What is Metacognition?

1. Metacognition and its Implications on Pedagogy
TITLE: CONCEPTUAL FRAME WORK OF
METACOGNITION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON PEDAGOGY
SUBMITTED BY TAHIRA RAFIQ
REG#161-FSS/PHDEDU/F19
SUBMITTED TO Dr. Samina Malik
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

2. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Objectives 3
2. Four Categories of Metacognition 4
3. Metacognitive Reading Strategies 5
4. Metacognition in Narrative 6
5. The Two Processes of Metacognition 7
6. Metacognitive Strategies can be Implemented in the Classroom 7
7. Activities for Metacognition. 7
Conclusion 9
References 10

3. 1. Objectives:
• To understand the meaning of metacognition
• To understand the strategies of metacognition
• To understand the metacognitive strategies in the classroom
Metacognition has been defined as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive
processes or anything related to them” (Flavell, 1976, in Kaplan et al., 2013) and is commonly
referred to as “thinking about one’s thinking”. Having well-developed metacognitive thinking
skills are related to improved learning. While some students develop metacognitive skills on
their own, others need explicit instruction.
According to metacognitive theories, metacognition includes two domains: knowledge of
cognition and regulation of cognition (Schraw & Moshman, 1995). Knowledge of
cognition includes knowledge about oneself as a learner, knowledge about learning strategies,
and knowledge about why and when to use a given strategy. Regulation of cognition includes the
ability to plan, monitor, regulate and evaluate your learning process. Instructors can incorporate
strategies to help students develop their self-regulatory skills and/or they can use strategies that
guide students to think metacognitively about course content (i.e., to think like a professional,
approach problems as a professional in the discipline would). 21st century skills are
including problem solving, metacognition, critical thinking, and collaboration, in classrooms.
1. Metacognition is often referred to as “thinking about thinking.” But that’s just a quick
definition. Metacognition is a regulatory system that helps a person understand and
control his or her own cognitive performance.
2. Metacognition allows people to take charge of their own learning. It involves awareness
of how they learn, an evaluation of their learning needs, generating strategies to meet
these needs and then implementing the strategies. (Hacker, 2009)
3. Learners often show an increase in self-confidence when they build metacognitive skills.
Self-efficacy improves motivation as well as learning success.
4. Metacognitive skills are generally learned during a later stage of development.
Metacognitive strategies can often (but not always) be stated by the individual who is
using them.

4. 5. For all age groups, metacognitive knowledge is crucial for efficient independent learning
because it fosters forethought and self-reflection
6. Metacognition is useful mechanism to enhance student learning, both for immediate
outcomes and for helping students to understand their own learning processes.
So metacognition is a broad concept that refers to the knowledge and thought processes
regarding one’s own learning. Importantly, there is research evidence (e.g., Moely and
colleagues, 1995; Schraw, 1998) that metacognition is a teachable skill that is central to
other skills sets such as problem solving, decisionmaking, and critical thinking.
Reflective thinking, as a component of metacognition, is the ability to reflect critically on
learning experiences and processes in order to inform future progress.
Flavell first introduced the term metacognition in his 1976 article, saying that metacognition
is defined as “one’s knowledge concerning one’s own cognitive processes and outcomes or
anything related to them” (Flavell, 1976, p. 232). Flavell further explains that metacognition is
“the active monitoring and consequent regulation of these processes in relation to the cognitive
objects or data on which they bear, usually in the service of some concrete goal or objective” (p.
232). Flavell (1977), and Flavell, Miller, and Miller (2002) point out that the improvement of
metacognitive skills is a key to the success of the formal operational stage (in children older than
eleven years) in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development, and that metacognition is generally
fundamental in a variety of areas, such as oral skills, reading, writing, language acquisition,
attention, memory, and social interactions. Flavell’s Model of Cognitive Monitoring Flavell’s
(1979) model of metacognition is the foundation for research in the field of metacognition today.
2. Four Categories of Metacognition:
(1) Metacognitive knowledge
(2) Metacognitive experiences
(3) Goals/tasks
(4) Actions/strategies.
He reported that people monitor their cognitive process by using components described
in these four categories. Metacognitive knowledge, the first category in the model of cognitive

5. monitoring, is a person’s knowledge or beliefs about the factors that impact cognitive
enterprises. It is acquired knowledge about one’s cognitive process and the diverse “cognitive
tasks, goals, actions, and experiences” (p. 906), and has three variables: person, task, and
strategy. Metacognition refers to one's awareness of and ability to regulate one's own
thinking. Some everyday examples of metacognition include: awareness that you have difficulty
remembering people's names in social situations reminding yourself that you should try to
remember the name of a person you just met
3. Metacognitive Reading Strategies
Strategies specific to reading can be classified in the following three clusters of
metacognition: planning, monitoring, and evaluating strategies (Israel, 2007; Pressley &
Afflerbach, 1995). Planning strategies are used before reading; activating learners’ background
knowledge to get prepared for reading is an example of planning strategies (Almasi, 2003; Israel,
2007). Also, previewing a title, picture, illustration, heading, or subheading can help readers 153
grasp the overview of the text. Readers may also preview the general information in the text and
its structure (Almasi, 2003; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991). Learners may check whether their
reading material has a certain text structure, such as cause and effect, question and answer, and
compare and contrast. Further, setting the purpose for reading can also be categorized as a
planning strategy (Paris et al., 1991; Pressley, 2002). Monitoring strategies occur during reading.
Some examples of monitoring strategies are comprehension of vocabulary, self-questioning
(reflecting on whether they understood what they have read so far), summarizing, and inferring
the main idea of each paragraph (Israel, 2007; Pressley, 2002). Readers may also identify and
focus on key information or key words, including but, however, on the other hand, in addition,
also, and in conclusion. Determining which part of the passage can be emphasized or ignored
based on the purpose of the task is another monitoring strategy (Hudson, 2007). In summary,
metacognitive reading strategies are classified into three groups of planning (pre-reading),
monitoring (during reading), and evaluating (post-reading) strategies, and each group has a
variety of strategies that require readers’ metacognitive processing.
1. Ask Questions. During formal courses and in post-training activities, ask questions that
allow learners to reflect on their own learning processes and strategies. In collaborative
learning, ask them to reflect on the role they play when problem solving in teams.

6. 2. Foster Self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and after
learning experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own assumptions and
how this may have influenced their learning. (Read about transformative learning.)
3. Encourage Self-questioning. Foster independent learning by asking learners to generate
their own questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be
related to meeting their personal goals
4. Teach Strategies Directly. Teach appropriate metacognitive strategies as a part of a
training course.
5. Promote Autonomous Learning. When learners have some domain knowledge,
encourage participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be forced to
construct their own metacognitive strategies.
6. Provide Access to Mentors. Many people learn best by interacting with peers who are
slightly more advanced. Promote experiences where novices can observe the proficient
use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies of their mentors.
7. Solve Problems with a Team: Cooperative problem solving can enhance metacognitive
strategies by discussing possible approaches with team members and learning from each
other.
8. Think Aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while
performing a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner can then point out errors in thinking
or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness during learning.
Another approach to thinking aloud is the working out loud approach. Listen to this
interview with Jane Bozarth about working out loud.
9. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners improve their
comprehension of a difficult subject.
10. Provide Opportunities for Making Errors. When learners are given the opportunity to
make errors while in training, such as during simulations, it stimulates reflection on the
causes of their errors.
4. Metacognition in Narrative
Lysaker and Dimaggio (2014) consider that problems in the sphere of metacognition
affect the ability of people to make sense of their illness experience and compromise the integrity

7. of their personal goals. Difficulties in these mental functions become evident when individuals
are engaged in processes requiring an understanding of their own and other people's mental
processes but also when this information is required to be mastered for social use. This has led
these researchers to integrate their metacognitive approach as part of cognitive behavior therapy
protocols and evaluate narrative coherence following therapy as a measure of metacognitive
improvement (Lysaker et al., 2002; Wiffen and David, 2009).
5. The Two Processes of Metacognition
Many theorists organize the skills of metacognition into two complementary processes that
make it easier to understand and remember. According to theory, metacognition consists of: 1)
the knowledge of cognition and 2) the regulation of cognition.
1. Knowledge of cognition has three components: knowledge of the factors that influence
one’s own performance; knowing different types of strategies to use for learning;
knowing what strategy to use for a specific learning situation.
2. Regulation of cognition involves: setting goals and planning; monitoring and controlling
learning; and evaluating one’s own regulation (assessing results and strategies used).
6. Metacognitive Strategies can be Implemented in the Classroom:
• Think Aloud. Great for reading comprehension and problem solving. ...
• Checklist, Rubrics and Organizers. Great for solving word problems. ...
• Explicit Teacher Modeling. ...
• Reading Comprehension.
that one knows, and can both be spoken or written
7. Activities for Metacognition.
Metacognitive activities can guide students as they: Identify what they already know.
Articulate what they learned. Communicate their knowledge, skills, and abilities to a specific
audience, such as a hiring committee

8. Metacognitive strategies refers to methods used to help students understand the way they learn;
in other words, it means processes designed for students to ‘think’ about their
‘thinking’.Teachers who use metacognitive strategies can positively impact students who have
learning disabilities by helping them to develop an appropriate plan for learning information,
which can be memorized and eventually routine. As students become aware of how they learn,
they will use these processes to efficiently acquire new information, and consequently, become
more of an independent thinker. Below are three metacognitive strategies, which all include
related resources, that can be implemented in the classroom:
Think Aloud
Great for reading comprehension and problem solving. Think-alouds help students to
consciously monitor and reflect upon what they are learning. This strategy works well when
teachers read a story or problem out loud and periodically stop to verbalize their thoughts. This
allows students to follow the teacher’s thinking process, which gives them the foundation they
need for creating their own strategies and processes that can be useful for understanding what
they are trying to comprehend.
Checklist, Rubrics and Organizers
Great for solving word problems. These organizational tools support students in the
decision-making process because they serve as an aid for planning and self-evaluation. Typically
they ask what students know and need to know to arrive at an answer, and emphasize the need to
reread the problem and self-check responses.
Explicit Teacher Modeling
Great for math instruction. Explicit teacher modeling helps students understand what is
expected of them through a clear example/model of a skill or concept. When a teacher provides a
easy to follow procedure for solving a problem, students have a memorable strategy to use for
approaching a problem on their own.

9. Reading Comprehension
Truly comprehending reading involves students actively engaging with a text and
accurately deciphering the layers of meaning. It is very important for students to develop solid
reading comprehension skills because statistics show that people who have low reading
comprehension ability suffer in academic, professional, and personal pursuits.
Conclusion
In summary, metacognition is a set of skills that enable learners to become aware of how
they learn and to evaluate and adapt these skills to become increasingly effective at learning. In a
world that demands lifelong learning, providing people with new and improved metacognitive
strategies is a gift that can last forever. metacognitive strategies help for you:
1. Knowing the limits of your own memory for a particular task and creating a means of
external support.
2. Self-monitoring your learning strategy, such as concept mapping, and then adapting the
strategy if it isn’t effective.
3. Noticing whether you comprehend something you just read and then modifying your
approach if you did not comprehend it.
4. Choosing to skim subheadings of unimportant information to get to the information you
need.
5. Repeatedly rehearsing a skill in order to gain proficiency.
6. Periodically doing self-tests to see how well you learned something

10. REFERENCES
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