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Economic growth and development
- Section 1 discusses economic growth, defining it as a persistent increase in real GDP and potential output. It examines how growth is presented on a PPC curve and discusses the determinants and measurement of economic growth. - Section 2 defines economic development as the process of improving living standards and quality of life for all citizens through improvements in economic, social, and cultural aspects. It discusses different approaches to defining and measuring development. - Section 3 likely discusses factors affecting the economic growth and development process, including investments, savings, productivity, technology, education and other macroeconomic factors.
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Economic growth and development
- 1. Economic growth and Development© Unit10 1RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 2. Prepared by: RASHAIN PERERA RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52 2
- 3. SUMMARY • Section 1;Economic growth • Section 2; Economic development • Section 3; Factors affecting economic growth and development process 3RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 4. ECONOMIC GROWTH Section 1 4RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 5. What is economicgrowth? • It is the persistent increase in the real GDP of a country • In other words it is the increase of the potential output or GDP • It can be shown as an outward shift of PPC • Here the production, output, income, expenditure, demand, employment levels increase or appreciate leading the economy to grow • Economic growth is a journey(dynamic process) but not a destination(static output) 5RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 6. Presentation of economicgrowth on a PPC • Economic growth can be shown as an outward shift of the PPC 6RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 7. Merit goods VsLuxury Goods RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52 7
- 8. Economic growth andaggregate supply • Economic growth results in an expansion of aggregate supply and hence it can be depicted as a rightward shift of aggregate supply curve 8RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 9. Opportunity cost ofeconomic growth • The opportunity cost of economic growth is the present consumption that is being sacrificed. • Higher the investments done at present higher the economic growth will be and vice versa. • To invest more at present an economy needs to sacrifice on consumption activities. • Thus the opportunity cost of economic growth is the present consumption that is sacrificed 9RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 10. What are the determinants/sources/causesof economic growth? • Resource endowment • Productivity levels of the economy • Macro economic stability • Good governance • Political stability • Growth of opportunities for entrepreneurs • Increase in investments and stock of capital • Increase in the investment ratio • Creation of a favorable atmosphere inside the country to promote foreign investments • Development of infrastructure facilities • Trained labour force 10RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 11. Main wheels ofeconomic growth • Human resources • Natural resources • Capital • technology 11RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 12. What factors limiteconomic growth? • Lack of capital formation • Lack of savings • Rapid population growth compared to the growth in output • Low labour productivity • Inadequacy of infrastructure facilities • Inefficiencies in public sector • Macro economic instability • Ethical issues and political instability • Cultural barriers • Unskilled labour • Imperfect labour markets 12RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 13. Public sector strategiesin promoting economic growth • Increase government spending on technological development • Increase government expenditure on infrastructure activities • Increase government expenditure on human capital development • Establish political stability • Keep interest rates at low level • Creating investor friendly economic environment • Establish macro economic stability • Promote private property rights • Establish a good tax system to promote savings and investments • Increase government expenditure on research and development 13RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 14. Costs of economicgrowth • Opportunity cost of investments or sacrificed present consumption – In order to avoid the opportunity cost, foreign aids and grants should be obtained so that present consumption is not sacrificed. • Negative externalities from the production process • Wastage of economic resources if the process of economic growth is not properly planned – As a solution environmental preservation measures can be taken • Socio cultural problems • Administrative costs 14RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 15. Measuring economic growth •Economic growth rate • Real GDP per capita 15RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 16. Economic growth rate •This measures the percentage growth of real GDP of a given year relative to the previous year = real GDP current year - real GDP previous year real GDP previous year 16RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 17. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 17
- 18. • Per capitareal GNP = real GNP Mid year population • This measures the growth of living standards • Enable comparison of development among nations 18RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 19. year Per capitaGDP (market price-USD) 2011 2836 2012 2922 2013 3280 2014 3625 19RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 20. What is negativereal growth? • This is a situation where GDP or GNP at constant price has gone down in a particular year compared to the previous year • Causes – Fall of output – Lack of infrastructure – Terrorism and civil war – Decline in investment ratio – Political instability – Recession 20RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 21. Economic structure and structuralchanges with economic growth • Structural composition • Employment composition • International trade structure- exports • Changed with economic growth • Agriculture sector involvement decreased • Service sector and industrial sectors expanded • Employment structure too changed • Employees are educated • They wanted white collar jobs • Thus employment in agricultural sector decreased 21RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 22. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 22
- 23. Analyzing economic growth ratesof Sri Lanka • Highest growth rates are recorded in 1978 and 2011 – 8.3% • Lowest growth rate is recorded in 2001 – (-1.5%) • After the war 7.44% • Last decade economic growth rate is 6.74% (2005-2014) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 6.8 6 3.5 8 8.3 6.3 7.2 7.4 23RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 24. Reasons for ahigher economic growth rate in the recent years • Higher investor and consumer confidence after the war • Macro-economic stability • Higher utilization of resources • Infrastructure development • Economic development in North and Eastern provinces • Rapid expansion in industry and service sectors. 24RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 25. Factors required inpromoting economic growth • Investments • Savings • Lower ICOR-productivity of capital • Technology • Education and training • Entrepreneurship • Research and development • Macro economic stability • Good governance 25RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 26. Investments • The mainsource of investment is savings • If investment exceeds savings from domestic sources, foreign savings are used to bridge the gap • In other words investments can only be increased than savings from domestic sources through savings from foreign sources 26RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 27. Sources of investment Domesticsources Foreign sources Household savings Corporate savings Government savings Foreign loans and aids Foreign grants Foreign investments Foreign direct investments Portfolio investments 27RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 28. Saving-investment gap • Ina given period the difference between savings from domestic sources and investment is known as saving- investment gap Saving-investment gap=domestic savings- investments 28RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 29. Strategies to bridgesaving- investment gap • Control inflation – Positive real interest rates lead to promote savings in the mid term and long term – Increase in real income leads to promote savings and labour productivity • Liberalizing financial market – Liberalizing foreign exchange controls – Introducing innovative and effective financial instruments – Stabilizing financial system and provide more opportunities for financial institutions • Improve infrastructure facilities • Fiscal discipline 29RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 30. Incremental Capital Output Ratio-ICOR •Is incremental percentage of capital required to increase gross domestic product by 1%. Higher the ICOR lower the productivity of capital ICOR = change in K / Change in Y 30RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 31. Social capital • Socialcapital refers to the institutions, relationships and norms established by a group of people for the common well being to shape the quality and quantity of a society’s social interactions. • Social capital leads to better interaction and co-ordination of the society through which it helps to improve productivity. Thus it leads to economic growth 31RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 32. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 32
- 33. • Importance ofsocial capital – Helps to improve social interactions and coordination – Helps to improve public productivity – Improve social trust and harmony – Helps in sustainable growth – Reduces social unrest and ethical problems – Improve quality of life – Create a friendly social environment helps to disseminate knowledge 33RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 34. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Section 2 34RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 35. What is economicdevelopment? • This is the process of upgrading the quality of all human lives • Provision of facilities for the people to enjoy a better standard of living • Through improvements in economic, social and cultural aspects • Economic development is with the improvement of economic growth where growth benefits flow down to all people of the economy to ensure acceptable living standards for everyone 35RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 36. Defining economic development •Economic development is analyzed using different approaches because there is no universal agreement as how to define standard of living improvement of quality of life. • Following are the approaches used – Economic growth approach – Economic development approach – Basic needs approach – Human development approach – Sustainable development approach 36RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 37. Economic growth approach •Oldest concept on development • Argues that economic growth equals to economic development • According to this approach ability of an economy to improve its real GDP and capability of sustaining it for a long period is considered as economic development • Measurements used in this approach – Real GDP growth rate – Per capita real GDP 37RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 38. Economic development approach •Is the process of improving both quantity and quality of life • Thus this approach argues that the economic growth is not a sufficient measure to evaluate economic development but along with economic growth other factors such as structural changes needs to be considered • Measures used – Economic growth • Real GDP growth • Per capita real GDP – Structural and other economic changes • Sectorial contribution to GDP • Factor productivity • Technological improvement • Relative income distribution 38RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 39. Basic needs approach •An approach based on development of people • Economic development = ability to acquire a goods and service basket that meets acceptable minimum living standard by everyone in the society • In this approach labour productivity was identified as the main force to achieve economic development • Measurements include – Economic growth • Real GDP growth • Per capita real GDP – Quality of life • Physical quality of Life index PQLI • Absolute poverty • Unemployment rate • Relative income distribution 39RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 40. PQLI • This isan index that measures the quality of life or well being of a country • PQLI uses the equally weighted average of thee statistics – Basic literacy rate – Infant mortality rate – Life expectancy • PQLI value varies from 100 where 100 is the best physical quality of life and 1 is the worst 40RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 41. Human development approach •Was introduced by UNO in 1990 • Argues that economic development is through improving human capabilities, expanding the choices and opportunities people have to live lives that they value • In simple converting living standard of people from bad to good • Human development is measured using 3 main dimensions – Long and healthy life/longivity • Life expectancy at birth – Knowledge/education • Mean years of schooling • Expected years of schooling – Decent standard of living • GNI per capita PPP in USD 41RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 42. Sustainable development approach • Humanlife is on a finite planet • Development is achieving economic growth to meet human needs without undermining the sustainability of natural systems and the environment so that future generations may also have their needs met. 42RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 43. Essential requirements for economicdevelopment • Except economic growth • Reduction in income disparity • Reduction in poverty and unemployment • Fulfillment of basic needs • Changes in economic structure • God governance • Balanced regional development • Sustainable development • Self sufficiency 43RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 44. What is sustainable development? •Sustainable development is the development which meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generation. • There are four types of capital necessary for sustainable development – Physical capital – Human capital – Natural capital – Social capital • The sectors that needs improvement with sustainable development – Economic development – Social development – Protection of environment 44RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 45. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 45
- 46. Factors and indicesused to measure economic development. 46RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 47. Economic factors Economic growthReal GDP/GNP growth rate, annual growth rate of per capita real GDP/GNP, purchasing power parity GDP Employment and unemployment Employment ratio, labour force participation rate, unemployment rate Income distribution Lorenz curve and gini co-efficient to measure relative income distribution, absolute income distribution Economic stability Inflation rate, surplus or deficits of BOP, changes in exchange rates Social factors health Life expectancy at birth, infantile mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, underweight child birth below 5 years nutrition Average daily calorie consumption, malnutrition education Literacy rate, drop out rate, educational level of labour force, educational level of women, teacher pupil ratio Living standards Physical quality life index, human development index, human poverty index, millennium development goals, sustainable development 47RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 48. Economic growth VSeconomic development. Economic growth Economic development A persistent or sustained increase in country’s real GDP or GNP over a long period of time Is a quantitative measure Is an essential requirement for development Economic development shows an increase in the quality of all human lives Is a qualitative measure 48RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 49. FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMIC GROWTHAND DEVELOPMENT. Section 3 49RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 50. What factors affecteconomic growth and development process? • Income • Equity • Poverty • Population • Employment • Unemployment 50RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 51. INCOME Section 3 A 51RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 52. Measuring income • Worldbank classification of economies • Per capita GNP • Purchasing power parity income distribution (PPP) 52RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 53. World bank classificationof economies. • Here based on GDP per capita every economy is classified as low income, middle income or high income. • 2012 GNI per capita calculated using the World Bank Atlas method. Low income Lower middle Upper middle High income $1035 or less $1036-$4085 $4086-$12615 $12616 or more 53RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 54. Purchasing power parityincome distribution. • purchasing power parity can be defined as the presentation of the ability that a country has to buy goods and services in local currency in terms of the exchange rate • The purchasing power parity income and per capita income measured in 2012. Country Per capita GNP PPP per capita GNP Bangladesh Nepal Pakistan India Sri Lanka China Switzerland USA Norway 752 690 1257 1489 2923 6091 78925 51749 99558 1851 1451 2741 3813 6186 9083 53281 51749 65640 54RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 55. Reasons for thedifference between per capita income and PPP per capita income. • Differentials in price levels between countries • Self sufficient closed economies are not considered for this measure • Changes in economic and social policies 55RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 56. EQUITY Section 3 B 56RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 57. What is equity? •Non existence of high inequality in the distribution of income among households is equity. This does not mean that income is equally distributed households. • Basis of studying equity – Relative income distribution – Absolute income distribution 57RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 58. Relative income distribution. •Illustration of the distribution of income as a percentage among households or income shares by deciles of income receivers is relative income distribution. • Lorenz curve and Gini-co-efficient can be used to measure the relative income distribution. 58RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 59. Lorenz curve • Thiswas introduced by Max Auto Lorenz to measure relative distribution of income. • It shows the degree of inequality that exists in the distributions of two variables and is often used to illustrate the extent that income or wealth is distributed unequally in a particular society. 59RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 60. 60RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52
- 61. Gini-coeffecient • A ginico-efficient is a numerical measure that measures how unequally one variable is related to another. = area between 45 degree line of Lorenz curve area below the line of perfect equity 61RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 62. Absolute income distribution •This shows the percentage of households that belong to different income groups. In other words this shows absolute poverty, the percentage of households less than a certain level of income. 62RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 63. POVERTY Section 3 C 63RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 64. What is poverty? •Poverty refers to the state of inability to fulfill the basic needs. • In other words inability to obtain a minimum living standard acceptable in the society is poverty. • There are 3 types of poverty 64RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 65. Absolute/income/consumption poverty • This isthe most important to identify poverty. • Absolute poverty is the inability to fulfill basic human needs or minimum living standard. • When human beings are not able to consume sufficient necessities to maintain life or when human beings are homeless and malnourished they suffer from income poverty. 65RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 66. Relative poverty • Inequalityin the distribution of income in a country is relative poverty. • Here the income earned by one group is compared with that of another group. • Relative poverty always exists in a society. Lorenz curve and Gini-co efficient are used to measure this. 66RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 67. Human poverty • Thedenial of choices and opportunities for living a life one has reason to value could be simply known as human poverty • HDI(Human Development Index) is used to measure human poverty. This was introduced by the united nations. • Long and healthy life • Knowledge • Decent standard of living • When these requirements are not satisfied it is meant to be human poverty. 67RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 68. Vicious cycle ofpoverty 68RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 69. Measuring poverty • Povertyline • Human poverty index – HPI -I – HPI -II 69RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 70. Poverty line • Povertyline is the monthly expenditure needed to obtain minimum quantity of goods that is required for the subsistence of an individual. This minimum quantity of goods should supply daily 2500 calories and 53g of protein (20-39 years). Poverty line is a criterion used to measure the absolute poverty. • When the sector of population below the poverty line is shown as a percentage of total population it is called a Head Count Index (HCI). Poverty line takes two forms. They are; – Lower poverty line – Upper poverty line 70RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 71. Human Poverty Index HPIis a composite index formed in 1977. This is an indication of the standards of living in a country. There are two indices namely HPI 1 and HPI 2. HPI 1-This is a composite index measuring deprivation in 3 basic dimensions captured in the HDI. They are; – Probability at birth of not surviving till the age of 40 years – Adults without literacy rate – Underweighted average population without sustainable access to an impoverished water source and children underweight for their age. HPI 2- The components or dimensions of HPI 2 are as follows; – Probability at birth of not surviving till the age of 60 years – Adults lacking functional literacy skills – Rate of long term unemployment. (lasting 12 months and more) – Population below income poverty line. 71RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 72. POPULATION Section 3 D 72RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 73. What is population? •Population is a dynamic phenomenon. • Population growth – Population growth is the change in population over time. In other words it is the change in the number of individuals of a country’s population. – Population growth rate is used to determine the percentage in which population changed over time. – Population growth rate is the percentage by which the total population has increased during a year in consideration compared to a previous year. 73RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 74. = (crude birthrate % - crude death rate % ± net immigration %) /1000 x 100 = (natural growth rate % ± net immigration %) /1000 x 100 74RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 75. Population density • Populationdensity is the number of people per square kilometer of land. While the land area remains constant, the population density increases with the growth of the population. • According to 2001 census, Sri Lanka population density stands at 300 persons per square kilometer. 75RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 76. The main reasonsfor change in population • Fertility • Mortality • Net migrations 76RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 77. Fertility/births • Birth rate(crude birth rate)-Birth rate is the number of live births per 1000 people in a given year. The birth rate is usually the dominant factor in determining the rate of population growth = (total number of live births / mid year population ) x 1000 77RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 78. • Life expectancy –Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years to be lived by a group of people born in the same year, if mortality at each age remains constant in future. 78RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 79. Mortality/deaths • Mortality rate(crude death rate)-The mortality rate measures the average annual number of deaths during a year per 1000 populations at midyear and also known as crude death rate. It is a rough indicator of the mortality situation in a country. It accurately indicates the current mortality impact on population growth. = average number of deaths during the year / mid year population x 1000 79RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 80. • Infant mortalityrate-Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of infants under one year old in a given year, per 1000 live births in the same year. This rate is often used as an indicator of the level of health in a country = number of infants deaths during the period / total number of live births during the year x 1000 80RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 81. Births VS deaths •Natural increase / decrease (births- deaths)-Natural increase / decrease is the surplus / deficit of births over deaths in a population in a given time period. = crude birth rate% - crude death rate % / 1000 x 100 81RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 82. Net migrations • Netmigrations/immigrations- This is the difference between the number of persons entering and leaving a country during the year per 1000 persons. • An excess of persons entering the country is referred to as net immigrations • While an excess of persons leaving the country could be known as net emigrations. 82RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 83. Note!!! • With thechange in population over time following factors should also be considered: – Population density – Sex composition – Dependency ratio – Age structure – Teacher : pupil ratio – Ageing population – Literacy rate – And others 83RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 84. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 84
- 85. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 85
- 86. RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52 86
- 87. EMPLOYMENT Section 3 E 87RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 88. • Before studyingemployment it is worth to study on “LABOR FORCE” 88RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 89. What is laborforce? • Population in working age that already work and have offered themselves for employment could be simply known as labour force. Labour force consists two types of labour. They are; – People who are already employed – People who are unemployed and expecting a job opportunity • There are four types of people who are already employed. They are; – Employees who are obtaining wages – Self employed persons – Family workers who are obtaining wages – Employers 89RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 90. Labor force participation rate/activityrate • labour force particiapation rate is the labour force as a percentage of population of working age. In Sri Lanka the labour force is defined as persons aged 10 years and above, who are able to work in a given reference period. = (employed aged 10 and above + unemployed aged 10 and above) /population aged 10 and above x 100 90RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 91. What is employment? •Employment is working for a public or private employer receiving remuneration in wages, salary, commission, tips, piece rates, or pay in kind. 91RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 92. Employment rate • Theproportion of working age adults employed, as a percentage of total labour force. = working age adults employed labour force x 100 92RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 93. Full employment Vsunder employment 93RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 94. • Full employment-Fullemployment is when all or nearby all people who are able to work and willing to work can work at a certain or minimum wage. In other words full employment is when; all available labour resources are being used in an economically efficient way. However, full employment doesn’t mean there’s zero unemployment. • Under-employment-Underemployment means that the workers who have a high level of training are employed at jobs which they are overqualified for, wasting their skills on that rather than doing something they specialize in. – Visible under employment-Visible under employment reflects an insufficiency in the volume of employment – Invisible under employment-It is the under employment characterized by low income, under utilization of skills, low productivity and other factors. 94RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 95. UNEMPLOYMENT Section 3 F 95RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 96. What is unemployment? •Unemployment is the labour force that is currently unemployed. In other words it is the proportion of working age adults unemployed. 96RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 97. Unemployment rate • Unemploymentrate is the percentage of the labour force shown that is currently unemployed. = unemployed people labour force x 100 97RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 98. Types of unemployment 98RASHAINPERERA 077 059 37 52
- 99. • Structural unemployment-Thisis the unemployment resulting from people having skills and training that do not have jobs available in that field, or live in an area where those skills are not required. • Frictional unemployment-A type of unemployment that occurs because people do not always want to take their first job offer and businesses do not always hire the first person that applies. Ex; A works at the University of Colombo library. After graduation, it takes him 6 months to find a new job. He is no longer unemployed, but had 6 months of frictional unemployment. • Seasonal unemployment-A type of unemployment that occurs when a worker can only work during a specific season, and when those seasons are over, they no longer employed due to lack of need. • Cyclical / demand- deficient unemployment-This occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy. 99RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
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- 101. Costs of unemployment •Government has to increase the expenditure for social benefits • Waste of resources • Decrease in quality of resources • Production goes down • GDP decreases • Under-utilization of resources • Deflation • De-skilling 101RASHAIN PERERA 077 059 37 52
- 102. END 102RASHAIN PERERA 077059 37 52