Earth interior
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The Earth is composed of four main layers - the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. The crust is the top layer that humans live on, and it varies in thickness between continents and oceans. Below the crust is the mantle, which is hotter and able to flow. Deeper still are the outer core, composed of liquid nickel and iron, and the inner core, where extreme heat and pressure force metals to vibrate in place as solids. Convection currents in the mantle cause the movement of tectonic plates at the crust.
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Wegener first proposed continental drift in the early 20th century, suggesting that continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea. While evidence like matching coastlines and fossil distributions supported drift, Wegener could not explain the forces driving plate motions. In the 1960s, the new theory of plate tectonics emerged, proposing that Earth's outer layer is broken into rigid plates that move over the mantle. At plate boundaries, plates diverge, converge, or slide past each other, creating geological features like mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones. Paleomagnetic and seafloor spreading evidence confirmed plate tectonics, and mantle convection is now understood to be the primary driver of
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Role of forams in petroleum industry
Foraminifera, or forams, have several applications in petroleum geology, most notably for biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental analysis. Biostratigraphy uses the fossils found in different rock layers to determine the age of the rock and help locate the specific rock unit a well has penetrated. Paleoenvironmental analysis interprets the depositional environment based on the fossils present. Additionally, forams indicate environmental factors like depth and salinity that are important for source rock analysis. They also aid in correlating rock strata, determining relative ages, and recognizing unconformities.
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Earth interior
- 1. The Layers of the Earth © Copyright 2013. Rajeev Kumar RAJ. All rights reserved.
- 2. The Four Layers The Earth is composed of four different layers. The crust is the layer that you live on, and it is the most widely studied and understood. The mantle is much hotter and has the ability to flow. The outer core and inner core are even hotter with pressures so great you would be squeezed into a ball smaller than a marble if you were able to go to the center of the Earth!
- 3. The Crust The Earth's Crust is like the skin of an apple. It is very thin in comparison to the other three layers. The crust is only about 3-5 miles (8 kilometers) thick under the oceans (oceanic crust) and about 25 miles (32 kilometers) thick under the continents (continental crust).
- 4. The Lithospheric Plates The crust of the Earth is broken into many pieces called plates. The plates "float" on the soft, semi- rigid asthenosphere.
- 5. The Asthenosphere The asthenosphere is the semi-rigid part of the middle mantle that flows like hot asphalt under a heavy weight.
- 6. The Lithosphere The crust and the upper layer of the mantle together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock called the Lithosphere.
- 7. The Crust The crust is composed of two rocks. The continental crust is mostly granite. The oceanic crust is basalt. Basalt is much denser than the granite. Because of this the less dense continents ride on the denser oceanic plates.
- 8. The Mantle The Mantle is the largest layer of the Earth. The middle mantle is composed of very hot dense rock that flows like asphalt under a heavy weight. The movement of the middle mantle (asthenosphere) is the reason that the crustal plates of the Earth move.
- 9. Convection Currents The middle mantle "flows" because of convection currents. Convection currents are caused by the very hot material at the deepest part of the mantle rising, then cooling and sinking again --repeating this cycle over and over.
- 10. Convection Currents The next time you heat anything like soup or water in a pan you can watch the convection currents move in the liquid. When the convection currents flow in the asthenosphere they also move the crust. The crust gets a free ride with these currents, like the cork in this illustration. Safety Caution: Don’t get your face too close to the boiling water!
- 11. The Outer Core The core of the Earth is like a ball of very hot metals. The outer core is so hot that the metals in it are all in the liquid state. The outer core is composed of the melted metals of nickel and iron.
- 12. The Inner Core The inner core of the Earth has temperatures and pressures so great that the metals are squeezed together and are not able to move about like a liquid, but are forced to vibrate in place like a solid.
- 13. The End BONUS: Find a pair or trio and answer this question: Have we ever seen part of the Mantle? Explain. © Copyright 2013.Rajeev Kumar RAJ. All rights reserved.