and self-
expression. For example, rather than
emphasizing historical events,
existentialists focus upon the actions of
historical individuals, each of whom
provides possible models for the students'
own behavior. In contrast to the
humanities, math and the natural sciences
may be de-emphasized, presumably
because their subject matter would be
considered "cold," "dry," "objective," and
therefore less fruitful to self-awareness.
Moreover, vocational education is
regarded more as a means of teaching
students about themselves and their
potential than of earning a livelihood. In
teaching art, existentialism encourages
individual creativity and imagination more
than copying and imitating established
models.
Existentialist methods focus on the
individual. Learning is self-paced, self
directed, and includes a great deal of
individual contact with the teacher, who

9. relates to each student openly and
honestly. Although elements of
existentialism occasionally appear in public
schools, this philosophy has found wider
acceptance in private schools and ill
alternative public schools founded in the
late 1960s and early 1970s.
 A.S. Neill is perhaps the most
noted influence when it comes to
the existentialism philosophy
being applied in a school
environment. Neill helped to
promote existentialism with the
creation of his Summerhill
School. Jean Paul Sarte along
with Soren Kierkegaard, and
Friedrich Nietzche helped to
strengthen the popularity of the
existentialism movement. Each
of these famous men contributed
to the belief that it was "not just
the mind that needed to be
educated, but the whole person."
 An existentialism school didn't
enforce formal education.
Instead it nurtured the creativity,
and individuality of the student. It
was felt that in time a student
would mature by themselves,
and decide what direction was
suitable to pursue. In an
existentialist school children
would be given a variety of
subjects to choose from.
Vocational courses were to
teach the student about
themselves, and not to prepare
them for a future occupation.
The student pursued the subject
of their choice, learning method,
and worked at their own pace.
They received one-on-one

10. guidance from their teacher.
Existentialism was an
independent study program
rather than a traditional class.
Behaviorism
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well
informed, and my own specified world to
bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take
anyone at random and train him to become
any type of specialist I might select--
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief; and
yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of
his ancestors."
 John Watson
While educational existentialism is based
on the notion that we possess free will to
shape our innermost nature, behaviorism
is derived from the belief that free will is an
illusion. According to a pure behaviorist,
human beings are shaped entirely by their
external environment. Alter a person's
environment, and you will alter his or her
thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Provide
positive reinforcement whenever students
perform a desired behavior, and soon they
will learn to perform the behavior on their
own.
Behaviorism has its roots in the early
1900s in the work of the Russian
experimental psychologist
Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936)
and the American psychologist
John Watson (1878-1958).
By refining and expanding their studies,
Harvard professor
Behaviorism is an
educational philosophy that
follows the concept of
Stimulus-Response theory.
This theory is more concerned
with the response generated
where stimulus serves as input
and response serves as an
output that produces behavioral
changes.In fact, stimulus and
response considers
strengthening or reinforcement
relevant becausethis would
arouse the learners disposition
to explore and learn necessary
things in ife. This philosophy
was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov,
Edward Lee and Bhurrus
Skinner’s behavior theories
respectively . They describe
about the behaviorism and the
points specifically for learning
activities are stimulus and
responses. This can also be
interpreted as cause and
effect.Reinforcement as the way
to reach the goal and repeated
actions that will become the
habit and then students will
reached their goals.
As teachers, we must
know what subjects can apply
behaviorism theory. Basically,
teachers give specific stimulus
what they want and the
students will respond. For
instance, when the teacher want
to teach about recreational
activities, he will observe the
physical condition of students

11. B. F. Skinner (1904-
1989)
has been the driving force behind the
spread of behaviorism within modern
American culture. Skinner developed the
now-famous Skinner box, which he used to
train small animals by behavioral
techniques. He also invented a World War
II guided missile system that employed
pecking pigeons to keep a projectile on
course, a controversial air crib for keeping
babies in a climatically controlled
environment, and programmed learning.
Underlying Philosophical Basis
Behaviorism asserts that the only reality is
the physical world that we discern through
careful, scientific observation. People and
other animals are seen as complex
combinations of matter that act only in
response to internally or externally
generated physical stimuli. We learn, for
instance, to avoid overexposure to heat
through the impulses of pain our nerves
send to our brain. More complex learning,
such as understanding the material in this
chapter, is also determined by stimuli, such
as the educational support you have
received from your professor or parents or
the comfort of the chair in which you sit
when you read this chapter.
Human nature, according to behaviorism,
is neither good nor bad, but merely the
product of one's environment. It is not
human nature but defective environments
that are responsible for harmful things that
people do to themselves and others. To a
behaviorist, there is no such thing as free
will or the autonomously acting person;
and also their basic skills. Then,
teacher will give learning
material as stimulus and they
will explain about the material
related to the topic. More so, the
response is a behavioral
change as a result of learning.
In cognizance,
behaviorism provides an avenue
for teachers to be sensitive to
any situations of learning and is
suitable for teachers in
implementing repeated act with
a specific award for the students
to be motivated in doing
activities.

12. such ideas are only myths that may make
us feel better but do not correspond to
scientific observation.
Skinner recommends that moral standards
ought to be derived from the scientific
observation of human behavior. We should
identify through experimentation those
environments that best utilize humankind's
potential. In such environments, we would
find the moral code that people ought to
follow. That scientifically developed code
would be much preferable to our present
codes, which are derived from the histories
and cultures of particular groups.
Regarding esthetic appreciation,
behaviorists consider our sense of beauty
environmentally formed. Have you ever
wondered why something believed to be
beautiful by another culture appears ugly
to you? Behaviorism says that the reason
lies in the way your environment has
shaped your tastes. A good example is the
effect of the media on your appreciation of
clothing styles. Over a few months or
years, the media may convince you to
regard as beautiful a style you previously
found unattractive.
Realism
Aristotle-
 placed great emphasis on
balancing the theoretical and
practical aspects of subjects taught.
Subjects he explicitly mentions as
being important included reading,
writing and mathematics; music;
physical education; literature and
history; and a wide range of
sciences. He also mentioned the
importance of play.
Avicenna-
 ‘children can learn better if taught in
classes instead of individual tuition
from private tutors, and he gave a
number of reasons for why this is
For the realist, the world is as it
is, and the job of schools would
be to teach students about the
world. Goodness, for the realist,
would be found in the laws of
nature and the order of the
physical world. Truth would be
the simple correspondences of
observation. The realist would
favor a school dominated by
subjects of the here-and-now
world, such as math and
science. Students would be
taught factual information for
mastery. The teacher would
impart knowledge of this reality

13. the case, citing the value of
competition and emulation among
pupils as well as the usefulness of
group discussions and debates.
 refers to the secondary education
stage as the period of
specialization, when pupils should
begin to acquire manual skills,
regardless of their social status.
 writes that children after the age of
14 should be given a choice to
choose and specialize in subjects
they have an interest in, whether it
was reading, manual skills,
literature, preaching, medicine,
geometry, trade and commerce,
craftsmanship, or any other subject
or profession they would be
interested in pursuing for a future
career. He wrote that this was a
transitional stage and that there
needs to be flexibility regarding the
age in which pupils graduate, as
the student's emotional
development and chosen subjects
need to be taken into account.
Ibn Tufail-
 demonstrated the empiricist theory
of 'tabula rasa' as a thought
experiment in which he depicted
the development of the mind of a
feral child "from a tabula rasa to
that of an adult, in complete
isolation from society" on a desert
island, through experience alone.
John Locke –
 “The business of education is not,
as I think, to make them perfect in
any one of the sciences, but so to
open and dispose their minds as
may best make them capable of
any, when they shall apply
themselves to it." Expressed the
to students or display such
reality for observation and
study. Classrooms would be
highly ordered and disciplined,
like nature, and the students
would be passive participants in
the study of things. Changes in
school would be perceived as a
natural evolution toward a
perfection of order.

14. belief that education maketh the
man, or, more fundamentally, that
the mind is an "empty cabinet", with
the statement, "I think I may say
that of all the men we meet with,
nine parts of ten are what they are,
good or evil, useful or not, by their
education
Jean Jacques Rousseau-
 held that there was one
developmental process common to
all humans. This was an intrinsic,
natural process, of which the
primary behavioral manifestation
was curiosity. Said that a child
should grow up without adult
interference and that the child must
be guided to suffer from the
experience of the natural
consequences of his own acts or
behaviour. When he experiences
the consequences of his own acts,
he advises himself.
Mortimore Jerome Adler-
 was a proponent of educational
perennialism.
Harry S. Broudy-
 based on the tradition of classical
realism, dealing with truth,
goodness, and beauty. However he
was also influenced by the modern
philosophy existentialism and
instrumentalism.
In his textbook Building a Philosophy of
Education he has two major ideas that are
the main points to his philosophical
outlook: The first is truth and the second is
universal structures to be found in
humanity's struggle for education and the
good life. Broudy also studied issues on
society's demands on school. He thought
education would be a link to unify the
diverse society and urged the society to
put more trust and a commitment to the
schools and a good education.

15.  fragments of Aristotle's treatise On
Education are still in existence
 considered human nature, habit and
reason to be equally important
forces to be cultivated in education
Experimentalism
and Pragmatism
Aims of Education
 Education must teach one how to
think so that one can adjust to an
ever-changing society. The school
must aim at developing those
experiences that will enable one to
lead a good life. These objectives
include:
1. Good health.
2. Vocational skills.
3. Interests and hobbies for leisure
living.
4. Preparation for parenthood.
5. Ability to deal effectively with social
problems.
Additional specific goals must include an
understanding of the importance of
democracy. Democratic government
enables each citizen to grow and live
through the social interaction that takes
place with other citizens. Education must
help its students become excellent citizens
in the democracy.
 the democratic tradition is a self-
correcting tradition
 the social heritage of the past is not
the focus of educational interest.
Rather, the focus is for the good life
now and in the future. The standard
of social good is constantly being
tested and verified through
changing experiences; therefore,
For the experimentalist, the
world is an ever-changing place.
Reality is what is actually
experienced. Truth is what
presently functions. Goodness
is what is accepted by public
test. Unlike the perennialist,
idealist, and realist, The
experimentalist openly accepts
change and continually seeks to
discover new ways to expand
and improve society. The
experimentalist would favor a
school with heavy emphasis on
social subjects and experiences.
Learning would occur through a
problem-solving or inquiry
format. Teachers would aid
learners or consult with learners
who would be actively involved
in discovering and experiencing
the world in which they live.
Such an education program's
focus on value development
would factor in group
consequences

16. education must work to preserve
democracy
 view the curriculum of the education
imparting institution must not exist
apart from the social context. The
subject matter of education is the
tool for solving individual problems
and as the individual learner is
improved or reconstructed, society
is improved in similar fashion.
Therefore, the problems of
democratic society must form the
basis of the curriculum; and the
means to resolve the problems of
democratic institutions must also be
included in the curriculum.
Therefore, there must be
1. A social basis to the curriculum.
2. Opportunity to practice democratic
ideals.
3. Democratic planning at every level of
education.
4. Group definition of common social
goals.
5. Creative means to develop new
skills.
6. Activity-centered and pupil-centered
curriculum.
 learning is always considered to be
an individual matter. Teachers
ought not to try to pour the
knowledge they have into the
learners, because such efforts are
fruitless. What each learner learns
depends upon his own personal
needs, interests, and problems. In
other words, the content of
knowledge is not an end in itself but
a means to an end. Thus, a learner
who is faced by a problem may be
able to reconstruct his environment
so as to solve this felt need. To help
him the teacher must

17. 1. Provide experiences that will excite
motivation. Field trips, films, records,
and guest experts are examples of
activities designed to awaken learner
interest in an important problem.
2. Guide the learner into formulating a
specific definition of the problem.
Because each learner approaches the
problem from his own experiential
background, the teaches should
encourage the learners to formulate
their own aims and goals.
3. Plan with the class the individual and
group objectives to be used in solving
the problem.
4. Assist the learners in collecting the
information pertaining to the problem.
Essentially, the teacher serves as a
guide by introducing skills,
understandings, knowledge, and
appreciations through the use of books,
compositions, letters, resource
speakers, films, field trips, television, or
anything else that may be appropriate.
5. Evaluate with the class what was
learned; how they learned it; what new
information occurred; what each learner
discovered for himself.
Idealism
 Plato's writings contain some of the
following ideas: Elementary
education would be confined to the
guardian class till the age of 18,
followed by two years of compulsory
military training and then by higher
education for those who qualified.
While elementary education made
the soul responsive to the
environment, higher education
helped the soul to search for truth
which illuminated it. Both boys and
Idealism is a philosophy that
espouses the refined
wisdom of men and women.
Reality is seen as a world
within a person's mind. Truth
is to be found in the
consistency of ideas.
Goodness is an ideal state,
something to be strived for.
Idealism would favor schools
teaching subjects of the
mind, such as is found in

18. girls receive the same kind of
education. Elementary education
consisted of music and gymnastics,
designed to train and blend gentle
and fierce qualities in the individual
and create a harmonious person.
most public school
classrooms. Teachers, for
the idealist, would be models
of ideal behavior. For
idealists, the schools'
function is to sharpen
intellectual processes, to
present the wisdom of the
ages, and to present models
of behavior that are
exemplary. Students in such
schools would have a
somewhat passive role,
receiving and memorizing
the reporting of the teacher.
Change in the school
program would generally be
considered an intrusion on
the orderly process of
educating.
Scholasticism
 A fifth metaphysical school of
thought
 applied in Roman Catholic schools
in the educational philosophy called
"Thomism." It combines idealist and
realist philosophies in a framework
that harmonized the ideas of
Aristotle, the realist, with idealist
notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas,
1255-127, was the theologian who
wrote "Summa Theologica,"
formalizing church doctrine. The
Scholasticism movement
encouraged the logical and
philosophical study of the beliefs of
the church, legitimizing scientific
inquiry within a religious framework.
 combined Logic, Metaphysics and
semantics into one discipline, and
is generally recognised to have
developed our understanding of
Logic significantly
 primarily concerned with

19. uncovering transcendental truths
that would lead a person back to
God through a life of moral and
religious choice (Kreeft 15). The
vehicle by which these truths were
uncovered was dialectic.
 two methods of teaching: the
"lectio" (the simple reading of a text
by a teacher, who would expound
on certain words and ideas, but no
questions were permitted); and the
"disputatio" (where either the
question to be disputed was
announced beforehand, or students
proposed a question to the teacher
without prior preparation, and the
teacher would respond, citing
authoritative texts such as the Bible
to prove his position, and the
students would rebut the response,
and the argument would go back
and forth, with someone taking
notes to summarize the argument).
Social
Reconstructionism
and Pedagogy
Critical pedagogy is an "educational
movement, guided by passion and
principle, to help students develop
consciousness of freedom, recognize
authoritarian tendencies, and connect
knowledge to power and the ability to take
constructive action." Based in Marxist
theory, critical pedagogy draws on radical
democracy, anarchism, feminism, and
other movements for social justice