This is a Walden University course (EDUC 8005-Module 3), EDUC 8005 Module 3 Project: Preparing For Research. It is written in APA format, has been graded by an instructor (A), and includes references. Most higher-education assignments are submitted to turnitin, so remember to paraphrase. Let us begin.

1. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 1
EDUC 8005 Module 3 Project: Preparing For Research
Walden University
Orlanda Haynes
Author Note
This paper was prepared for EDUC 8005 Module 3 Project
Fall 2014
Taught by Dr. Stacy Wahl

2. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 2
Module 3 Project prepares students for research. The purpose of this assignment is
to present three research questions with brief explanations as to their relevancy to my
research focus (metacognition as it applies to adult learning theories). Per Module 3
instructions, the assignment should consist of two to three pages ([excluding cover
and reference pages, if applicable]). Literature is organized around the following
questions.
1. What is the relationship between metacognition and adult learning theories?
2. What historical antecedents have had the greatest impact?
3. How is metacognition relevant to the field of Adult and postsecondary
Education?
What are the Relationship between Metacognition and Adult learning theories?
Metacognition is a self-regulated approach to learning. That is—through
monitoring, planning, and assessing one’s cognitive abilities and performances, the
process of evaluating learning needs, formulating, and implementing strategies are
made easier (Flavell, 1976, 1979; Fisher, et al., 2009; Hacker, 2009). Although research
findings have identified metacognitive traits in children and some animal species, this
literature review involves only adult learners. In 1979, John H. Flavell, an American
developmental psychologist, coined the term “metacognition.” He identified four
components: knowledge, experience, goals, and strategies. As Sternberg (1986)
explained “it is figuring out how to do a particular task or set of tasks, and then making
sure that the task or set of tasks are done correctly” (p. 24). Why is this important to adult
and postsecondary education?

3. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 3
Research suggests that adult learning theories share similar constructs as those
used in metacognition. For example, constructivism emphasizes self-regulated
learning in which learners construct knowledge and formulate new ideas and concepts
based on current knowledge and experiences (Marshak, 1983; Sivan, 1986; Smith, 1999;
Popper, et al., 2006; Zimmerman et al., 2009). In addition, Malcolm Knowles summarized the
first major adult learning theory in 1959 (Andragogy). He presented six assumptions about how
adults learn: (1) need to know, (2) learners’ self-concept, (3) role of the learners’ experiences, (4)
students readiness to learn, (5) students’ orientation to learning ( a self-directed approach), and
(6) students’ motivation to learn (Knowles, 1980,1989; Smith, 2002). Similarly, in 1997, the
American Psychological Association reported that . . . . “Learning . . . involves the generation of
knowledge, or cognitive skills and learning strategies. . . . Learners are active, goal-directed,
[and] self-regulating (Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors, para. 1).
Learning, therefore, is a cognitive process that involves acquiring, modifying, and
reinforcing, knowledge, behaviors, and skills. Learning theories, in contrast, address how
information is process, stored, and used. As Flavell (1976) explained, “. . . metacognition refers
to one's knowledge concerning one's own cognitive processes or anything related. . . “(p. 232).
In essence, metacognition and adult learning theories are interrelated.
What historical antecedents have had the greatest impact?
By far, the works of John H. Flavell, developmental psychologist, played a pioneering role
in the advancement of cognitive research. In 1979, he coined the term “metacognition”. Other
notable psychologists include Jean Piaget (1963), Andreas Demetriou (1988), Ann Brown
(1943–1999), Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), the American Psychological Association (1990),

4. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 4
Baker and Brown (1984), and Baker and Cerro (2000), among others (Brown, 1980).
How is Metacognition Relevant to the Field of Adult and Postsecondary
Education?
Research suggests adult learners—with well-developed metacognitive skills—are better at
self-directed and self-regulated learning, problem solving, critical thinking, goal setting, and
decision making than their counterparts are—people with little or no metacognitive training
(Flavell, 1979, 1987; Sivan, 1986; Schunk et al., 1994; Veenman et al., 2006;Merriam et al.,
2007; Zimmerman et al.,2009 ). As such, adult and postsecondary education institutions benefit
through, among others, increase enrollments, tax revenues, and state and federal funding.

5. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 5
References
American Psychological Association (1997). Learner—centered psychological principles: A
framework for school reform and the redesign. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W.
F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 453–482). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum
Fisher, Peter & Wells, & Adrian (2009). Metacognitive therapy: Distinctive features. London:
Routledge.
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The
nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, (34)10, pp. 906-11, Oct 1979.
Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_
files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of metacognition
in education Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from https://uwaterloo.ca
/student-success/sites/ca.student-success/files/uploads/files/TipSheet_Metacognition.pdf
Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
Andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press.
Knowles, M. (1989) The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey (Ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

6. Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 6
Marshak, R. J. (1983). What is between pedagogy and andragogy? Training & Development
Journal, 37 (10), 80. Retrieved on November 22, 2014 from http://web.ebscohost.com
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Popper, K. & Piaget, J. (2006). A rationale for constructivism. Educational Forum, 71(1),
41-48. Retrieved on November 24, 2014, from: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/
pdfviewer?sid=1296a7b8-a8d5-4a1f-8a76-854d8583da9b%40sessionmgr13&vid=40&hid=10
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.) (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance:
Issues and educational applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational Psychologist, Vol. 21,
pp. 209–233.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning. The Encyclopedia of Informal
Education. Retrieved on November 22, 2014, from: www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986b). Intelligence applied. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Publishers.
Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and
learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1(1),
3-14. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-
006-6893-0#page-1
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge

7. American Psychological Association (1997). Learner—centered psychological principles: A
framework for school reform and the redesign. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from
http://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf
Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W.
F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension (pp. 453–482). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum
Fisher, Peter & Wells, & Adrian (2009). Metacognitive therapy: Distinctive features. London:
Routledge.
Flavell, J. H. (1976). Metacognitive aspects of problem solving. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), The
nature of intelligence (pp. 231–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-
developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, (34)10, pp. 906-11, Oct 1979.
Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~jlnietfe/Metacog_Articles_
files/Flavell%20(1979).pdf
Hacker, D. J., Dunlosky, J., & Graesser, A. C. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of metacognition
in education Retrieved on November 24, 2014 from https://uwaterloo.ca
/student-success/sites/ca.student-success/files/uploads/files/TipSheet_Metacognition.pdf
Knowles, Malcolm (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to
Andragogy. Wilton, Connecticut: Association Press.
Knowles, M. (1989) The making of an adult educator: An autobiographical journey (Ed.). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Running head: EDUC 8005 MODULE 3 PROJECT 6
Marshak, R. J. (1983). What is between pedagogy and andragogy? Training & Development

8. Journal, 37 (10), 80. Retrieved on November 22, 2014 from http://web.ebscohost.com
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A
comprehensive guide (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
Popper, K. & Piaget, J. (2006). A rationale for constructivism. Educational Forum, 71(1),
41-48. Retrieved on November 24, 2014, from: http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/
pdfviewer?sid=1296a7b8-a8d5-4a1f-8a76-854d8583da9b%40sessionmgr13&vid=40&hid=10
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (Eds.) (1994). Self-regulation of learning and performance:
Issues and educational applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Sivan, E. (1986). Motivation in social constructivist theory. Educational Psychologist, Vol. 21,
pp. 209–233.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning. The Encyclopedia of Informal
Education. Retrieved on November 22, 2014, from: www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986b). Intelligence applied. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
Publishers.
Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and
learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and learning, 1(1),
3-14. Retrieved on November 26, 2014, from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11409-
006-6893-0#page-1
Zimmerman, B. J., & Cleary, T. J. (2009). Motives to self-regulate learning: A social cognitive
account. In K. R. Wentzel & A. Wigfield (Eds.), Handbook of motivation at school
(pp. 247–264). New York: Routledge