(Strategies in drug design for optimization of pharmacodynamics).pptxsheryadell74
1. Strategies for optimizing drug interactions with targets include varying substituents, extending or contracting structures, changing ring sizes or types, using isosteres and bioisosteres, simplifying structures, and rigidifying flexible structures.
2. Examples of successful applications include changing an alkyl group to increase selectivity, adding functional groups to probe for extra binding interactions, and replacing rings to gain additional hydrogen bonds or alter electronic properties.
3. Simplifying complex natural product leads and removing non-essential groups can make drugs easier to synthesize while retaining activity. Removing chiral centers can also simplify synthesis of enantiomerically pure drugs.
DR. THIRUMALAI Unit_I_3_leadOptimization.pptssuserf14ecf
The document discusses structure-activity relationships and how minor structural changes to lead compounds can produce analogs with altered biological activity. Stereochemistry plays an important role, as stereoisomers can have different potencies and side effects. Examples are given of drugs where one enantiomer is active but the other causes harmful effects, or where enantiomers have different levels of potency. Bioisosterism, where functional groups are replaced with isosteres that have similar spatial requirements but different physicochemical properties, is also discussed as a way to modify pharmacokinetic properties like metabolism while retaining biological activity.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP MODIFICATION : Medicinal ChemistryPRUTHVIRAJ K
Once a lead compound or a pharmacophore structure with the desired pharmacological effect has been identified, organic chemists can introduce modifications in the chemical structure of the lead compound with the goal of improving the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of a drug candidate. These evolved structures are known as analogs.
3
This document summarizes strategies for analog design of lead compounds in drug discovery. It discusses various types of modifications that can be made including bioisosteric replacements, rigid analogs, alterations of chain branching, changes in ring size or position, use of fragments of lead molecules, and variations in interatomic distances. Examples are provided to illustrate how each type of modification can impact pharmacological activity. The overall goal of analog design is to develop new compounds with similar or improved biological and chemical properties as the lead molecule.
Bioisosterism is a strategy used in drug design that involves replacing one chemical group with another that has similar physical or chemical properties. This is done to improve properties like potency, selectivity, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics without significantly changing the chemical structure. Common bioisosteric replacements include replacing hydrogen with fluorine, replacing carboxylic acids with amides or esters, or replacing phenyl rings with heteroaromatic or saturated rings. The application of bioisosterism has been an important concept in medicinal chemistry for nearly 80 years and will continue to play a role in drug discovery and optimization.
This document discusses analog design in drug development. It begins by defining analog design as the modification of a drug molecule or bioactive compound to create new molecules that are chemically and biologically similar. The goals of analog design are to retain or improve pharmacological effects while reducing unwanted properties. Analogs are categorized based on their chemical and pharmacological similarities. Common design strategies include bioisosteric replacement, altering stereochemistry, and modifying functional groups. Bioisosterism involves substituting groups with similar physicochemical properties to modify biological activity. Both classical and non-classical bioisosteres are discussed.
THE PRODRUG DESIGNING FOR NEW SELECTION AND FORMULATION OF DRUG COMPATIBLE WITH API I.E. ACTIVE PHARMACUTICAL INGREDIENT, AND ITS EFFECT WHICH SHOULD BE 0. THE DRUG COMBINED WITH API AND AVILABLE IN MARKET AND DRUGS NEED TO BE COMBINE ARE ALSO DISCUSSED WITH ITS STRUCTURE AND SAR, AND COVERED AS PER THE SYLLABUS OF PCI.
(Strategies in drug design for optimization of pharmacodynamics).pptxsheryadell74
1. Strategies for optimizing drug interactions with targets include varying substituents, extending or contracting structures, changing ring sizes or types, using isosteres and bioisosteres, simplifying structures, and rigidifying flexible structures.
2. Examples of successful applications include changing an alkyl group to increase selectivity, adding functional groups to probe for extra binding interactions, and replacing rings to gain additional hydrogen bonds or alter electronic properties.
3. Simplifying complex natural product leads and removing non-essential groups can make drugs easier to synthesize while retaining activity. Removing chiral centers can also simplify synthesis of enantiomerically pure drugs.
DR. THIRUMALAI Unit_I_3_leadOptimization.pptssuserf14ecf
The document discusses structure-activity relationships and how minor structural changes to lead compounds can produce analogs with altered biological activity. Stereochemistry plays an important role, as stereoisomers can have different potencies and side effects. Examples are given of drugs where one enantiomer is active but the other causes harmful effects, or where enantiomers have different levels of potency. Bioisosterism, where functional groups are replaced with isosteres that have similar spatial requirements but different physicochemical properties, is also discussed as a way to modify pharmacokinetic properties like metabolism while retaining biological activity.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP MODIFICATION : Medicinal ChemistryPRUTHVIRAJ K
Once a lead compound or a pharmacophore structure with the desired pharmacological effect has been identified, organic chemists can introduce modifications in the chemical structure of the lead compound with the goal of improving the pharmacokinetics or pharmacodynamics of a drug candidate. These evolved structures are known as analogs.
3
This document summarizes strategies for analog design of lead compounds in drug discovery. It discusses various types of modifications that can be made including bioisosteric replacements, rigid analogs, alterations of chain branching, changes in ring size or position, use of fragments of lead molecules, and variations in interatomic distances. Examples are provided to illustrate how each type of modification can impact pharmacological activity. The overall goal of analog design is to develop new compounds with similar or improved biological and chemical properties as the lead molecule.
Bioisosterism is a strategy used in drug design that involves replacing one chemical group with another that has similar physical or chemical properties. This is done to improve properties like potency, selectivity, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics without significantly changing the chemical structure. Common bioisosteric replacements include replacing hydrogen with fluorine, replacing carboxylic acids with amides or esters, or replacing phenyl rings with heteroaromatic or saturated rings. The application of bioisosterism has been an important concept in medicinal chemistry for nearly 80 years and will continue to play a role in drug discovery and optimization.
This document discusses analog design in drug development. It begins by defining analog design as the modification of a drug molecule or bioactive compound to create new molecules that are chemically and biologically similar. The goals of analog design are to retain or improve pharmacological effects while reducing unwanted properties. Analogs are categorized based on their chemical and pharmacological similarities. Common design strategies include bioisosteric replacement, altering stereochemistry, and modifying functional groups. Bioisosterism involves substituting groups with similar physicochemical properties to modify biological activity. Both classical and non-classical bioisosteres are discussed.
THE PRODRUG DESIGNING FOR NEW SELECTION AND FORMULATION OF DRUG COMPATIBLE WITH API I.E. ACTIVE PHARMACUTICAL INGREDIENT, AND ITS EFFECT WHICH SHOULD BE 0. THE DRUG COMBINED WITH API AND AVILABLE IN MARKET AND DRUGS NEED TO BE COMBINE ARE ALSO DISCUSSED WITH ITS STRUCTURE AND SAR, AND COVERED AS PER THE SYLLABUS OF PCI.
Analog design is usually defined as the modification of a drug molecule or of any bioactive compound in order to prepare a new molecule showing chemical and biological similarity with the original model compound
Tetracaine is a local anesthetic with greater potency and longer duration than procaine due to modifications including substitution of an alkylamino group in the para position of the lipophilic center. SAR studies of tetracaine found that increasing lipophilicity and electron density around the ester group enhances activity, while modifications to the aryl, aminoalkyl, and ester bridge groups can also impact potency, duration, and toxicity. Tetracaine's increased potency and longer duration compared to procaine is attributed to decreased metabolism resulting from its chemical structure.
This document discusses molecular variation in homologous series and isosteric replacements for drug discovery. It defines homologous series as molecules that differ by a methylene group, such as monoalkylated derivatives and cyclopolymethylenic compounds. Biological activity often follows a bell-shaped curve with increasing carbon chain length, peaking at an optimal partition coefficient for membrane crossing. Isosteric replacements involve substituting atoms or groups with others of similar size and electronic properties, allowing modification while maintaining biological activity, as seen with clozapine analogs. The concepts of homologous series and isosteric replacements are important tools in medicinal chemistry for analog design and drug discovery.
This document discusses complexation and protein binding. It defines complexation as interactions between two or more compounds capable of independent existence via covalent or non-covalent bonds. Complexes are classified as metal ion complexes or organic molecular complexes. Metal ion complexes include inorganic complexes, chelates, and aromatic complexes. Organic molecular complexes involve donor-acceptor interactions or hydrogen bonds. Complexation can enhance drug solubility, bioavailability, and modify drug properties. It is used in diagnosis, as a therapeutic tool, and to treat poisoning by facilitating removal of toxic substances from the body.
The document outlines the drug discovery and development process. It begins with discovery of a lead compound, which then undergoes optimization and preclinical testing. This involves modifying the compound's structure to improve efficacy and safety while reducing toxicity. Compounds then enter three phases of clinical trials in humans to test safety, efficacy, and proper dosing. The entire process from discovery to market approval takes an average of 12-15 years. Structure-activity relationships are also studied to understand how modifications impact a drug's effects.
The document discusses strategies for optimizing a lead compound. It describes a two-step approach: 1) optimizing for pharmacodynamic interactions through analog synthesis and QSAR studies, and 2) optimizing for pharmacokinetic and pharmaceutical properties. For the first step, various analog synthesis techniques are described such as modifying substituents, introducing double bonds, changing ring structures, and isosteric replacements. QSAR studies including 1D, 2D, and 3D methods are used to correlate structure and bioactivity. The second step involves considering absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion to optimize properties like metabolic stability. Common metabolic reactions and vulnerabilities of molecular structures are outlined.
Rational drug design begins by identifying a biological target implicated in disease. Drugs are then designed to modulate this target's activity in order to treat the disease. For a target to be suitable, there must be evidence it is disease-relevant and capable of binding small molecules. Once identified, the target is cloned, expressed, and purified. This allows high-throughput screening of chemical libraries to identify candidates that modify the target. Successful candidates should have properties predicting oral availability and low toxicity. Prodrugs and combinatorial chemistry are approaches that can improve drug properties and efficiency of discovery.
The document discusses isosteres and bioisosteres, which are functional groups or molecules that have similar chemical and physical properties and broadly produce similar biological properties. It covers the introduction of isosteres by Langmuir and Grimm, the definition and utility of bioisosteres, strategies for molecular modification using bioisosteres, classification of classical and nonclassical bioisosteres, and applications of isosteres in drug design including examples of fluorine, carboxylic acid, and amide isosteres. The significance of bioisosterism in improving drug properties like potency, stability, and toxicity is also highlighted.
This chapter introduces functional groups, which are the building blocks that make up drug molecules. The chapter defines what a functional group is, discusses the major chemical properties (electronic effects, solubility effects, and steric effects) that each functional group imparts to a drug molecule, and how these properties influence a drug's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior. It provides examples of how functional groups can affect properties like absorption, distribution, metabolism, duration of action, and mechanism of action. The chapter emphasizes that functional groups play an important role in allowing drug molecules to produce their desired therapeutic effects.
This document discusses concepts and approaches in drug design. It describes how drug design involves developing analogues and prodrugs through chemical modifications to a lead molecule. Analogues can be synthesized by changing substitution groups or carbon skeletal structure. Prodrugs are active metabolites formed from parent compounds through biotransformation. Lead discovery involves exploring new molecules and exploiting leads through assessment and extension. Random and nonrandom screening are used to identify potential leads. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies of metabolites can also lead to new leads. Drug design approaches include molecular hybridization, conjunction, and disjunction of structural elements as well as rational approaches considering physicochemical properties and electronic features.
This document provides an introduction to retrosynthesis, which involves working backwards from a target molecule to devise a synthetic route. It discusses key terminology like disconnections, synthons, and functional group interconversions. The principles of retrosynthesis are disconnection, where an imaginary bond cleavage corresponds to a synthetic reaction, and functional group interconversion, which involves changing one functional group to another. Examples of retrosynthesis are provided for drugs like ofornine and paracetamol to illustrate these concepts.
This document discusses structure-activity relationships (SAR) through examples of different drug molecules. It provides details on the chemical structures of camptothecin (CPT), taxol, and the flavonoid quercetin and how specific structural features relate to their biological activities. For CPT, rings A-D and the stereochemistry at C-20 are essential for anti-tumor activity, while modifications to rings C and D eliminate activity. The ester linkage and phenylisoserine chain of taxol are required for its anticancer effects. For flavonoids like quercetin, features important for radical scavenging include a catechol structure in ring B and hydroxyl groups that enable hydrogen bonding and electron de
The relationship between bioisosteres, substituents or group with physical or chemical properties that impart similar biological properties to a chemical structure
This document discusses the medicinal chemistry of salicylic acid. It describes the synthesis of salicylic acid via diazotization and Kolbe's reactions. It also outlines the structure activity relationship of salicylic acid, noting that the ortho position of the -OH group is essential for activity and other substitutions or changes can decrease potency or increase toxicity.
DRUG DISCOVERY
Drug Discovery without a lead
LEAD DISCOVERY/IDENTIFICATION
LEAD MODIFICATION
CONCEPT OF PRODRUGS AND SOFT DRUGS
DRUG RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS
Analog design is usually defined as the modification of a drug molecule or of any bioactive compound in order to prepare a new molecule showing chemical and biological similarity with the original model compound
Tetracaine is a local anesthetic with greater potency and longer duration than procaine due to modifications including substitution of an alkylamino group in the para position of the lipophilic center. SAR studies of tetracaine found that increasing lipophilicity and electron density around the ester group enhances activity, while modifications to the aryl, aminoalkyl, and ester bridge groups can also impact potency, duration, and toxicity. Tetracaine's increased potency and longer duration compared to procaine is attributed to decreased metabolism resulting from its chemical structure.
This document discusses molecular variation in homologous series and isosteric replacements for drug discovery. It defines homologous series as molecules that differ by a methylene group, such as monoalkylated derivatives and cyclopolymethylenic compounds. Biological activity often follows a bell-shaped curve with increasing carbon chain length, peaking at an optimal partition coefficient for membrane crossing. Isosteric replacements involve substituting atoms or groups with others of similar size and electronic properties, allowing modification while maintaining biological activity, as seen with clozapine analogs. The concepts of homologous series and isosteric replacements are important tools in medicinal chemistry for analog design and drug discovery.
This document discusses complexation and protein binding. It defines complexation as interactions between two or more compounds capable of independent existence via covalent or non-covalent bonds. Complexes are classified as metal ion complexes or organic molecular complexes. Metal ion complexes include inorganic complexes, chelates, and aromatic complexes. Organic molecular complexes involve donor-acceptor interactions or hydrogen bonds. Complexation can enhance drug solubility, bioavailability, and modify drug properties. It is used in diagnosis, as a therapeutic tool, and to treat poisoning by facilitating removal of toxic substances from the body.
The document outlines the drug discovery and development process. It begins with discovery of a lead compound, which then undergoes optimization and preclinical testing. This involves modifying the compound's structure to improve efficacy and safety while reducing toxicity. Compounds then enter three phases of clinical trials in humans to test safety, efficacy, and proper dosing. The entire process from discovery to market approval takes an average of 12-15 years. Structure-activity relationships are also studied to understand how modifications impact a drug's effects.
The document discusses strategies for optimizing a lead compound. It describes a two-step approach: 1) optimizing for pharmacodynamic interactions through analog synthesis and QSAR studies, and 2) optimizing for pharmacokinetic and pharmaceutical properties. For the first step, various analog synthesis techniques are described such as modifying substituents, introducing double bonds, changing ring structures, and isosteric replacements. QSAR studies including 1D, 2D, and 3D methods are used to correlate structure and bioactivity. The second step involves considering absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion to optimize properties like metabolic stability. Common metabolic reactions and vulnerabilities of molecular structures are outlined.
Rational drug design begins by identifying a biological target implicated in disease. Drugs are then designed to modulate this target's activity in order to treat the disease. For a target to be suitable, there must be evidence it is disease-relevant and capable of binding small molecules. Once identified, the target is cloned, expressed, and purified. This allows high-throughput screening of chemical libraries to identify candidates that modify the target. Successful candidates should have properties predicting oral availability and low toxicity. Prodrugs and combinatorial chemistry are approaches that can improve drug properties and efficiency of discovery.
The document discusses isosteres and bioisosteres, which are functional groups or molecules that have similar chemical and physical properties and broadly produce similar biological properties. It covers the introduction of isosteres by Langmuir and Grimm, the definition and utility of bioisosteres, strategies for molecular modification using bioisosteres, classification of classical and nonclassical bioisosteres, and applications of isosteres in drug design including examples of fluorine, carboxylic acid, and amide isosteres. The significance of bioisosterism in improving drug properties like potency, stability, and toxicity is also highlighted.
This chapter introduces functional groups, which are the building blocks that make up drug molecules. The chapter defines what a functional group is, discusses the major chemical properties (electronic effects, solubility effects, and steric effects) that each functional group imparts to a drug molecule, and how these properties influence a drug's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic behavior. It provides examples of how functional groups can affect properties like absorption, distribution, metabolism, duration of action, and mechanism of action. The chapter emphasizes that functional groups play an important role in allowing drug molecules to produce their desired therapeutic effects.
This document discusses concepts and approaches in drug design. It describes how drug design involves developing analogues and prodrugs through chemical modifications to a lead molecule. Analogues can be synthesized by changing substitution groups or carbon skeletal structure. Prodrugs are active metabolites formed from parent compounds through biotransformation. Lead discovery involves exploring new molecules and exploiting leads through assessment and extension. Random and nonrandom screening are used to identify potential leads. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies of metabolites can also lead to new leads. Drug design approaches include molecular hybridization, conjunction, and disjunction of structural elements as well as rational approaches considering physicochemical properties and electronic features.
This document provides an introduction to retrosynthesis, which involves working backwards from a target molecule to devise a synthetic route. It discusses key terminology like disconnections, synthons, and functional group interconversions. The principles of retrosynthesis are disconnection, where an imaginary bond cleavage corresponds to a synthetic reaction, and functional group interconversion, which involves changing one functional group to another. Examples of retrosynthesis are provided for drugs like ofornine and paracetamol to illustrate these concepts.
This document discusses structure-activity relationships (SAR) through examples of different drug molecules. It provides details on the chemical structures of camptothecin (CPT), taxol, and the flavonoid quercetin and how specific structural features relate to their biological activities. For CPT, rings A-D and the stereochemistry at C-20 are essential for anti-tumor activity, while modifications to rings C and D eliminate activity. The ester linkage and phenylisoserine chain of taxol are required for its anticancer effects. For flavonoids like quercetin, features important for radical scavenging include a catechol structure in ring B and hydroxyl groups that enable hydrogen bonding and electron de
The relationship between bioisosteres, substituents or group with physical or chemical properties that impart similar biological properties to a chemical structure
This document discusses the medicinal chemistry of salicylic acid. It describes the synthesis of salicylic acid via diazotization and Kolbe's reactions. It also outlines the structure activity relationship of salicylic acid, noting that the ortho position of the -OH group is essential for activity and other substitutions or changes can decrease potency or increase toxicity.
DRUG DISCOVERY
Drug Discovery without a lead
LEAD DISCOVERY/IDENTIFICATION
LEAD MODIFICATION
CONCEPT OF PRODRUGS AND SOFT DRUGS
DRUG RECEPTOR INTERACTIONS
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Our backs are like superheroes, holding us up and helping us move around. But sometimes, even superheroes can get hurt. That’s where slip discs come in.
share - Lions, tigers, AI and health misinformation, oh my!.pptxTina Purnat
• Pitfalls and pivots needed to use AI effectively in public health
• Evidence-based strategies to address health misinformation effectively
• Building trust with communities online and offline
• Equipping health professionals to address questions, concerns and health misinformation
• Assessing risk and mitigating harm from adverse health narratives in communities, health workforce and health system
TEST BANK For Community Health Nursing A Canadian Perspective, 5th Edition by...Donc Test
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Muktapishti is a traditional Ayurvedic preparation made from Shoditha Mukta (Purified Pearl), is believed to help regulate thyroid function and reduce symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to its cooling and balancing properties. Clinical evidence on its efficacy remains limited, necessitating further research to validate its therapeutic benefits.
Histololgy of Female Reproductive System.pptxAyeshaZaid1
Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
2. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 2
DESIGN
Drug design in short
Identify structure–activity relationships (SARs)
Identify the pharmacophore
Improve target interactions (pharmacodynamics)
Improve pharmacokinetic properties
Drug optimization: Strategies in drug design
Once the important binding groups and pharmacophore of the lead compound have been
identified, it is possible to synthesize analogues that contain the same pharmacophore. But why
is this necessary? If the lead compound has useful biological activity, why bother making
analogues? The answer is that very few lead compounds are ideal. Most are likely to have low
activity, poor selectivity, and significant side effects. They may also be difficult to synthesize, so
there is an advantage in finding analogues with improved properties.
Variation of substituents
Alkyl substituents
3. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 3
Alkyl substituents which are part of the carbon skeleton of the molecule are not easily removed,
and it is usually necessary to carry out a full synthesis in order to vary them.
If alkyl groups are interacting with a hydrophobic pocket in the binding site, then varying the
length and bulk of the alkyl group (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, isopropyl, isobutyl, or t -
butyl) allows one to probe the depth and width of the pocket. Choosing a substituent that will fill
the pocket will then increase the binding interaction.
Larger alkyl groups may also confer selectivity on the drug. For example, in the case of a
compound that interacts with two different receptors, a bulkier alkyl substituent may prevent the
drug from binding to one of those receptors and so cut down side effects.
For example, isoprenaline is an analogue of adrenaline where a methyl group was replaced by
an isopropyl group, resulting in selectivity for adrenergic β-receptors over adrenergic α-
receptors.
4. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 4
Aromatic substituents If a drug contains an aromatic ring, the position of substituents can be
varied to find better binding interactions, resulting in increased activity.
5. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 5
Figure: Use of a larger alkyl group to confer selectivity on a drug.
Changing the position of one substituent may have an important effect on another. For example,
an electron withdrawing nitro group will affect the basicity of an aromatic amine more
significantly if it is at the para position rather than the meta position.
Figure: Electronic effects of different aromatic substitution patterns.
6. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 6
If the substitution pattern is ideal, then we can try varying the substituents themselves.
Extension of the structure
The strategy of extension involves the addition of another functional group or substituent to the
lead compound in order to probe for extra binding interactions with the target.
Extension tactics are oft en used to find extra hydrophobic regions in a binding site by adding
various alkyl or arylalkyl groups.
By the same token, substituents containing polar functional groups could be added to probe for
extra hydrogen bonding or ionic interactions.
A good example of the use of extension tactics to increase binding interactions involves the
design of the ACE inhibitor enalaprilate from the lead compound succinyl proline.
Extension strategies are used to strengthen the binding interactions and activity of a receptor
agonist or an enzyme inhibitor, but they can also be used to convert an agonist into an
antagonist.
The strategy has also been used to alter an enzyme substrate into an inhibitor.
7. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 7
Figure: Extension of a drug to provide a fourth binding group.
Chain extension/contraction
Figure: Chain contraction and chain extension
Ring expansion/contraction
8. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 8
Figure: Ring expansion
During the development of the anti-hypertensive agent cilazaprilat (another ACE inhibitor), the
bicyclic structure I showed promising activity. The important binding groups were the two
carboxylate groups and the amide group. By carrying out various ring contractions and
expansions, cilazaprilat was identified as the structure having the best interaction with the
binding site.
Figure: Development of cilazaprilat
Ring variation
9. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 9
The antifungal agent (I) acts against an enzyme present in both fungal and human cells.
Replacing the imidazole ring of structure (I) with a 1, 2, 4-triazole ring to give UK 46245
resulted in better selectivity against the fungal form of the enzyme.
Ring fusions
Extending a ring by ring fusion can sometimes result in increased interactions or increased
selectivity.
One of the major advances in the development of the selective β-blockers was the replacement
of the aromatic ring in adrenaline with a naphthalene ring system (pronethalol). This resulted in
a compound that was able to distinguish between two very similar receptors—the α- and β-
receptors for adrenaline.
Figure: Ring fusions
10. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 10
Isosteres and bioisosteres
Isosteres are atoms or groups of atoms which share the same valency and which have chemical
or physical similarities. For example, SH, NH2, and CH3 are isosteres of OH, whereas S, NH,
and CH2 are isosteres of O.
Isosteres can be used to determine whether a particular group is an important binding group or
not by altering the character of the molecule in as controlled a way as possible. The β-blocker
propranolol has an ether linkage. Replacement of the OCH2 segment with the isosteres CH =
CH, SCH2, or CH2CH2 eliminates activity, whereas replacement with NHCH2 retains activity
(though reduced). These results show that the ether oxygen is important to the activity of the
drug.
11. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 11
Isosteric groups could be used to determine whether a particular group is involved in hydrogen
bonding. For example, replacing OH with CH3 would completely eliminate hydrogen bonding,
whereas replacing OH with NH2 would not.
Some isosteres can be used to determine the importance of size towards activity, whereas others
can be used to determine the importance of electronic factors.
For example, fluorine is often used as an isostere of hydrogen as it is virtually the same size.
However, it is more electronegative and can be used to vary the electronic properties of the drug
without having any steric effect.
Non-classical isosteres are groups that do not obey the steric and electronic rules used to define
classical isosteres, but which have similar physical and chemical properties.
For example, the structures shown in Figure are non-classical isosteres for a thiourea group.
They are all planar groups of similar size and basicity.
Figure: Non-classical isosteres for a thiourea group
A bioisostere is a group that can be used to replace another group while retaining the desired
biological activity. Bioisosteres are often used to replace a functional group that is important for
target binding, but is problematic in one way or another.
For example, the thiourea group was present as an important binding group in early histamine
antagonists, but was responsible for toxic side effects. Replacing it with bioisosteres allowed the
12. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 12
important binding interactions to be retained for histamine antagonism but avoided the toxicity
problems.
The use of a bioisostere can actually increase target interactions and/or selectivity.
For example, a pyrrole ring has frequently been used as a bioisostere for an amide. Carrying out
this replacement on the dopamine antagonist sultopride led to increased activity and selectivity
towards the dopamine D3 -receptor over the dopamine D2 -receptor. Such agents show promise
as antipsychotic agents that lack the side effects associated with the D2 -receptor.
Transition-state isosteres are a special type of isostere used in the design of transition-state
analogues. These are drugs that are used to inhibit enzymes.
During an enzymatic reaction, a substrate goes through a transition state before it becomes
product. It is proposed that the transition state is bound more strongly than either the substrate or
the product, so it makes sense to design drugs based on the structure of the transition state rather
than the structure of the substrate or the product.
Simplification of the structure
Consideration is given to removing functional groups which are not part of the pharmacophore,
simplifying the carbon skeleton (for example removing rings), and removing asymmetric
centers.
Chiral drugs pose a particular problem. The easiest and cheapest method of synthesizing a chiral
drug is to make the racemate.
13. Drug design
Medicinal chemistry-II Page 13
Figure: Simplification of cocaine
Various tactics can be used to remove asymmetric carbon centres. For example, replacing the
carbon centre with nitrogen has been effective in many cases.
Figure: Replacing an asymmetric carbon with nitrogen
Another tactic is to introduce symmetry where originally there was none.
For example, the muscarinic agonist (II) was developed from (I) in order to remove asymmetry.
Both structures have the same activity.
Figure: Introducing symmetry
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The advantage of simpler structures is that they are easier, quicker, and cheaper to synthesize in
the laboratory.
Oversimplification may also result in reduced activity, reduced selectivity, and increased side
effects.
Rigidification of the structure
The body’s own neurotransmitters are highly flexible molecules (section 4.2), but, fortunately,
the body is efficient at releasing them close to their target receptors, then quickly inactivating
them so that they do not make the journey to other receptors.
Figure: Active conformation of a hypothetical neurotransmitter.
The more flexible a drug molecule is, the more likely it will interact with more than one receptor
and produce other biological responses (side effects). Too much flexibility is also bad for oral
bioavailability.
The strategy of rigidification is to make the molecule more rigid, such that the active
conformation is retained and the number of other possible conformations is decreased.
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This same strategy should also increase activity. By making the drug more rigid, it is more
likely to be in the active conformation when it approaches the target binding site and should
bind more readily. This is also important when it comes to the thermodynamics of binding. A
flexible molecule has to adopt a single active conformation in order to bind to its target, which
means that it has to become more ordered. This results in a decrease in entropy and, as the free
energy of binding is related to entropy by the equation ΔG = ΔH−TΔS, any decrease in entropy
will adversely affect ΔG. In turn, this lowers the binding affinity ( Ki ), which is related to ΔG
by the equation ΔG = −RTln K i . A totally rigid molecule, however, is already in its active
conformation and there is no loss of entropy involved in binding to the target. If the binding
interactions (ΔH) are exactly the same as for the more flexible molecule, the rigid molecule will
have the better overall binding affinity.
Incorporating the skeleton of a flexible drug into a ring is the usual way of locking a
conformation.
Figure: Rigidification of a molecule by locking rotatable bonds within a ring
A flexible side chain can be partially rigidified by incorporating a rigid functional group such as
a double bond, alkyne, amide, or aromatic ring.
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Rigidification also has potential disadvantages. Rigidified structures may be more complicated
to synthesize. There is also no guarantee that rigidification will retain the active conformation; it
is perfectly possible that rigidification will lock the compound into an inactive conformation.
Another disadvantage involves drugs acting on targets which are prone to mutation. If a
mutation alters the shape of the binding site, then the drug may no longer be able to bind,
whereas a more flexible drug may adopt a different conformation that could bind.
Designing drugs to interact with more than one target
There have been two approaches to designing multi-target-drugs (MTDs) . One is to design
agents from known drugs and pharmacophores such that the new agent has the combined
properties of the drugs involved. The other approach is to start from a lead compound which has
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activity against a wide range of targets, and then modify the structure to try and narrow the
activity down to the desired targets.
Agents designed from known drugs
The advantage of this approach is that there is a good chance that the resulting dimer will have a
similar selectivity and potency to the original individual drugs for both intended targets. The
disadvantage is the increased number of functional groups and rotatable bonds, which may have
detrimental effects on whether the resulting dimer is orally active or not. There is also the
problem that attaching one drug to another may block each individual component binding to its
target binding site.
A nice method of designing dual-action drugs is to consider the pharmacophores of two different
drugs, and to then design a hybrid structure where the two pharmacophores are merged. Such
drugs are called hybrid drugs.
One example of this is ladostigil, which is a hybrid structure of the acetylcholinesterase
inhibitor rivastigmine and the monoamine oxidase inhibitor rasagiline.