This document discusses the interconnectedness of metacognition and adult learning theories, focusing on key concepts like self-directed learning, self-efficacy, and constructivism. It highlights historical influences on these theories, explores current issues facing adult education, and suggests the need for future research to bridge gaps in literature and improve educational practices. The work of significant theorists such as John H. Flavell and Malcolm Knowles is emphasized as foundational to understanding adult learning and the importance of metacognitive skills.

1. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 1
EDUC 8005 Module 7 Project: Applying Research
Orlanda Haynes
Walden University
Author Note
This paper was prepared for EDUC 8005 Module 7 Project
Fall 2014
Taught by Dr. Stacy Wahl

2. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 2
EDUC 8005 Module 7 Project: Applying Research
INTRODUCTION
Learning is a cognitive process that involves acquiring, modifying, and reinforcing,
knowledge, behaviors, and skills. Learning theories, on the other hand, address how information
is process, stored, and used. Metacognition is a self-regulated approach to learning; it
involves monitoring, planning, and assessing cognitive abilities and performances.
The purpose of this assignment is to create an original work by combining modular 1-
5 assignments, which are based on the conceptual framework that constructs of
metacognition and adult learning theories (e.g., self-directed learning, self-efficacy,
Andragogy, and constructivism [self-regulated]) are interconnected aspects of the
learning processes. Literature is presented by responding to the following questions as well as
recommendations for social changes.
1. Which historical antecedents influenced the fields of metacognition and adult learning
theories?
2. What are the results of those influences?
3. What issues confront the fields today?
4. Are there three most relevant sources?
5. Which sources best support this research topic?
6. Recommendation: social change in the fields of metacognition and adult education
Which Historical Antecedents Influenced the Fields of Metacognition and Adult Learning
Theories?

3. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 3
The theory of metacognition evolved from the works of John H. Flavell (1979); a
developmental psychologists who coined the term metacognition and Ann Brown’s research
Knowing When, Where, and How to Remember: A Problem of Metacognition during the 70s and
80s (Guglielmino, 1978; Flavell, 1976, 79; Marshak, 1983; Sivan, 1986; Sternberg, 1986; Smith,
1999; Popper, et al., 2006; Veenman, et al., 2006; Fisher, et al., 2009; Hacker, 2009;
Zimmerman et al., 2009).
In contrast, adult learning theories (early 1800s) such as self-directed learning, self-
efficacy, Andragogy, and constructivism (self-regulated) use the same constructs as
those used in metacognition (e.g., evaluating academic performances, strategizing,
setting, and implementing goals). In that, the ability to learn, in part, depends on one’s
cognitive development (Brown, 1980; Knowles, 1980, 1989; Schunk, 1994; Bandura, 1997;
Popper et al., 2006; Merriam et al., 2007; Matlin, 2009; Schunk, 2012). For example, how
well do learners perceive, analyze, and/ or retain information? Not discounting the relevancy of the
behaviorists’ theory, Jean Piaget (as cited in Popper & Piaget, 2006) theorized that learning has to do
more with cognitive processes through which humans’ process and store information. Schemas, for
instance, are cognitive structures that act internally to compare, combine, extend, or alter existing
information to accommodate new information. In essence, information first enters a sensory register,
and then moves to short-and-long term memory; as such, information relevancy is a determinate
factor (Good & Brophy, 1990; Popper, 2006).
Other notable works by Lev Vygotsky (1978), Flavell (1979), Andreas Demetriou (1988),
and Piaget and Popper (2006) validate the constructs of metacognition as they apply to learning
and development. According to Flavell, “. . . monitoring of a wide variety of cognitive
enterprises occurs through the actions of and interactions among four classes of phenomena: (a)
metacognitive knowledge, (b) metacognitive experiences, (c) goals (or tasks), and (d) actions

4. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 4
strategies” (1979, p. 1). Metacognitive knowledge is any information that is acquired and stored;
experiences occur from the use or the attempted use of such. Moreover, metacognitive goals or
tasks occur through cognitive processes involve with analysis and planning. Action strategies,
on the other hand, occur when short and long-term plans are implemented (Schunk; 1994;
Bandura ,1997; Hartman; 2001; Flavell, 1979).
In terms of development and use of metacognitive skills, adult learners are more capable than
children are. Flavell, Friedrichs, and Hoyt (1970, as cited in Flavell, 1979) study Developmental
Changes in Memorization Processes, among others, suggest that unlike adults—children are less
likely to use metacognitive monitoring because they lack basic knowledge and awareness of
metacognition percepts and theories (Bandura, 1986; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994, 2009;
Byrnes, 1998; Smith, 1999; Brookfield, 2005; Fisher, et al., 2009). The theory of self-directed
learning, for example, emphasizes the ability of learners to take responsible for their education
objectives by using aspects of metacognition to evaluate learning needs, create strategies, set and
implement goals, monitor performances, and outcomes. Malcolm Knowles (1980) explained that
self-directed learning, “is a process in which individuals takes the initiative, with or without the help
of others . . .” (p. 18).
Other research suggests that self-concept (self-directness, self-study, and orientation to learning),
prior experiences (decision-making: solve problem and analyze needs), readiness to learn (education,
training, and/or self-improvement goals), and motivation to learn (influenced by intrinsic and
extrinsic factors), play major roles in the adult learning and development process (Knowles, 1980,
1989; Smith, M. K., 2002; Ellinger, 2004; Chan, 2010). Guglielmino (1978) research
Development of the self-directed learning readiness scale also known as the Learning Preference
Assessment (self-report questionnaire) reiterated these findings. He stated that

5. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 5
A highly self-directed learner . . . is one who exhibits initiative, independence, and
persistence in learning; . . . accepts responsibility for his or her own learning and views
problems as challenges. (Guglielmino, 1978, Section: Description of the Highly Self-
Directed Learner Derived from the Delphi Process).
Similarly, the theory of self-efficacy refers—in part—to,” People’s judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances”
(Bandura, 1986, p. 391). To accomplish this, adult learners must use cognitive factors (e.g.,
acquiring, analyzing, and modifying) as well as adult learning principles (self-directed, self-
efficacy, constructivism, and Andragogy) to process, store, and use various types of information
and/or knowledge.
In contrast, a process of learning that is self-regulated, uses prior experience, and
knowledge through social interactions to construct new concepts, perceptions,
views, and/or theories is called constructivism. This theory evolved from the works
of Jean Piaget (as cited in Piaget and Popper 2006) and Vygotsky (1978).
Constructivism framework is based on Vygotsky concept of the zone of proximal
development, which,” is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through
problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky,
1978, p. 86). Thus far, research has shown that self-directed, self-efficacy, and
constructivism share elements inherent to the process of metacognition; however, the
theory of Andragogy is not only an intricate factor in the process of metacognition, but also the
foundation to which adult learning evolves.
The concept of Andragogy was introduced by Alexander Kapp (a German Educationalist), and
popularized by Malcolm Knowles (adult learning theory). The word “andragogy” has its origin in

6. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 6
Greek language “andro meaning man or adult and agogos to lead—literally means to lead a man or
adult” (Pedagogical and Androgogical Approaches to Teaching and Learning, 2000, p. 1). Its
concept is based on theories of how adults learn. For example, researchers have shown that adult
learners want to know the benefits of learning something new. Will it solve a current problem, for
example? Their self-concept (self-directness), prior experiences (solve problem and analyze future
needs), readiness to learn (education or training objectives and goals), motivation to learn (influenced
by intrinsic and extrinsic factors), and orientation to learning (self-directed), and approach to learning
(self-study) play major roles in their decision making process (Knowles, 1980, 1989; Smith, M. K.,
2002; Chan, 2010). The principles of andragogy are based on research that indicates adult learners
identify gaps in their skill sets; this usually results in the creations of plans to address perceived
needs. Therefore, they are self-motivated and ready to learn. Their orientation to learning includes a
self-directed approach; a form of self-study that was used by Socrates, Plato, and Descartes, among
others. In the late nineteen hundreds (development of adult education) self-directed learning gained
momentum, in United States (Hiemstra, 1994). Malcolm Knowles explained that self-directed
learning, “is a process in which individuals takes the initiative, with or without the help of others . . .”
(p. 18). Moreover, adult learners take responsible for education objectives, including goal setting and
evaluation of learning outcomes.
Recall that (a) metacognition involves monitoring, planning, and assessing one’s
cognitive abilities, and performances; (b) self-directed learning requires mastery of
metacognitive skills; (c) developing positive self-efficacy views are highly dependent on the
success of a and b; and the same can be said of self-regulated learning or constructivism because
to construct knowledge—one must be capable of acquiring, modifying, and reinforcing,
knowledge, behaviors, and skills. Characteristics of Andragogy, therefore, is inherent in all

7. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 7
theories mentioned (Flavell, 1976; Guglielmino, 1978, 79; Vygotsky, 1978; Knowles, 1980, 1989;
Bandura, 1986; Smith, M. K., 2002; Chan, 2010).
;
Course Project Phase 2: The Impact of Historical Antecedents
By far, the works of John H. Flavell (1979), developmental psychologist, played a pioneering
role in the advancement of cognitive research (coined the term metacognition). Likewise,
Guglielmino (1978) work resulted in the development of the most widely used self-directed
learning readiness scale to date. These works are historical antecedence because they provide
vital information regarding the origin and development of phenomena
(https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ resource/553/3; http://writingcenter.unc.Edu /handouts
/evaluating-print-sources/).
On the other hand, foundations for adult learning theories (self-directed) occurred during the
development of adult education (late nineteen hundreds). Although Alexander Kapp introduced
the concept of Andragogy, Malcolm Shepherd Knowles authored the first major Andragogy
theory.
He explained that— through self-directed learning—adult learners take responsible for
education objectives (e.g., setting goals and evaluating outcomes). Therefore, they are also self-
motivated and goal oriented. In addition, some research support claims that Socrates, Plato, and
Descartes, among others, used self-directed or self-study learning (Knowles, 1980, 1989; Good
& Brophy, 1990; Smith, 2002, 2003; Chan, 2010).
These works are historical antecedence because they provide vital information regarding the
origin and development of phenomena (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ resource/553/3;
http://writingcenter.unc.Edu /handouts /evaluating-print-sources/).

8. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 8
Briefly Describe the Current landscape in [Adult your chosen field].
Moreover, trends in adult and postsecondary education include workforce changes (e.g.,
technological, economical, societal, educated/skilled labor-force), expansion in global diversity,
and expanded access to education programs and services currently limited to face-to-face
meetings (American Psychological Association, 1997; Caffarella et al., 2000; Hansman, 2001;
Brookfield, 2005; Hansman, 2006; American Society for Training and Development, 2008;
Schunk, 2012).
What new research could address these challenges? Explain.
In terms of understanding the interconnectedness of cognitive motivators and dopamine
responses (self-motivation and self-regulation), new research would help fill gaps in the
literature—thereby building bridges between education and neuroscience (Byrnes et al.,1998;
Hansman, 2006; American Society for Training and Development, 2008; Schunk, 2012).
As far as establishing specific guidelines for implementing self-directed learning principles
within accountability frameworks, new research could provide answers to education
communities nationwide—thereby, again, filling gaps in literature. Finally, providing new
research that addresses access barriers to degree and credential program ordinarily limited to
face-to-face meeting would allow for more student participation in the diverse field of medicine,
for example (Caffarella et al., 2000; Hansman, 2001; Brookfield, 2005; Hansman, 2006;
American Society for Training and Development, 2008).
Education communities (e.g., schools, colleges, universities) and their affiliates (e.g.,
government and private organizations and companies, researchers, educators, staff, students, and
parents) are vehicles for the advancement of the education industry. Within my field of interest,
this discussion highlights three most relevant organizations (Institute for Education Sciences
[research branch of the U.S. Department of Education]; The American Association for Adult and
Continuing Education; The European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction
[EARLI]), their emerging and most significant trends as well as their impact on the future of
adult and continuing education.
The Institute for Education Sciences (IES)
The IES funds education research projects including training and support for researchers;
replaces or improves states’ education data systems; shares and promotes findings (e.g., Nation's
Report Card, What Works Clearinghouse, the ERIC education database, National Research and

9. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT 9
Development Centers, conference, publications, and products); and collects and analyses
scientific data that is then used to support education practices and policies.
Moreover, to ensure data integrity, the IES has implemented strict accountability guidelines
such as peer-reviews and best practice standards (http://ies.ed.gov/ aboutus/). As far as the
relevancy of this organization to my field of interest, metacognition as it applies to selective
adult learning theories is, in part, the result of scientific research rather than opinions.
Research suggests adult learners—with well-developed metacognitive skills—are better at self-
directed and self-regulated learning, problem solving, critical thinking, goal setting, and decision
making than their counterparts are—people with little or no metacognitive training (Flavell,
1979; Sivan, 1986; Schunk et al., 1994; Veenman et al., 2006;Merriam et al., 2007; Zimmerman
et al.,2009 ).
However, to fill gaps in literature—interconnectedness of cognitive motivators and dopamine
responses (self-motivation and self-regulation) and to build bridges between education and
neuroscience communities, new research is needed (Byrnes et al., 1998; Caffarella, et al., 2000;
Hartman, 2001; American Society for Training and Development, 2008; Schunk, 2012).
Trend (s)
IES is moving more toward interagency collaboration than in times past. In that, practitioners
(e.g., educators and policy makers) will play major roles in determining research focuses. In
other words, what specific questions (teaching, learning, and development) are unanswered?
And, how advances in information technology (data collection and analysis) can aid this process
(http://ies.ed.gov/aboutus/; http://ies.ed.gov/whatsnew/newsletters/index.asp?index=roundncer).
Future Impact on Adult Education
Education research is the vehicle through which teaching, learning, and human development
theories and principles emerge. Since the inception of adult education (late nineteen hundreds),
education communities rely heavily on research findings (e.g., experimental/qualitative) to
understand characteristics of adult learners. For example, what motivating factors are involved,
what barriers exist, and what teaching methods are preferred most (Knowles, 1980; Good &
Brophy, 1990; Fidishun, 2000; De Vito, 2009). Chan, 2010). Similarly, advances in technology
(distant education) have and will continue to play major roles in adult education options,
accessibility and affordability to programs and services (http://ies.ed.gov/whats new/newsletters
/index. asp?index=roundncer).
The American Association for Adult and Continuing Education (AAACE)
Likewise, the role of the AAACE is equally important (field of interest) because of its
leadership roles which include identifying opportunities for adult learners, encouraging
collaboration among education communities, emphasizing the need for further education
research and best practices guidelines, and advocating for education policy changes that benefit
both public and private sectors. Moreover, the organization, established in 1982, is the primary
publishes of adult education journals such as the Adult Education Quarterly (AEQ), Adult

10. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
10
Learning(AL), Journal of Transformative Education , and the Handbook of Adult and Continuing
Education (http://www.aaace.org/who-we-are).
Finally, write a concluding paragraph, explaining how you think you could contribute to positive
social change in your chosen field and to professionalization of the field of adult and postsecondary
education.

11. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
11
Reference
Altbach, P. G., Reisberg, L., & Rumbley, L. E. (2009).Trends in global higher education:
Tracking an academic revolution [A report prepared for the UNESCO World Conference on
Higher Education]. Retrieved from the UNESCO
website: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001832/183219e.pdf
American Psychological Association (1997). Learner—centered psychological principles: A
framework for school reform and the redesign. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). (2008). 2008 State of the Industry
Report. Alexandria, VA. Retrieved August 6, 2014, from http://www.astd.org/
content/research/stateOfIndustry.htm
Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult learning and teaching.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Byrnes, J. P., & Fox, N. A. (1998). The educational relevance of research in cognitive
neuroscience. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 297–342. Cacioppo, J. T., Visser
,P. S., & Pickett, C. L. (Eds.). (2005). Social neuroscience: People thinking about
thinking people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S. B. (2000). Linking the individual learner to the context of adult
learning. In A.Wilson & E. Hayes (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education
(pp. 55–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ellinger, A. D. (2004). The concept of self-directed learning and its implications for human
resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(2), 158-177. Retrieved
from http://search.proquest.com/docview/221134598?accountid=14872

12. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
12
Ginsberg, M. B., & Wlodkowski, R. J. (2010). Access and participation. In C. E. Kasworm, A.
D. Rose, & J. M. Ross-Gordon (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 25–
34). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hansman, C. A. (2001). Context based adult learning. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), An update on
adult learning theory (pp. 43–51). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No.
89. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hansman, C. A. (2006). Low income adult learners in higher education: Politics, policies, and
praxis. In S.M.Merriam, B. C. Courteney, & R. Cervero (Eds.), Global issues and adult
education: Perspectives from Latin America, Southern Africa and the United States (pp. 399–
411). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hartman, H. J. (Ed.). (2001). Metacognition in learning and instruction: Theory, research and
practice. New York: Springer.
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: an educational perspective (6th Ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc., Publisher.
Van der Veen, R., & Preece, J. (2011). Poverty reduction and adult education: Beyond basic
education. In S. B. Merriam & A. P. Grace (Eds.), The Jossey-Bass reader on contemporary
issues in adult education (pp. 219–233). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
References
American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). (2008). 2008 State of the Industry
Report. Alexandria, VA. Retrieved August 6, 2014, from http://www.astd.org/
content/research/stateOfIndustry.htm
Byrnes, J. P., & Fox, N. A. (1998). The educational relevance of research in cognitive
neuroscience. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 297–342. Cacioppo, J. T., Visser
, P. S., & Pickett, C. L. (Eds.). (2005). Social neuroscience: People thinking about
thinking people. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S. B. (2000). Linking the individual learner to the context of adult
learning. In A.Wilson & E. Hayes (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education

13. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
13
(pp. 55–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy in multi-disciplined
teaching and learning. Journal of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-
35. Retrieved April 13, 2013, from ProQuest Education Journals
De Vito, k. M., (2009). Implementing adult learning principles to overcome barriers of
learning in continuing higher education programs. Online Journal of Workforce Education
and Development, 3(4). Retrieved on April 12, 2012 from: http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/ojwed/
Fidishun, D. (2000). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach
with technology. MidSouth Instructional Technology Conference 1986, 1. Retrieved on
July 12, 2012 from http://frank.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htm
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, (34)10, pp. 906-11, Oct 1979.
Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_
files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Good, T. L., Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th Ed.).White
Plains, NY: Longman
Hartman, H. J. (Ed.). (2001). Metacognition in learning and instruction: Theory, research and
practice. New York: Springer.
Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
Andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.) (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance:
Issues and educational applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: an educational perspective (6th Ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc., Publisher.
Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational Psychologist, Vol. 21,
pp. 209–233.
Van der Veen, R., & Preece, J. (2011). Poverty reduction and adult education: Beyond basic
education. In S. B. Merriam & A. P. Grace (Eds.), The Jossey-Bass reader on contemporary
issues in adult education (pp. 219–233). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and
learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1(1),
3-14. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-
006-6893-0#page-1
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge.
References
Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative
and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The

14. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
14
nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, (34)10, pp. 906-11, Oct 1979.
Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_
files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Guglielmino, L. M. (1978). Development of the self-directed learning readiness scale. (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Georgia, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 6467A
Retrieved December 27, 2014, from http://www.lpasdlrs.com/
Popper, K. & Piaget, J. (2006). A rationale for constructivism. Educational Forum, 71(1),
41-48. Retrieved on November 24, 2014, from: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/
pdfviewer?sid=1296a7b8-a8d5-4a1f-8a76-854d8583da9b%40sessionmgr13&vid=40&hid=10
Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational Psychologist, Vol. 21,
pp. 209–233.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning. The Encyclopedia of Informal
Education. Retrieved on November 22, 2014, from: www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge

15. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
15
References
American Psychological Association (1997). Learner—centered psychological principles: A
framework for school reform and the redesign. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
American Society for Training and Development (ASTD). (2008). 2008 State of the Industry
Report. Alexandria, VA. Retrieved August 6, 2014, from http://www.astd.org/
content/research/stateOfIndustry.htm
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult learning and teaching.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W.
F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 453–482). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum
Caffarella, R., & Merriam, S. B. (2000). Linking the individual learner to the context of adult
learning. In A.Wilson & E. Hayes (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education
(pp. 55–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Chan, S. (2010). Applications of andragogy in multi-disciplined teaching and learning. Journal
of Adult Education, 39(2), 25-35. Retrieved November 22, 2014, from ProQuest Education
Journals
Fisher, Peter & Wells, & Adrian (2009). Metacognitive therapy: Distinctive features. London:
Routledge.
Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 2 PROJECT 5

16. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
16
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The
nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, (34)10, pp. 906-11, Oct 1979.
Retrieved November 24, 2014 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_
files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Good, T. L., Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th Ed.).White
Plains, NY: Longman
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of metacognition
in education Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from https://uwaterloo.ca
/student-success/sites/ca.student-success/files/uploads/files/TipSheet_Metacognition.pdf
Hansman, C. A. (2001). Context based adult learning. In S. B. Merriam (Ed.), An update on
adult learning theory (pp. 43–51). New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, No.
89. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hansman, C. A. (2006). Low income adult learners in higher education: Politics, policies, and
praxis. In S.M.Merriam, B. C. Courteney, & R. Cervero (Eds.), Global issues and adult
education: Perspectives from Latin America, Southern Africa and the United States (pp. 399–
411). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Hartman, H. J. (Ed.). (2001). Metacognition in learning and instruction: Theory, research and
practice. New York: Springer.
Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
Andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press.
Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 2 PROJECT 6

17. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
17
Knowles, M. (1989) The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey (Ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Marshak, R. J. (1983). What is between pedagogy and andragogy? Training & Development
Journal, 37 (10), 80. Retrieved on November 22, 2014 from http://web.ebscohost.com
Matlin, M. W. (2009). Cognition (7th Ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Popper, K. & Piaget, J. (2006). A rationale for constructivism. Educational Forum, 71(1),
41-48. Retrieved on November 24, 2014, from: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/
pdfviewer?sid=1296a7b8-a8d5-4a1f-8a76-854d8583da9b%40sessionmgr13&vid=40&hid=10
Schneider, W., & Lock, K. (2002). The development of metacognitive knowledge in children
and adolescents. In T. Perfect & B. Schwartz (Eds), Applied metacognition (pp. 224–257).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: an educational perspective (6th Ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc., Publisher.
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.) (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance:
Issues and educational applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning. The Encyclopedia of Informal
Education. Retrieved on November 22, 2014, from www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.
Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction, and andragogy. The
Encyclopedia of Informal Education. From www.infed.org/thinkers/et-knowl.htm.
Smith, M. K. (2003). Learning theory. The Informal Encyclopedia of Education. Retrieved
November 21, 2014, from http://www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm.

18. EDUC 8005 MODULE 7 PROJECT
18
Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 2 PROJECT 7
Sternberg, R. J. (1986b). Intelligence applied. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Publishers.
Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and
learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1(1),
3-14. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-
006-6893-0#page-1
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological
processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge