Early Childhood Development A Multicultural Perspective 7th Edition smith Solutions Manual

Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank
For
Early Childhood Development
A Multicultural Perspective
Seventh Edition
Jeffrey Trawick-Smith, Eastern Connecticut State University
Prepared by
Lauren Sherman and Gail Gottfried
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ii
______________________________________________________________________________
Instructors of classes using Early Childhood Development: A Multicultural Perspective, by Jeffrey Trawick-Smith,
may reproduce material from the Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank for classroom use.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-10: 013452294X
ISBN-13: 9780134522944
www.pearsonhighered.com

iii
Table of Contents
Introduction to the Instructor’s Manual ................................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER 1: STUDYING EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT IN A DIVERSE WORLD
Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 1
MyEducationLab® Content ........................................................................................................................... 3
Cooperative Learning Activities .................................................................................................................... 4
Application Activities................................................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH AND ASSESSMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 17
MyEducationLab® Content ......................................................................................................................... 18
Cooperative Learning Activities................................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 4: GENETICS, PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH
CHAPTER 5: THE NEWBORN
CHAPTER 6: INFANT PHYSICAL GROWTH OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
CHAPTER 7: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF INFANTS AND TODDLERS
CHAPTER 8: INFANT AND TODDLER LANGUAGE AND LITERACY

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CHAPTER 9: INFANT AND TODDLER SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Application Activities .................................................................................................................................. 92
CHAPTER 10: PRESCHOOL PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Application Activities................................................................................................................................. 101
CHAPTER 11: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
Chapter Overview .................................................................................................................................... 103
MyEducationLab® Content ....................................................................................................................... 105
Cooperative Learning Activities................................................................................................................. 106
CHAPTER 12: SYMBOLIC THOUGHT: PLAY, LANGUAGE, AND LITERACY IN THE PRESCHOOL
YEARS
CHAPTER 13: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOLERS
Chapter Overview..................................................................................................................................... 129
CHAPTER 14: PHYSICAL GROWTH AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY YEARS
CHAPTER 15: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY YEARS
CHAPTER 16: LANGUAGE AND LITERACY IN THE PRIMARY YEARS
CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRIMARY YEARS

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CHAPTER 18: PARENTS, FAMILIES, AND CHILDREN: A MULTICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE
WEB RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................................... 184

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Introduction of the Instructor’s Manual: Author’s Note
Over the years, I have used Early Childhood Development: A Multicultural Perspective to teach a variety of
courses—huge undergraduate lecture classes and tiny graduate seminars, field-based courses and even one-on-one
internships. In all of these settings, I have tried to apply constructivist learning techniques—engaging students in
cooperative learning activities and assessing their knowledge using exam items that require reflection. In this
manual I present some of these strategies. The materials presented here have been field-tested and found to work in
a variety of teaching contexts. Many of them focus on extending student learning beyond the concepts in the book.
They help students to form and express personal viewpoints, to apply ideas to authentic problems, and to critically
analyze theory and research. Although these materials have worked for me, the instructor is urged to borrow from
and adapt these, based on the unique needs of specific groups of students. As discussed in the book, the learning
styles and cultural backgrounds of students will determine the best ways to approach teaching and assessment. The
following describes the components of the Instructor’s Manual and the Test Bank.
Chapter Overview
The manual provides an overview of each chapter as an introduction to the content for that chapter. Important
concepts and ideas are presented as a means of providing a context for the chapter. The chapter overview is typically
several descriptive statements.
Key (Guiding) Questions
In order to identify the important issues for each chapter, a list of key questions is presented, related to the “Guiding
Questions” presented for students at the beginning of each text chapter. Presented along with the Critical Concepts
which answer them, these key questions help to organize the instructor’s thinking and preparation for class
presentation. They are helpful in identifying and summarizing the key concepts for consideration in each chapter.
Critical Concepts
The manual presents Critical Concepts for each chapter which summarize the answers to the Key Questions. These
concise summaries allow the instructor to determine, at a glance, the key points addressed in the text. They may be
used as a guide in developing a course outline and syllabus and in planning class discussions and lectures.
Cooperative Learning Activities
The manual provides a set of cooperative learning activities in each chapter—designed for use in both large and
small courses—which the instructor can photocopy directly and use in class. These engage students in group
problem solving, role-playing, simulations, and other experiences that promote reflection and an exchange of ideas.
Every activity has been tried out in college classrooms, modified, and then tried again.
Application Activities
The manual suggests several activities to be completed both inside and outside of class that require students to
practice applying their understanding of concepts presented in each chapter to the real world of early childhood
education. These activities are designed to help build students’ skills and confidence in using what they are learning
to make their classroom teaching more effective on a daily basis.

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Web Resources
The last section of the manual lists and describes resources available on the World Wide Web to allow both
instructors and students to investigate chapter topics in more depth. These pages may be copied and distributed to
students.
PowerPoint Slides
The PowerPoint slides that accompany this text are coordinated with the text and Instructor’s Manual. They provide
an expanded outline of and summarize the critical concepts for each chapter. Bullet points have been set to appear
one at a time to allow instructor to elaborate on each point while keeping students’ attention on that particular point.
This allows instructors to pace student note-taking to match lecture and discussion.
Jeffrey Trawick-Smith

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Update to the Seventh Edition
This seventh edition has the following additions and updates:
 Each chapter starts with a set of learning objectives that detail the concepts that the chapter presents. Each
objective is tied to a main section of the text.
 Recent research in neuroscience is presented, which helps us better understand how children think, learn,
feel, and behave.
 Greater emphasis is placed on newer or more culturally inclusive theories of development—neo-Piagetian,
postmodern, and biological theories, for example.
 A more extensive examination of dual-language learners is included. Newly discovered advancements in
how young children from bilingual homes learn and develop are profiled.
 The book contains discussions of more than 400 new research studies and articles on early childhood
development that have been published since the last edition.
 An end-of-chapter feature titled Applying Chapter Ideas has been added. This feature provides real-world,
hands-on exercises along with questions to ponder related to those exercises.
MyEducationLab®
The most visible change in the seventh edition (and certainly one of the most significant changes) is the expansion
of the digital learning and assessment resources embedded in the etext. These digital learning features are designed
to bring students more directly into the world of early childhood development and to help them see the very real
impact that educational psychology concepts have on early childhood development.
The online resources available in the Enhanced Etext with MyEducationLab include the following:
 Video Examples. Within each chapter, embedded videos provide illustrations of early childhood
development principles or concepts in action. Captions tie the video directly to specific chapter content.
 Self-Checks. At the end of each chapter, you will find a series of Self-Check quizzes, with questions tied to
each of the chapter objectives. They are meant to help students self-assess how well they have mastered the
concepts covered in the chapter. These self-checks include multiple choice items that provide immediate
feedback on whether each question was answered correctly or incorrectly. In addition, every possible
response includes specific feedback designed to further learning, either enriching the correct response or
providing guidance as to why another option was not the best choice.
 Application Exercises. Also at the end of each chapter, you can find one or two application exercises that
challenge students to use chapter content to reflect on teaching and learning in real classrooms. The
questions in these exercises are usually constructed-response items. As soon as students submit their
answers to the questions, they receive feedback in the form of model answers written by experts.

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CHAPTER 1: STUDYING EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
IN A DIVERSE WORLD
Chapter Overview
Studying early childhood development is essential to becoming an effective teacher of young children. This chapter
focuses on the definition of early childhood development within the larger context of human development.
Important differences between quantitative and qualitative development are discussed and examples are provided.
The rationale for a strong understanding of child development is presented. The critical connections between
understanding how young children develop and the teacher’s roles in guiding interactions with children, planning
and implementing curriculum, observing and identifying individual needs of children, appreciating diversity, and
shaping child advocacy and public policy are discussed. Throughout this chapter, the critical need to study child
development from a multicultural perspective is emphasized. The term minority is replaced by terms such as
children of traditionally underrepresented groups or children of color as a reflection of the changing demographics
in the United States. Important distinctions are made also between developmental delays and cultural differences.
This new terminology emphasizes a positivist perspective and replaces the more negative deficit perspective. The
important relationship between understanding early childhood development from a multicultural perspective and the
effective development of public policy and child advocacy is also presented.
Key Questions
1. What is early childhood development?
2. How have Western views on early childhood development changed over the years?
3. How have non-Western perspectives on childhood differed from Western views?
4. How can knowledge of early childhood development guide classroom interactions and curriculum planning?
5. How can an understanding of early childhood development guide the observation and identification of children
with disabilities?
6. How can knowledge of early childhood development promote an understanding and appreciation of diversity?
7. How can this knowledge guide advocacy and the shaping of public policy?
8. Why should professionals study child development from a multicultural perspective?
Research into Practice: Critical Concepts
Each chapter of the text includes a list of Critical Concepts at the end, with suggestions for applying the concepts in
educational practice (directed to the student audience). Instructors may choose to design a classroom activity or
observation based on the suggestions provided.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 1
Development is defined as the process by which humans change as they grow older. This change is not just
quantitative in nature; humans do not just acquire more knowledge and ability but change qualitatively as
well. At each stage, humans think, behave, and perceive the world very differently.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 2
Western perspectives on childhood have changed throughout history. Historical accounts in Western society portray
children as being treated poorly in early centuries but cared for more compassionately in modern society.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 3
In spite of improvement in the treatment of children in Western societies in recent times, services and educational
opportunities are still not available to all children. Some children are in great need, even in modern America.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 4
Non-Western perspectives on childhood are unique because of history. Many of the beliefs about children and
socialization practices of families in non-Western cultures are related to the experiences of slavery and oppression.

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CRITICAL CONCEPT 5
Since the American population is becoming more diverse, it is important for professionals to study child
development from a multicultural perspective. Children of different cultures vary in the ways they communicate and
interact with adults and peers, in how they play and learn, and in how they view teachers and school. Parenting
practices and beliefs vary across cultures as well.

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MyEducationLab®
Self-Check Quizzes
 Self-Check 1.1: Define early childhood development and describe how views on how children develop
have varied over time and across Eastern and Western cultures.
 Self-Check 1.2: Describe ways that knowledge of early childhood development can guide classroom
interactions, curriculum planning, and the identification of children with disabilities.
 Self-Check 1.3: Identify the ways that early childhood development promotes an understanding and
appreciation of diversity and guides advocacy and the shaping of public policy.
 Self-Check 1.4: Discuss why professionals should study child development from a multicultural
perspective.
Application Exercise
 Application Exercise 1.1: Recognizing Quantitative Research. Students view a video showing two
children playing and answer a series of questions about their development.
Linked video [captions]
 Video Example 1.1. The children and the teacher in this video are busy building with blocks. As you
watch, consider what the children are learning from block building and how the teacher guides their play.
 Video Example 1.2. This video shows an integrated curriculum about birds, designed for preschoolers. As
you watch, think about why the curriculum is so effective and how the teacher attends carefully to the
children’s developmental needs and levels.
 Video Example 1.3. The school shown in this video participates in a national wellness program by having a
Walk and Bike to School day every month. As you watch, consider the ways in which early childhood
professionals can become more effective advocates for children and families when they involve the
community.
 Video Example 1.4. Cross-cultural comparisons show both universals in language development and the
diversity in the environmental input that young language learners hear. In general, children around the
world show similar developmental trajectories overall, although substantial individual differences,
especially in vocabulary development, are also apparent.

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ACTIVITY 1: The Story of Pat
(To be completed in groups of 4 or 5)
Teaching Notes: This activity is designed to assist students in exploring their attitudes and perspectives on culture
and gender. Part One should be copied separately and distributed to each group first. Groups discuss questions
provided; a whole group sharing of ideas may be conducted.
Part II is provided after Part I has been discussed. Groups explore how gender and culture affect their responses to
the problem.
The instructor may simply photocopy the following pages to try this activity in class:

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The Story of Pat
Part One
Pat is a five-year-old in your kindergarten classroom who is quite rough in play and has trouble sharing. Often, you
need to intervene during free play because Pat has snatched other children's toys, or pushed and grabbed onto peers
in inappropriate ways. These behaviors are leading, gradually, to peer rejection.
With only this thumb-nail sketch, answer the following questions in your group:
1. What are some theories about why Pat behaves in this way?
2. Discuss three specific strategies you might use to address these problems in the classroom.
Include both formal and informal strategies. Include the use of resource persons who could
help develop effective interventions as well as creative strategies devised by the teacher directly.

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Story of Pat
Part Two
Now that you have discussed Pat in your group, answer the following questions about the theories and strategies you
proposed implementing in Part One:
1. How would your answers to questions in Part One change if you learned that Pat was a boy?
A girl?
2. How would your answers in Part One change if Pat were African-American?
Korean American?
Euro-American?
3. How would your answers change if you knew Pat lived in a crowded, urban apartment with a large
extended family?
4. How would your answers change if Pat were an only child living in a wealthy suburb?

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ACTIVITY 2: Describing Terry
(To be completed first by individual students, then to be discussed, many weeks later, in groups of 2 or 3)
Teaching Notes: Initiate this activity on the first class of the semester (or when students first begin reading the
text). Do not complete it until the last class (or after the book has been read).
First Class Session: First present students with a photo of an African-American child (or another child of color).
Tell students: “This is Terry. I want you to invent a story about him/her in your mind.” After a pause, provide the
questionnaire below. Ask students to reflect on their stories of Terry and then to answer the questions in as much
detail as possible. Have each student provide an identifying number (no names to promote honest responses!) on the
questionnaire and collect these. After all of these stories have been collected, facilitate a brief discussion about
students’ beliefs about Terry. The following are suggested questions:
1. What made you uncomfortable about this activity? Why should we be cautious in making judgments about
children and their families, based on first impressions?
2. What are some things you wrote about Terry’s academic abilities?
3. How did you describe Terry’s family?
4. What did you write about Terry’s views of himself?
Last Class Session: At the end of the course, pass back each student’s questionnaires. In pairs or trios, have
students discuss the following questions about what they wrote at the beginning of the course:
1. Are there any responses on what you wrote at the beginning of the class that you now find troubling? Do
any of the answers in your initial story reveal biases about Terry’s ethnicity?
2. Do you believe that any of the things you wrote at the beginning of the course are inaccurate, based on
what you have learned in the book and this class?
3. How would your answers to each question be different, if you wrote about Terry now?

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Describing Terry
Identifying Number (Please pick any number.) ____________
The child you see in the photograph is Terry, a 6-year-old. He lives in a low-income neighborhood and attends an
urban elementary school in a large Midwestern city. In this activity you will make up a story about Terry. Of course,
you do not normally draw conclusions about children based on a picture, so this activity involves making guesses.
Respond to each question below by QUICKLY writing one-word to one-sentence descriptors. Force yourself to
write at least 5 descriptors per question. Your answers will be kept completely confidential.
1. What do you see when you look at Terry? Use as many descriptors as you can to portray him.
2. What are Terry's unique academic needs? What kind of student/learner is he?
3. What kind of home environment does Terry live in? (Include: the kind of physical space he lives in, what
his neighborhood is like, etc.)
4. What are Terry's parents and family like? (Include: who lives with Terry, the parenting practices of his
parents, unique home-related problems, etc.)
5. What are Terry's attitudes toward school? What are his parents' and family's attitudes?
6. What is Terry’s view of himself? Does he hold positive or negative views of his competence? What does
Terry believe about his family?

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ACTIVITY 3: A New Child in School
(To be completed in groups of 4 or 5)
Teaching Notes: This activity is designed to demonstrate how important it is for teachers to learn about culture and
cultural diversity in child development. Present groups with the vignette and ask them to discuss the questions
provided. During a whole group feedback session, ask students to name all the specific cultural features they believe
are important for teachers to know. As students speak, record their answers on a chart. Guide them in considering
family traditions and beliefs, socialization practices, styles of social interaction, language, and special skills and
talents.
At the end of the course, review the chart and ask, “Which of these features did you learn about in your readings and
class discussions? Which would you like still to learn more about?”

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A New Child in School
Just when you thought enrollment in your first-grade class was settled, your principal arrives at your door in mid-
September and announces that you will have a new student. "She is a child with a Middle Eastern background," he
informs you. You are intrigued and a little anxious about having a child of this cultural background join your
otherwise Euro-American, middle-class group. You realize that you are somewhat unknowledgeable about Middle
Eastern cultures. You have one weekend to do some research; she will be arriving on Monday.
What specific aspects of this child's culture are most critical for you to know in order to teach her effectively?
What specific aspects of this child’s culture are most important for you to know in order to relate to other parents
effectively?
In your group, list as many different cultural features as you can.

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ACTIVITY 4: Questionnaire on Cultural Diversity
(To be completed individually, then discussed in groups of 3 or 4)
Teaching Notes: This activity is to assist students in exploring beliefs about cultural diversity. It may also be used
by an instructor to assess the effectiveness of a course in changing attitudes.
Give the questionnaire twice – first at the beginning of the course and again on the last class session. After students
complete the questionnaire individually, encourage them to share their answers with their group.
After the final completion of the questionnaire, ask groups to discuss this question: How have my responses changed
since I have completed the course and read the book?

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A QUESTIONNAIRE ON CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Please answer the following questions using the following code, then write comments below each item:
1 = Strongly Agree 2 = Agree 3 = Undecided 4 = Disagree 5 = Strongly Disagree
1. I have had experience working in culturally diverse classrooms.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
2. I have a solid understanding of the cultures of children in my classroom.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
3. I have very little knowledge of the backgrounds of children of color.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
4. I am not knowledgeable about how children of different cultures vary in their behavior, learning,
and development.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
5. I have good knowledge of how parents of different cultures vary in their interactions with their
children and in their socialization goals.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
6. I am generally accepting of cultural diversity in learning, behavior, and development among
children.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
7. I am generally accepting of cultural diversity in parenting styles, parent-child interactions, and
parental attitudes toward school.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:

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8. There are some practices or customs of some cultural groups which do not foster positive child
development.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
9. Schools should focus mainly on the competencies, language, and behaviors which will allow all
children to function in the dominant, white culture.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
10. Parent education programs are needed particularly for parents of children of historically under-
represented groups.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
11. Children of color tend to display more classroom behavior problems than their white peers.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
12. Children of color tend to be disadvantaged because they are not exposed to the same positive values
and do not have the same enriching home environment as their white peers.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:

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ACTIVITY 5: Name Tags and Milling
(Designed for a whole classroom group)
Teaching Notes: This is another introductory activity designed for a first session. Ask students to make name tags
that include brief answers to several questions listed on the activity sheet. (Be sure to clarify each question before
the activity begins.) Ask students to mill around the room, shaking hands with each student and reading name tags,
affixed to their shirts with tape or pins. After students have read each other’s name tags, the whole group reconvenes
and discusses the questions as a group. Instructors may consider collecting the completed sheets.

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Name Tags and Milling
Write very brief answers to each of the following questions. Then make a name tag that lists each item’s answer.
1. Who lives with you in your home?
2. Name an aspect of your family (a tradition or practice) that is somewhat unique.
3. What is the most important holiday or celebration in your family?
4. Sometimes families have traditions in child rearing. Write one word to describe a goal your family has for
child rearing (e.g., a one word description of how your family wants children to turn out).
5. Write a specific discipline practice of your family that you remember from your childhood.
6. Is your family collective or individual in orientation?
7. All families have a culture. Make up a name for your family's culture.
8. Names often have cultural or family meaning. What does your name signify?

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ACTIVITY 1: Observing and Describing Developmental Differences
Observe two children of very different age levels (e.g., a 3-year-old and a 5-year-old or a 6-month-old and a
toddler). Take notes on your observations, focusing on qualitative as well as quantitative differences, as described in
this chapter. Later, write an analysis of how the two children are alike and different, guided by the following
questions:
How are the two children alike or different in the ways they interact with peers?
How are their methods of communication/language alike or different?
How are the two children physically alike or different?
How are they alike or different in their thinking?
What emotional states did you observe? To what degree do you attribute these differences to development?
ACTIVITY 2: Observing and Describing Cultural Differences
Observe two children of the same age who are from different cultural groups. Take notes on your observations.
Later, write an analysis of how the two children are alike and different, guided by the following questions:
In what ways are the two children alike in their behavior and abilities? How are they different? How might
culture or family life explain observed differences?
How do observed differences between the children enrich and enliven the classroom? What unique
contributions does each child make to the social life of other children?
ACTIVITY 3: Describing the Differences Within a Classroom and How They are Accommodated
Interview a director of a childcare center or preschool. Ask questions about the diversity of children and families
served by the program, relying on concepts presented in this chapter. Ask about methods for accommodating
diversity in the classroom. Write a report on your interview, based on the following questions:
To what degree do children served by the program have unique or diverse needs, as defined in this chapter?
Are children with special needs served? Which disabilities or delays are represented?
Is there cultural/ethnic diversity among children and families served? Which ethnic groups are represented?
Are children of historically underrepresented groups enrolled in the program?
Are families of diverse socioeconomic backgrounds served by the program?
What strategies are used to accommodate the needs of all individuals served?
ACTIVITY 4: Discovering Avenues for Advocacy
Explore organizations at the local and state levels that provide an avenue for teachers and parents to advocate for
young children and their families. Professional organizations for teachers and caregivers such as local affiliates of
the National Association for the Education of Young Children are examples. You may find a student affiliate on
campus of one of these organizations.

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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH AND ASSESSMENT IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
Chapter Overview
This chapter has two major thrusts. First, the chapter discusses research methods and familiarizes readers with the
different approaches to the study of child development. Second, the chapter reviews research methods that can be
effectively implemented in the classroom. The evolution of research methods in child development is presented;
examples of quantitative and qualitative research approaches are provided. Readers are taught to review research
critically, particularly when it comes to applying traditional research methods to children with diverse background.
Readers are encouraged to use evidence-based practices and to utilize classroom strategies that have been
demonstrated to be effective in research studies. The reader is invited to explore those research methods that best
match their own interests and child development questions. The development of the assessment and accountability
movement in the United States is described, and multiple assessments, both qualitative and quantitative, and
interventions are reviewed. The role that assessment can play in influencing a child’s success in the classroom is
discussed.
Key Questions
1. What are correlational and experimental studies of children, and do they differ?
2. How are qualitative/ethnographic methods of studying children different from quantitative methods?
3. What events have led to an emphasis on assessment in schools in the United States?
4. What are summative assessments and how are they used?
5. Why are formative assessments and why are they useful to classroom teachers and other professionals?
6. What are quantitative and qualitative assessments that teachers can use to identify disabilities and support
children’s learning?
7. What are anecdotal records and how are they written?
8. What kinds of information are commonly included in a case study?
CRITICAL CONCEPT 1
A wealth of research exists on what children are like and how they develop in the early years. This research can guide
professional practice.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 2
Many of the ideas in this text are derived from research on young children. Although research studies yield important
information, flaws and biases are common.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 3
Qualitative and ethnographic studies are gaining favor among child development researchers. In these studies, children’s
behavior and development are richly described rather than simply counted or scored. Such research is viewed as less
culturally biased and more useful for practicing classroom professional

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MyEducationLab®
Self-Check Quizzes
 Self-Check 2.1: Describe the major types of child development research and the strengths of each.
 Self-Check 2.2: Explain the assessment and accountability movement in the United States and how it has
shaped professional practice.
 Self-Check 2.3: Compare formative and summative assessments and describe their uses.
 Self-Check 2.4: Identify several kinds of quantitative and qualitative assessments and how they can be used
in classrooms
Application Exercises
 Application Exercise 2.1: Research studies. This activity includes aa video in which two children are
asked to draw a picture of their neighborhood and then describe it. The primary goal is to learn how
children of different ages think about and talk about neighborhoods.
 Application Exercise 2.2: Observing and recording young children. This activity allows students to be an
observer at recess break at a California kindergarten and to practice creating anecdotal records.
Linked video [captions]
 Video Example 2.1. The teacher in this video describes the celebration of learning that her school plans
every third year. As you watch, consider how portfolios help teachers effectively assess children’s
learning, noting in particular how they can involve children and their families in the assessment process.

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ACTIVITY 1: Don’t Believe Everything You Read
(Designed for groups of 4 or 5 students)
Teaching Notes: This activity familiarizes students with flaws in research with human participants. As students
complete this activity, encourage them to consider problems with traditional quantitative research methods.
Present these humorously awful studies to groups. The only instruction: Find all the problems you can. The first
study is easier to critique (and more silly and absurd). The second requires more in-depth analysis and addresses
issues of culture and bias (e.g., the phrases “minorities” and “culturally disadvantaged” are used, faulty assumptions
are made about families and children of color).
When groups have finished, guide students in a discussion of key research problems: cultural biases, poor sampling,
flawed methods, problems of poor reliability and validity, misinterpretation of findings, unwarranted conclusions,
etc.

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DON'T BELIEVE EVERYTHING YOU READ: MOCK STUDY #1
In your group, analyze the following study. List as many problems with this research as you can.
The Effects of Playing Call of Duty® on the Aggressive Behavior of Preschool Children
Video and computer games have become a prevalent form of entertainment in our society, particularly for
young people. Brown and Wilson (1999) have found that children who play these games for over 5 hours a day
show a higher rate of aggression toward peers in school. Johnson and Kraft (1999) have also reported increased
aggression among children who play video or computer games daily.
Call of Duty® is a computer popular game that has been criticized for its violent images. Its effect on
children has not yet been studied. Since much of the research on computer games has focused on elementary school
children or adolescents, the focus of this study was on preschool-aged students.
Hypotheses
The following are the hypotheses of the study:
1. Preschool aged children who play Call of Duty will demonstrate more aggressive behavior in a preschool
classroom than those who do not.
2. Among children who do play Call of Duty, those who spend more time playing will demonstrate more
aggression that those who play less frequently.
Method
Nine children were selected from a preschool in Farming Hills, New Jersey, and five were selected from a
childcare center in New York City to participate in the study.
The five preschool children from New York were placed in a room with specially designed, preschool-
sized Call of Duty games. They were left in the room for one hour and their Call of Duty playing behaviors were
observed.
The nine children from Farming Hills were not placed in the Call of Duty room and served, then, as a
control group.
Both groups were then sent to their usual classrooms to play. Three observers coded subjects’ behaviors.
They were told to record the amount of aggression in the play of each group.
Those observing the group in Farming Hills were able to use the observation booth built into this preschool.
The observers in the New York day care center did not have such booths and so sat in the actual classroom.
Results
For the New York City group (who played Call of Duty), the following data was reported by observers:
Observer #1: There were 29 instances of aggression on the morning of this observation.
Observer #2: There were 25 aggressive acts, but these were mainly verbal.
Observer #3: There were only 5 actually aggressive acts.

21
Call of Duty Study–Page 2
Among the children who played Call of Duty, those who played the longest exhibited the highest frequency of
aggression in the classroom. There was a positive and statistically significant relationship between Call of Duty
playing time and aggressive behavior.
For the Farming Hills, group (who did not play Call of Duty), the following data was gathered:
Observer #1: No aggressive acts were committed during the afternoon observation period.
Observer #2: Four aggressive behaviors were counted.
Observer #3: Only two acts of aggression were committed during the afternoon of the observation.
Discussion
Since observers noted significantly more aggression among the Call of Duty-playing children, it is
concluded that playing this game causes aggressive behavior in American children.
Other findings of the study support this contention. Among the Call of Duty playing group, those who
played most were most violent toward their peers. This, again, shows that game playing causes aggression.
Other findings are also noteworthy: Younger children were more aggressive than older children. This
suggests that younger preschoolers may be particularly vulnerable to the influences of violent computer games.
Since Call of Duty and other games appear to cause problematic behavior, they comprise a menace to our
society and should be banned.

22
DON’T BELIEVE EVERYTHING YOU READ: MOCK STUDY #2
The Effects of A Behavior Analysis Preschool Program on
The Achievement and Attitudes of Culturally Disadvantaged Children
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a structured, academically-oriented preschool
program on the achievement, achievement motivation, and attitudes toward school of culturally disadvantaged
young children.
There is a wealth of research to indicate that ethnic minority children do less well in school than their more
advantaged peers (See Brown, 1964, for a review). They have lower grades, lower scores on achievement tests, and
are, generally, rated less favorably by their teachers on ratings of social and school behavior (Smith, 1967). Further,
minority group members have a higher incidence of special education placement and a higher percentage of mental
health referrals than other children (Jones, 1979).
A number of theories have been presented to explain this disparity in educational achievement. Minority
groups suffer many more family problems, including divorce, drug abuse, and financial hardship (Green, 1980).
These can lead to parent-child interactions which are less facilitative of learning. Minority parents, for example, are
less likely to use language in their interactions with their children (Johnson, 1977). They less often foster individual
accomplishment and independence (Peterson, 1962). They are less likely to select school success as a primary goal
of childrearing (Rockefeller, 1984).
One deficit in the home environments of minority children has been found to be a lack of structured,
orderly experience. Minority group children may be more likely to live in chaotic family situations, characterized by
overcrowding and loud noise. They may receive less structured guidance from adults. For this reason some have
urged that early preschool experiences which provide this missing structure be provided.
In this study the effects of a structured preschool program which incorporates the Distar language program
was examined. Specifically, it was predicted that minority preschool children who attended a year of this preschool
program would perform better on the Metropolitan Readiness Test, on teacher ratings of classroom behavior and
achievement, and on an attitudes-towards-school questionnaire.
Methods
Subjects were 32 minority children, 17 of whom were randomly assigned to the experimental preschool
group and 15 of whom were assigned to the non-preschool control group. A second control group of non-minority
children who were enrolled in another preschool program were also selected. The minority preschool subjects
attended a full-day, structured behavior modification program which utilized the Distar materials and a token
economy system.
At the end of the year measures of achievement, classroom behavior, and school attitudes were completed
on all subjects.
Findings
Non-minority group children scored higher on all measures than their disadvantaged peers. The preschool-
minority group scored significantly higher on attitudes towards school and had higher scores on the MRT than their
non-preschool minority peers.
Discussion
It is clear from these findings that the deficits in structured educational experience which minority children
suffer can be partially erased through high-quality preschool intervention. Although the experimental group of this
study did not improve to a level equal to their non-minority peers, they showed significant progress, when compared
to non-preschool subjects, in attitudinal and intellectual areas. The structured preschool program is recommended,
then, as one step toward reducing the educational gap between ethnic minority and dominant culture children.

23
ACTIVITY 1: Personal Time Lines
Encourage students to create individual time lines depicting the important events of their lives. Ask students to insert
the adults who were significant in their lives at the time of each event. Finally, ask the students to insert the
characteristics of the time in which these events occurred. For example, perhaps graduation from middle school
occurred at the same time as the shootings at Columbine. Encourage students to debrief with each other, noting
similarities in what they perceive to be important personal events, significant adults, and events in history. Use this
as a springboard for class discussion of how time, people, and events create an environment that may nurture or
suppress the development of individuals and societies.
ACTIVITY 2: Understanding Cultural Differences
Invite two parents of young children who are of distinctly different cultural groups to your class. Encourage the
students to ask questions about what children are like and how they should be educated. The following questions
might be considered: What learning and behaviors should be expected of preschoolers? Of early elementary
children? What should teachers and parents do to ensure that these two age groups learn and behave in these ways?
What should classrooms for these two age groups be like? What should teachers and parents do when children of
these two ages misbehave? Take notes on your interview. Later, write an analysis guided by the following questions:
How were the two parents' answers different? How were they alike?
Which sources of information does the adult use to answer these questions? For example, does this adult
rely on research? On systematic observation? On personal opinion?
To what degree do answers reflect family background, culture, or other life experiences? For example, does
this adult rely on beliefs passed down from parents or other family members? Does this adult refer to
conditions in the neighborhood or community that influence thinking about children?
What can you conclude about cultural differences in parenting beliefs and practices?
ACTIVITY 3: Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Methods
Perform a quantitative study: Observe a child between the ages of 2 and 8 for two 20-minute periods in a classroom.
In the first observation, simply count the number of other children with whom your subject makes contact during
this period. Each time the child speaks to or makes nonverbal contact with a peer, make a tally mark on a sheet of
paper. Perform a qualitative study: On the second observation, write notes on everything that the child does during
the time period. Describe in precise detail the child's interactions with peers. Later, reconstruct this observation,
writing an anecdotal record as described in this chapter. Write an analysis of both observations, guided by the
following questions:
What conclusions can be drawn from each observation?
In what ways were these two observation methods different?

24
CHAPTER 3: THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Overview
Researchers and educators in the field of early childhood education hold distinct sets of beliefs or theories about
how young children grow, develop, and learn. The important connection is made between theory and practice, as
well as the impact that theory has on the decision-making skills and processes of the early childhood teacher. This
chapter focuses on these primary theories: maturationist, behaviorism, psychoanalytic, cognitive-developmental,
sociocultural, information processing, and ecological systems. The key tenets or beliefs and major criticisms of each
theory are presented. Applications of each theory are discussed and activities for classroom use are presented.
Finally, new research on brain development is discussed, and the ways in which this research supports existing
theories and informs our approach to the application of these theories is considered.
Key Questions
1. What are the key tenets of maturationist theory, and what are their implications for working with young children?
2. What are the key principles of behaviorist theory, and how are they applied in the classroom?
3. What are the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory, and how can these be useful in working with young
children?
4. What are the key principles of the cognitive-developmental theory, and what are their implications for teaching?
5. What are the main ideas underlying sociocultural theory, and how do they guide classroom practice?
6. What are the primary beliefs of information processing theorists, and how can these be applied in the classroom?
7. What are the major tenets of the ecological systems theory, and how do these influence advocacy and public
policy?
8. In what ways does new research on the brain help professionals apply each theory of development in the early
childhood classroom?
CRITICAL CONCEPT 1
A theory of child development is a belief system about how and why children grow, learn, and behave as they do.
Theories are very practical; they can guide adults in making decisions about teaching and caring for children.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 2
Seven predominant theories of child development can be identified in the literature. All hold some value in resolving
classroom dilemmas. Each provides useful guidance to parents and teachers.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 3
The maturationist theory holds that most of what children become is inherited; behaviors and abilities simply unfold
as children mature.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 4
Behaviorist theory holds that the child is a blank slat” at birth and is simply filled in over time by experience. From
this perspective, adults can use rewards, praise, modeling, and other tools to shape children’s development in any
desired direction.
CRITICAL CONCEPT 5
The psychoanalytic theory is concerned mainly with personality formation. Psychoanalysts characterize
psychological growth as a process of resolving emotional conflicts between instinctual desires and the demands of
the real world.
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