Dr

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Employee/organizationcommunications
Dr. Berger’s article outlines the subject of employee/organizational communication, describing
its importance and basic internal communication processes, networks and channels. Highlighting
important issues in current practices, the article concludes with 15 principles of effective
communication and an interactive list of recommended readings.
“The greatest continuing area of weakness in management practice is the human dimension. In
good times or bad, there seems to be little real understanding of the relationships between
managers, among employees, and interactions between the two. When there are problems,
everyone acknowledges that the cause often is a communication problem. So now what?” Jim
Lukazewski, 2006
Executive Summary
This article reviews the research-based knowledge regarding employee/organizational
communications, a complex process that is vital to organizational success in a dynamic global
marketplace. I first define the subject, summarize its importance and describe basic internal
communication processes, networks and channels. The benefits of internal communication are
then highlighted, followed by a history of the changing perceptions and practices of internal
communication. I then discuss the roles of professional communicators and four important issues
in current practice–social media, measurement, employee engagement and organizational
identity. The article concludes with 15 principles of effective communication, a list of references
and some suggested readings.
I want to thank internal communication experts Keith Burton, Gary Grates and Sean Williams,
whose valuable insights and suggestions greatly enriched this article.
Definition of the Topic

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Employee/organizational communications refer to communications and interactions among
employees or members of an organization. I use the terms internal
communications and organizational communications to mean the same thing. Internal
communications also have been called internal relations (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2006)
and internal public relations (Kennan & Hazleton, 2006; Kreps, 1989).
Deetz (2001) described two ways of seeing and defining internal communications. The most
common approach focuses on internal communication as a “phenomenon that exists in
organizations” (p. 5). In this view, the organization is a container in which communication
occurs. A second approach sees internal communication as “a way to describe and explain
organizations” (p. 5). Here, communication is the central process through which employees share
information, create relationships, make meaning and “construct” organizational culture and
values. This process is a combination of people, messages, meaning, practices and purpose
(Shockley-Zalabak, 1995), and it is the foundation of modern organizations (D’Aprix, 1996).
The first approach has dominated, but the second perspective is gaining wider acceptance as
more organizations recognize the crucial role of communication in dealing with complex issues
and rapid changes in a turbulent global market.
Why Internal Communication Matters
Communication is one of the most dominant and important activities in organizations (Harris &
Nelson, 2008). Fundamentally, relationships grow out of communication, and the functioning
and survival of organizations is based on effective relationships among individuals and groups.
In addition, organizational capabilities are developed and enacted through “intensely social and
communicative processes” (Jones et al., 2004). Communication helps individuals and groups

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coordinate activities to achieve goals, and it’s vital in socialization, decision-making, problem-
solving and change-management processes.
Internal communication also provides employees with important information about their jobs,
organization, environment and each other. Communication can help motivate, build trust, create
shared identity and spur engagement; it provides a way for individuals to express emotions, share
hopes and ambitions and celebrate and remember accomplishments. Communication is the basis
for individuals and groups to make sense of their organization, what it is and what it means.
Communication Processes, Networks and Channels
Internal communication is a complex and dynamic process, but early models focused on a one-
way transmission of messages. TheShannon-Weaver Model (1949), concerned with technology
and information distribution, is a classic example. In this S-M-C-Rmodel, an information source
[S] encoded a message [M] and delivered it through a selected channel [C] to a designated
receiver [R], who decoded it. Later versions of the model added a feedback loop from receiver to
sender. Nevertheless, the model suggested that all meaning is contained within the message, and
the message would be understood if received. It was a sender-focused model.
Berlo’s (1960) S-M-C-Rmodel provided a richer interactional perspective. He emphasized
relationships between source and receiver and suggested that the more highly developed the
communication knowledge and skills of sources and receivers, the more effectively the message
would be encoded and decoded. Berlo also acknowledged the importance of the culture in which
communication occurs, the attitudes of senders and receivers and strategic channel selection.
Later models emphasized the transactional nature of the process and how individuals, groups and
organizations construct meaning and purpose (Harris & Nelson, 2008).

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Today, the model is more complex due to new media and high-speed, multi-directional
communications (Burton, 2008; Williams, 2008). However, the core components live on in
formal communications planning and implementation. Organizational leaders and
communication specialists first develop strategies to achieve objectives, construct relevant
messages and then transmit them through diverse channels to stimulate conversations with
employees and members. Increasingly, formal communications are grounded in receivers’ needs
and concerns. Employees communicate informally with others inside and outside the
organization through high-speed communications, too.
Communication Levels
Internal communication occurs on multiple levels. Interpersonal or face-to-face (F-T-
F) communication between individuals is a primary form of communication, and for years
organizations have sought to develop the speaking, writing and presentation skills of leaders,
managers and supervisors. Group-level communications occur in teams, units and employee
resource or interest groups (ERGs). The focus on this level is information sharing, issue
discussion, task coordination, problem solving and consensus building. Organizational-level
communications focus on such matters as vision and mission, policies, new initiatives and
organizational knowledge and performance. These formal communications often follow a
cascade approach where leaders at hierarchical levels communicate with their respective
employees, though social media are changing communications at this level.
Communication Networks
A network represents how communication flows in an organization. Networks can be formal and
informal. In a formal communication network, messages travel through official pathways (e.g.,

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newsletters, memos, policy statements) that reflect the organization’s hierarchy. Informal
communications move along unofficial paths (e.g., the grapevine, which is now electronic, fast
and multidirectional) and include rumors, opinions, aspirations and expressions of emotions.
Informal communications are often interpersonal and horizontal, and employees believe they are
more authentic than formal communications (Burton, 2008). Employees and members use both
networks to understand and interpret their organizations.
Communications also can be described as vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Vertical
communication can be downward–flowing down the hierarchy of an organization–or upward,
i.e., moving from lower to higher levels in the chain of command. Horizontal
communicationrefers to communication among persons who have no hierarchical relationship,
such as three supervisors from different functions.Diagonal or omni-directional
communication occurs among employees at different levels and in different functions, e.g., a
quality control supervisor, accountant and systems analyst. Evolving organizational structures
and technologies create opportunities for new and conflicting communication flows (Williams,
2008).
Studies regarding the effectiveness of communication flows often reveal employee
dissatisfaction with both downward and upward communications. Findings by the Opinion
Research Corporation, which has examined employee perceptions of internal communication for
more than 50 years, generally show that more than half of employees are dissatisfied or
somewhat dissatisfied with both downward and upward communications (Cutlip, Center &
Broom, 2006). Less is known about the effectiveness of horizontal and diagonal
communications.

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Communication Channels
A communication channel is a medium through which messages are transmitted and received.
Channels are categorized as print, electronic or F-T-F (interpersonal). Common print
channels include memos, brochures, newsletters, reports, policy manuals, annual reports and
posters. New technologies have spurred the use of electronic channels, e.g., email and voice
mail, Intranets, blogs, podcasts, chat rooms, business TV, video conferencing, instant messaging
systems, wikis and electronic town-hall meetings. Face-to-face channels include speeches, team
meetings, focus groups, brown bag lunches, social events and gatherings and management by
wandering around.
According to Harris and Nelson (2008), the most used channel is listening, which consumes
about half of our communication time (Johnson, 1996). Effective listening is crucial to learning,
understanding, conflict resolution and productive team work. It helps leaders at all levels
improve employee morale, retain employees and uncover and resolve problems. Yet, many
studies suggest that most people are not good listeners, and few organizations devote resources
to developing listening skills in managers and leaders (Alessandra & Hunsaker, 1993).
“The medium is the message.” Marshall McLuhan, 1964
Selection of Media
Today, organizations and their employees and members have access to many communication
channels. Selecting the most appropriate medium or media is an important issue for professional
communicators once they have determined objectives and strategies, assessed relevant audiences
and constructed messages. Perhaps no one made this point more strongly than McLuhan (1964),

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who claimed that “the medium is the message.” He argued that each medium, independent of
content, engages receivers in different ways and affects the scale and pace of communication.
McLuhan distinguished between “hot” and “cool” media, each of which involves different
degrees of receiver participation. Hot media (e.g., print channels, film, lecture, radio) require less
active participation and involvement than cool media (e.g., TV, comic books, F-T-F channels).
Hot media are more segmented and linear, while cool media may be more abstract and require
more participation to understand.
Daft and Lengel (1984) developed a media richness model to explain media choices. They said
that media choice should match the ambiguity of any communication task with the richness of
particular media. Ambiguity refers to the difficulty of interpreting or understanding a
message. Media richness refers to the capability of media to effectively convey information.
Capability is differentiated by the availability and speed of feedback of the channel, the use of
multiple cues and natural language to facilitate understanding and the personal focus of the
message.
The researchers proposed a continuum of media choices: At one end are channels that possess
most or all of these capabilities (rich media); at the other end are channels with few of these
characteristics (lean media). F-T-F communication is the richest medium and optimal channel for
communicating complex information or resolving conflicts, for example. Lean and impersonal
media include simple announcements, data reports and posters. Electronic mail, phone calls,
personal written communications and other channels fall in the middle of the continuum.
Later research has shown that media selection also is influenced by the social environment in
organizations, which affects member attitudes toward a channel or medium and how it is or

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should be used in their organizations (Fulk et al., 1987). The dual-capacity model of media use
(Sitkin, Sutcliffe, & Barrios-Choplin, 1992) argued that any channel carries two types of
messages–a “data” or task-related message, and a “meaning” or symbolic message. The data-
carrying capacity of media is similar across organizations, but the symbol-carrying capacity
varies from one organization to another due to cultural differences. Thus, communicators should
select channels based on message ambiguity, media richness, organizational culture and
available resources.
Measureable Benefits
Internal communication continues to evolve in a dynamic world characterized by an explosion of
new technologies, intense global competition and rapid change. Today, many would agree
with Harris and Nelson’s (2008) assertion that internal communication is an essential aspect of
organizational change–it is “the key variable in almost all change efforts, diversity initiatives and
motivation” (p. 95). Some even argue that internal communication is the most “fundamental
driver of business performance” (Gay, Mahoney & Graves, 2005, p. 11).
A growing body of evidence demonstrates that effective internal communications help increase
employee job satisfaction, morale, productivity, commitment, trust and learning; improve
communication climate and relationships with publics; and enhance quality, revenues and
earnings. Here are some examples:
Employees who are disloyal to their organizations, or lack commitment to helping organizations
achieve their goals, may cost business $50 billion per year in quality defects, rework and repair
costs, absenteeism and reduced productivity, according to Alvie Smith, former director of
corporate communications at General Motors (cited in Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2006).

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Improving the quality, adequacy and timeliness of information that employees receive about
customers, the organization or their own work can improve their individual performance by as
much as 20-50 percent (Boyett & Boyett, 1998).
More than 80 percent of employees polled in the US and UK said that employee communication
influences their desire to stay with or leave an organization. Nearly a third said communication
was a “big influence” on their decision (Burton, 2006).
The 200 “most admired” companies spent more than three times as much on employee
communications as the 200 “least admired” companies (Seitel, 2004).
Employees’ satisfaction with communication in their organizations is linked to organizational
commitment, productivity, job performance and satisfaction and other significant outcomes
(Gray & Laidlaw, 2004).
Organizations with engaged and committed employees were 50 percent more productive than
those organizations where employees weren’t engaged. In addition, employee retention rates
were 44 percent higher in organizations with engaged and committed employees (Izzo &
Withers, 2000).
Positive communication climate and effective employee communication strengthen employees’
identification with their organizations, which contributes to an organization’s financial
performance and sustained success (Smidts, Pruyn & van Riel, 2001).
Sears Roebuck found that creating a more compelling place to work for employees led to a
significant increase in employee attitude scores, customer satisfaction scores and revenues
(Rucci, Kim & Quinn, 1998).

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A significant improvement in communication effectiveness in organizations was linked to a 29.5
percent rise in market value (Watson Wyatt, 2004).
Effective communication facilitates engagement and builds trust, which is a critical ingredient in
strong, viable organizations (Grates, 2008). Engaged employees enhance business performance
because they influence customer behavior, which directly affects revenue growth and
profitability (Towers Perrin, 2003).
The Evolution of Internal Communication
Social theorist James Coleman (1974, 1990) traced the rise of large organizations and claimed
they have changed communications practices and personal relationships through two powerful
interactions: big organizations communicating with other big organizations and with individuals.
Large organizations were relatively new in the early 20th century, apart from government and
the military, so theories developed to explain how organizations worked and tried to achieve
their goals. This section outlines five theoretical approaches that evolved in the last century–the
classical, human relations, human resources, systems and cultural approaches. Communication
features or characteristics of each approach are briefly described. More comprehensive
treatments may be found in many communication texts, e.g., Harris & Nelson, 2008; Miller,
1995; and Modaff, DeWine & Butler, 2008.
Classical Approaches
Sometimes referred to as the machine metaphor because of how employees were viewed as
interchangeable parts, this approach is grounded in scientific management theories of work and
workers in the early 20th century. Frederick Taylor (1911) was the best known proponent of this
approach. He studied factory production lines and concluded that work processes could be

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improved by applying scientific principles to jobs and workers. These included such things as
designing each task to improve performance, hiring workers who possessed characteristics that
matched each job and training workers and rewarding them for productivity achievements.
Henri Fayol (1949) believed that operational efficiency could be improved through better
managerial practices. He prescribed five elements of managing (planning, organizing, command,
coordination and control) and 14 principles of administration. Fayol also introduced the “Scalar
Chain,” which represents organizational hierarchy, and said that communication needed to
follow this chain to reduce misunderstanding. During times of emergency, however, he indicated
that employees might communicate with each other across the organization. This first notion of
horizontal communications came to be called “Fayol’s bridge.”
The German sociologist Max Weber (1947) developed a theory of bureaucracy as a way to
formally establish authority and structure operations and communications. Some key
components of this approach included: a distinct chain of command with centralized decision-
making; clear delineation of tasks and responsibilities; and writing everything down to avoid
misunderstandings.
Communication features: Two key communication goals were to prevent misunderstandings,
which might impair productivity or quality, and to convey decisions and directives of top
management. The formal structure of organizations drove top-down communication, primarily
through print channels. The content of most communications was task or rule oriented. The
social side of communication was largely ignored, and employees relied heavily on the grapevine
for such information.
Human Relations Approaches

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In the 1930s, the focus shifted from work tasks to employees and their needs, and the Hawthorne
Studies spurred this movement. Carried out at the Western Electric Company in Chicago, the
studies revealed the importance of groups and human relationships in work. Elton Mayo
(1933) and his Harvard colleagues discovered that employees who worked in friendly teams,
with supportive supervisors, tended to outperform employees who worked in less favorable
conditions. This and related research became the basis for the “human relations” approach.
Chester Barnard (1938), an AT&T executive, highlighted the functions of organizational
executives and their role in communication. He emphasized the importance of formal and
informal communications to the organization’s success and argued that cooperation among
workers and supervisors was crucial to improving productivity. In his view, the key to
cooperation was communication: “The most universal form of human cooperation, and perhaps
the most complex, is speech,” he wrote (1938; cited in Modaff et al., 2008, p. 50).
Though writing later, McGregor (1960) perhaps best articulated principles of the human relations
organization through his “Theory X” and “Theory Y” presentation. These approaches focused on
opposing assumptions that managers may hold for workers, and the corresponding behaviors of
managers. Simply put, Theory X managers believe workers lack motivation, resist change and
are indifferent to organizational goals. Thus, managers must provide strong, forceful leadership
to direct and control employees. Theory Y managers believe employees are highly motivated,
creative and driven to satisfy their needs for achievement. The role of managers, then, is to elicit
those tendencies through employee participation in decision making, managing by objectives and
problem solving in work teams.

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Communication features: This approach included more F-T-F communication and acknowledged
the importance of internal communications. Downward communication still dominated, but
feedback was gathered to gauge employee satisfaction. Some social information was added to the
task-oriented content of communication, and managerial communications were less formal.
Human Resources Approaches
The human resources approach (Miles, 1965) was widely adopted by organizations in the 1960s.
This participative, team approach to management-employee relations recognized that employees
can contribute both physical and mental labor.
Blake and Mouton (1964) developed a Managerial Grid to help train managers in leadership
styles that would stimulate employees’ cognitive contributions, satisfy needs and help the
organization succeed. The preferred team-management style–high on concern for both people
and production–became the basis for management development practices in a number of
companies. Quality control circles, decentralized organizations, total quality management and
employee participation groups are manifestations of this approach.
Focusing more on organizational structure, Rensis Likert (1961, 1967) theorized four
organizational forms and labeled them System I through System IV. Likert believed that a
System IV organization, characterized by multi-directional communication and a participatory
style and structure, would spur productivity gains and reduce absenteeism and turnover.
Other theorists argued that the best leadership style would vary from one event to another,
depending on contingencies in the environment. Fiedler (1967) said that leaders should first
define a contingency and then determine the most appropriate leadership behaviors to deal with
it. Contingency theory recognizes that organizations and environments are constantly changing,

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and there is a need to monitor environments and carefully analyze information before making
decisions.
Communication features: Communication became multidirectional and more relational.
Feedback was sought to enhance problem solving and stimulate idea sharing. Innovation content
was added to social and task information in communications. Concepts of employee trust and
commitment emerged as important issues, and organizations began to share communication
decision-making among employees.
Systems Approaches
In the 1970s some theorists adopted a systems perspective, viewing organizations as complex
organisms competing to survive and thrive in challenging environments. In general systems
theory, any system is a group of parts that are arranged in complex ways and which interact with
each other through processes to achieve goals (vonBertalanffy, 1951, 1968). An auto supply
company, for example, consists of a number of departments or units (production, marketing,
finance, sales), each of which includes individuals and teams. The functioning of any of these
units or subsystems relies on others in the organization; they are interdependent. The company is
also part of a larger supra system–the automobile industry.
Systems and subsystems have boundaries that are selectively opened or closed to their
environments, allowing the flow of information and other resources. Open systems use
information exchange (input-throughput-output) to grow and thrive; closed systems don’t allow
much information to move in or out. To survive and adapt, all social systems require some
degree of permeability (Stacks, Hickson & Hill, 1991).

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As Almaney (1974) suggested, communication is a “system binder” that links the system to its
environment and its various subsystems to each other. Individuals who exchange information
with other systems or groups (customers, government personnel, suppliers) areboundary
spanners. Media outlets provide other important links between organizations and the
environment.
Weick (1979) used systems theory to explain organizational behavior and the process of sense
making. He argued that communication is the core process of organizing; through information
produced by processes or patterns of behavior, systems can increase their knowledge and reduce
uncertainty about the complex environments in which they operate.
Communication features: Communication is vital for exchanging information in and among
subsystems through multidirectional channels which are used in internal communications.
Feedback processes help systems adjust, change and maintain control. Collective decision-
making processes and shared responsibilities for communication are more prevalent.
Cultural Approaches
Cultural approaches emerged in the 1970s in the context of increasing competition from Japan
and other nations in the global marketplace. Culture refers to an organization’s distinct identity–
the shared beliefs, values, behaviors and artifacts that an organization holds, which determine
how it functions and adapts to its environment (Schein, 1985). As the performance of American
corporations declined, management scholars looked for other explanations of the behaviors and
practices in the troubled companies. The cultural approach was attractive because of its dynamic
nature and the kind of depth insights it can provide (Schein, 1996).

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Two popular books in the 1980s influenced organizational practices and structures and helped
culture gain mainstream recognition.Deal and Kennedy’s (1982) book, Corporate Culture: The
Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life, claimed that companies could improve their performance by
developing a “strong” culture based on shared values, celebration of heroes and performance of
rites and rituals, among others. The Peters and Waterman (1982) book, In Search of Excellence:
Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies, captured characteristics of “excellent” cultures at
high-performing businesses. These included customer focus, employee empowerment, trust,
shared values and lean organizational structures. A decade later, Larkin and Larkin’s
(1994) book, Communicating Change, highlighted the importance of F-T-F and supervisory
communications during cultural changes or other major organizational initiatives.
Miller (1995) distinguished between prescriptive and descriptive approaches to examining
organizational cultures. A prescriptive approach views culture as “something an
organization has” (p. 108) and prescribes interventions to create or manage a “winning” or strong
culture. However, scholars often adopt a descriptive approach, which considers culture
“something an organization is” (Miller, 1995, p. 108). This approach rejects the notion of a one-
size-fits-all cultural formula for success and focuses on how communications and interactions
lead to shared meaning. Descriptive approaches also call attention to other important aspects of
organizational culture, e.g., power relationships and gender and diversity issues.
Communication features: The cultural approach valorizes communication, seeing it as a
culturally-based process of sharing information, creating relationships and shaping the
organization (Brown & Starkey, 1994). Communication and culture share a reciprocal
relationship (Modaff et al., 2008). Communications help create and influence culture through
formal and informal channels, stories, shared experiences and social activities. Culture influences

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communications because employees interact though shared interpretive frameworks of culture,
e.g., distinctive company vocabulary, valued media channels and established protocols and
practices.
Summary
These five approaches demonstrate how internal communication changed as organizations grew
and evolved. Today, elements of all five approaches live on in organizations–work rules,
hierarchies, policies, training programs, work teams, job descriptions, socialization rituals,
human resource departments, job descriptions, customer focus and so forth. Corresponding
communication practices also are present today in formal, top-down communications, bottom-up
suggestion programs, horizontal communications among team members, myriad print and
electronic communications and new dialogue-creating social media that are changing
communication structures and practices.
New perspectives continue to appear. Some use metaphors to depict organizations (Morgan,
1986) and internal communication (Putnam & Boys, 2006). Others focus on power, gender or
hegemony issues in modern organizations (e.g., Mumby, 1993, 2001). Still others theorize
companies as learning organizations, arguing that the only sustainable source of advantage for
any organization is its ability to learn, acquire knowledge and change faster than others
(e.g., Senge, 1990; Senge et al., 1994). Increasingly, researchers adopt cultural or co-creational
views wherein employees and members share stories and construct interpretations and meanings
through internal communications and conversations (Botan & Taylor, 2004).
“As their role has evolved from ‘conveyors of information’ to strategic business partners,
communication professionals are being asked to better connect employees to the business, equip

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leaders with the skills and tools to effectively communicate, ensure that the right messages are
‘breaking through the clutter,’ and show measurable results–all daunting challenges.” Gay,
Mahoney and Graves, 2005
The Internal Communication Professional
Curiously absent in many scholarly research articles are professional communicators or public
relations specialists (Kennan & Hazleton, 2006). Much of the literature in this review suggests
that internal communication has long been a struggle between the needs and desires of managers
and those of employees. Professional communicators, if mentioned at all, are seen as technicians
who carry out the compliance-gaining directives of executives.
But this view is changing, as is the role of communicators. Practitioners today are moving from
historical roles as information producers and distributors, to advocacy and advisory roles in
strategic decision making, relationship building and programs which foster trust, participation
and empowerment. They help their organizations create a strong foundation for success in a
dynamic world–a culture for communication that is conducive to open, transparent, authentic
two-way communications and conversations.
Culture for Communication
Public relations excellence theory is grounded in a systems perspective (Dozier et al., 1995; J.
Grunig, 1984, 1992; L. Grunig, J. Grunig, & D. Dozier, 2002). The role of public relations is to
help organizations develop and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with internal and
external stakeholders through excellent communications. Excellence theory also describes some
factors that facilitate or impede creation of a culture for communication. These include: 1) a
participative culture where employees are empowered, 2) a two-way system of communication,

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3) a decentralized, less formal structure and 4) programs that treat men, women and minorities
equitably (Grunig, & Grunig, 2006).
Sanchez (2006) claimed, “How an organization conceives and manages communication does
more to tell about its culture than any other single process element” (p. 40-41). He was referring
to communication planning, budgeting, staffing and policies. Seitel (2004)cited a Fortune
magazine report in which the top 200 “most admired” companies spent more than half of their
communication budgets on internal communications. This was more than three times as much as
the 200 “least admired” companies. Colvin (2006) reported that the 100 “best companies” share
the view that effective and ongoing two-way communication is the foundation for employee
motivation and organizational success.
Rhee (2003) found in a comprehensive case study that employees who have positive
relationships (high levels of commitment) with their organizations help develop positive
relationships with the organization’s publics. In addition, publics assess an organization based on
the quality of employee relationships with their organization. Important factors in employee-
public-organization relationships include: leaders’ communication behaviors, the extent and
quality of F-T-F communication, listening skills, opportunities for dialogue and the involvement
of leaders in PR activities (http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/uploads/2003_Rhee).
Internal Communication and Social Capital
Kennan and Hazleton (2006) outlined a theory of internal public relations based on social capital
theory. Social capital is “the ability that organizations have of creating, maintaining and using
relationships to achieve desirable organizational goals” (p. 322). Social capital accrues through
communication, interaction and development of relationships inside and outside of the

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organization. The use of social capital gained through communication may increase employee
satisfaction, commitment and productivity, as well as customer satisfaction.
Trust is the basis for productive relationships, cooperation and communication. Shockley-
Zalabak et al. (2000) argued that trust is social capital which directly affects an organization’s
ability to deal with change and crisis. They found that trust impacts the bottom line because it
influences job satisfaction, productivity and team building; it also was linked to lower incidences
of litigation and legislation. Brad Rawlins has provided a comprehensive review of trust on this
web site (http://www.instituteforpr.org/essential_knowledge/ ).
Four Contemporary Issues
Organizations confront many challenges in today’s turbulent global market. They must process
continuous changes and shifting workplace demographics, assimilate new technologies, manage
knowledge and learning, adopt new structures, strengthen identity, advance diversity and engage
employees–often across cultures and at warp speed. Internal communication lies at the center of
successful solutions to these issues, and professional communicators must play key leadership,
strategic and tactical roles to help their organizations resolve them. This section briefly reviews
four issues affecting current practice:
1. Organizational Identity
Identification is a big concern for organizations because of the difficulties of being heard in a
noisy world and disappearing organizational boundaries (Cheney & Christenson, 2001). Thus,
organizations seek to create an identity that distinguishes them from others and ties employees
more closely to them. Organizational identity has its roots in social identity theory (Tajfel &
Turner, 1976, 1986), which refers to an individual’s self-concept that grows out of membership

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in social groups. Group identity refers to an individual’s sense of what defines “us” versus
others. Employees or members also can develop an identity with their organizations (Ashforth &
Mael, 1989; Mael & Ashforth, 1992). Haslam (2000) found that communication reflects and
creates social identities, and shared identity helps build trust and shared interpretations.
Smidts, Pruyn and van Riel (2001) found that effective internal communication strengthened
employees’ identification with their organizations, more so than perceived external prestige. A
strong company identity can boost employee motivation and raise confidence among external
stakeholders (van Riel, 1995). As Williams (2008) noted, however, a new generation of
employees, less inclined to identify with their employers, requires new approaches to identity
building. This may include greater use of new dialogue-creating media and e-communication
groups. It also may require more employee interactions with customers and social causes,
improved leaders’ listening skills and higher quality F-T-F communication (Rhee, 2003).
2. Employee Engagement
According to D’Aprix (2006), engaging employees more fully in their work is the most
important issue facing organizations. Engagementrefers to “unleashing the full energy and talents
of people in the work place” (p. 227). Long an issue, it is more crucial today due to a dynamic
marketplace, an information-saturated work place and trust and morale problems exacerbated by
waves of downsizing, restructuring and corporate governance problems in the past 15 years
(Burton, 2008). Employees are inundated with so much information today that they are
overwhelmed, confused and work with the “volume off” (Grates, 2006).
Professional communicators can help by aligning words with actions, building relationships and
conversing with employees rather than communicating at them, and helping guide authentic

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executive actions which reflect organizational purpose. Burton (2008) suggested that new
technologies help engage employees by personalizing executive communications and reinforcing
face-to-face initiatives. Edelman’s white paper (“New Frontiers,” 2006) on employee
engagement provides a number of ideas for using social media to better reach and engage
employees. (http://www.edelman.com/expertise/practices/employee_change/index.html).
The benefits of an engaged workforce are clear. Izzo and Withers (2000) found that
organizations with engaged and committed employees were 50 percent more productive than
those where employees weren’t engaged. Employee retention rates also were 44 percent higher.
A Watson Wyatt (2002) study found that companies with more engaged employees produce
greater financial returns. Engaged employees contribute discretionary efforts, which they
otherwise may withhold (D’Aprix, 2006).
3. Measurement
Professional communicators agree that measurement of their work is crucial, but they share few
standards for what or how to measure. As a result, many measurement practices are tactical in
nature rather than strategic and ongoing (Williams, 2008). In addition, organizations are
struggling to set objectives for new social media and to measure their effects in internal and
external communication initiatives (Edelman, 2008).
Sinickas (2005) and Williams (2003) provide useful guidelines for conducting audits, developing
surveys and other measurement tools, evaluating program results and analyzing and reporting
data. Gay et al. (2005) outlined a variety of approaches communicators use to measure the ROI
on their work. These include: cost savings measures (e.g., idea development programs);
employee surveys, pulse surveys and focus groups for specific communication projects; and

23
business outcome measures (e.g., retention, productivity, customer satisfaction and quality
factors). A significant but seldom measured ROI on employee communication is the reduced
cycle time for change associated with mergers, acquisitions and other culture-changing initiatives
(Berger, 2008).
Employee communication case studies for Sears, Roebuck & Co. and General Motors
(http://www.instituteforpr.org/research/employee/) offer specific examples of company
measurement approaches. The GolinHarris Corporate Citizenship Index provides a larger picture
(http://www.golinharris.com/news_rel.php?ID=86) of the contributions that effective and
authentic communications make to developing public perceptions of corporate citizenship.
Though steady advances are occurring in evaluating internal communication projects and
programs, better measures are needed to assess linkages among communications, longer-term
outcomes and desired behavioral changes.
4. Social Media
The Cluetrain Manifesto (Levine et al., 2000) put businesses on notice that the Internet and
Intranets were radically altering the marketplace and the nature of stakeholder relationships. New
social media facilitate a “powerful global conversation” in which everyone can participate and
share opinions, ideas, knowledge and images with each other, and circumvent traditional
gatekeepers. Middleberg (2001) claimed that apart from F-T-F communication, no other
channels “allowed people to say things more creatively, expressively, precisely, and powerfully
than the Internet” and other new media (xii).
Social media refer to new electronic and web-based communication channels such as blogs,
podcasts, wikis, chat rooms, discussion forums, RSS feeds, web sites, social networks (e.g.,

24
MySpace and Second Life) and other dialogue-creating media. Social media are revolutionizing
communications and reconfiguring the long-time S-M-C-Rmodel of internal communication
(Williams, 2008). New media increase the volume, speed and every-way flow of communication,
connecting people, giving them a voice and stimulating discussions about topics of common
interest (Smith, 2006).
Holtz (1999) wrote one of the first comprehensive resource works for practitioners to help guide
strategic use of new media. He also co-authored books explaining how practitioners can develop
and use blogs (Holtz & Demopoulos, 2006) and podcasts (Holtz & Hobson, 2007) to dialogue
and interact more effectively with employees and other stakeholders. However, external PR
specialists and marketers have adopted new media more quickly than internal communication
professionals. In part this is because organizations no longer control communication, so new
media require professional communicators to rethink tactics, strategies and their own roles.
Burton (Insidedge, 2007) referred to social media as “me” communications, which challenge
communicators to use them to stimulate employee engagement, provide relevant information and
capture employee insights and issues. This means moving the professional role from one of
information distribution to open dialogue, letting go of the notion of control, listening closely to
others in the conversations, communicating honestly and equipping managers and supervisors as
primary communicators.
Edelman’s Trust Barometer (http://www.edelman.com/trust/2008/) found that trust in media is
increasing in part because new social media are now perceived as being an important component
of more traditional mass media. A comprehensive study by The Society for New
Communications Research (http://www.instituteforpr.com/) underscored the growing use of

25
social media by professional communicators to disseminate information and engage publics.
Communicators in the survey also rated highly the effectiveness of such media in achieving
campaign goals, though measurement of social media is in the early stages.
For communicators, social media are here to stay. They also will continue to evolve, possibly to
the point blogger Shel Israel suggests, where “people will be able to behave and interact online
as they do in everyday life” (http://redcouch.typepad.com/weblog/2008/08/the-future-of-s.html).
On the other hand, new media have not killed or replaced traditional media, but rather influenced
them and forced them to adopt (Holtz, 2006). Like all channels, new media represent advantages
and disadvantages, and communicators must carefully analyze and assess their best use.
“The great enemy of clear language is insincerity. When there is a gap between one’s real and
one’s declared aims, one turns as it were instinctively to long words and exhausted idioms, like a
cuttlefish spurting out ink.” George Orwell, 1946
15 Principles of Successful Internal Communications
Effective internal communication is hard work, but research findings and case studies point to
some practices and principles which seem crucial to successful internal communications for
organizations, employees and members. Here are 15 of them:
Timeliness and Content
Providing timely and relevant information to individuals, through channels they use and trust,
and in language they understand, remains the basis for successful and strategic internal
communications.

26
Communication content should provide context and rationale for changes or new initiatives as
they relate to the organization, but especially to the relative performance or requirements of
employees in local work units. This underlines the importance of the supervisor’s front-line role
in communication.
Channels
Face-to-face communication is the richest medium. It should be emphasized in internal
communications, especially to resolve conflicts or crises, communicate major changes and
celebrate accomplishments.
Excellent listening skills reduce errors and misunderstanding, help uncover problems, save time,
improve evaluations and facilitate relationship building. Development of excellent listening
skills among leaders at all levels in organizations is crucial.
Social media are fast and powerful dialogue-creating channels which can empower and engage
employees and members. They influence and alter traditional media and their uses, but don’t
eliminate them. Communicators should blend new and traditional media in ways that help
organizations best achieve their goals and enhance relationships with internal and external
publics.
Leadership Roles
The CEO or senior leader(s) must be a visible and open champion for internal communication.
Visibility is the first and most basic form of non-verbal communication for leaders.
The communication style of leaders should invite open, ongoing and transparent discussion so
that people are willing to voice their opinions and suggestions.

27
The actions of leaders at all levels must match their words. This has everything to do with
credibility and the extent to which employees will trust, commit to and follow leaders. As author
Carolyn Wells said, “Actions lie louder than words.”
Professional Communicator Roles
Professional communicators must see themselves as internal experts on communication who
serve as facilitators and counselors to executives and managers and provide strategic support for
business plans.
Communicators must also be organizational experts. They must possess knowledge of the
organization’s structures, challenges and objectives, as well as understand employee issues and
needs and marketplace requirements and realities.
Participation and Recognition
Encouraging employee participation in decision making builds loyalty and commitment and
improves the overall climate for communication. Participative decision making also often
improves the quality of decisions.
Recognizing and celebrating achievements at all levels helps build shared values and
organizational identity. Similar social events, rites and rituals contribute to and reflect an
organization’s distinctive culture.
Measurement
Measurement is a key to successful communication in any organization. Through diverse forms
and approaches, measurement helps define problems, determine the status quo, record progress,

28
assess value and provide a factual basis for future direction and action. Improving measurement
knowledge and practice is an ongoing professional requirement.
Culture
Ongoing two-way communication is the foundation for employee motivation and organizational
success. Two-way (now every-way) communication provides continuous feedback, which is
crucial to learning and to processing organizational change.
In addition to achieving specific goals, internal communications should help create and reflect
a culture for communication, where employees at all levels feel free to openly share ideas,
opinions and suggestions. This will enhance employee understanding, build trust, stimulate
engagement and encourage greater diversity.
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Annotated Bibliography
Berger, B. K. (2008). Getting communications on senior management’s agenda. In P. Williams
(Ed.), Employee communication: The comprehensive manual for those who communicate with
today’s employees (pp. 97-114). Chicago: Ragan Communications.
This book chapter will help professional communicators plan, present and sell internal
communication budgets and strategic proposals to senior executives. Berger argues that the
mental models for employee communication held by some leaders and practitioners are outdated,
leading to poor decision making. He outlines five steps for changing these mental models and
then presents a lengthy section on the topic of “how to win a budget.” This section provides a
candid look at the politics involved in resource allocation battles in large organizations. It

40
concludes with a discussion of how to successfully answer 10 “killer questions” that executives
may ask to try to derail or destroy your plans and budget proposals.
D’Aprix, R. (2006). Throwing rocks at the corporate rhinoceros: The challenges of employee
engagement. In T. L. Gillis (Ed.), The IABC handbook of organizational communication (pp.
227-239). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This crisply written article makes a compelling case for engaging employees to help
organizations become more competitive and successful in a global marketplace. The author
argues that employee engagement is the most crucial issue facing organizations today. Citing
data from various studies, D’Aprix describes how engagement captures the discretionary efforts
of employees, which they may withhold or contribute. Such efforts contribute significantly to the
achievement of organizational vision, mission and goals. Communicators can play a role by: 1)
reinventing themselves as strategic counselors and consultants, 2) collecting data to uncover the
causes of disengagement and make the business case for engagement and 3) improving
leadership communications at all levels.
D’Aprix, R. (1996). Communicating for change: Connecting the workplace with the
marketplace.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
This book provides practitioners with guidelines for creating market-based strategic
communications, which help connect the workplace to the marketplace. This is important
because change often destroys connections between organizations and customers, and market
forces and strategy, and among employees. Strategic communication is open, candid and focused
on the customer and the marketplace. In this view, employees are critical change agents who
require information to perform their jobs and collaborate with others to support a business

41
strategy. D’Aprix contends the “best” internal communication is characterized by talk that
matches walk, visible leadership, clear information about how the company is doing and the
nature of the marketplace, an emphasis on F-T-F channels, measurement and research, quality
listening and civility and courtesy.
Deetz, S. A., Tracy, S. J., & Simpson, J. L. (2000). Leading organizations through transition:
Communication and cultural change.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
This book blends theory and practice in a highly readable manner. It is invaluable for
communicators who are engaged in cultural changes brought on by globalization initiatives,
mergers, restructuring and technological innovations. In step-by-step fashion, the authors review
the dynamic change process and how organizational employees come to process, understand and
implement change. Internal communication is described as the central agent in change
management, and the book describes a number of communication processes in this regard. These
include developing and communicating a shared vision, using framing approaches to help
manage understanding and meanings (metaphors, stories, rituals and slogans), increasing
employee participation in decision making, acting ethically and demonstrating values,
communicating in timely fashion and addressing signs of trouble or dysfunction.
Gay, C., Mahoney, M., & Graves, J. (2005). Best practices in employee communication: A study
of global challenges and approaches. San Francisco: IABC Research Foundation.
Practitioners seeking to learn from best practices in internal communication will find this short
book to be quite useful. It establishes a strong case for the bottom-line impact of communication
and then highlights research findings, case examples and suggested strategies and tactics to help
resolve organizational issues. Based on their research, the authors identified four critical

42
challenges faced by communicators: 1) motivating employees to align with business strategy, 2)
leadership and management communication, 3) managing information overload and 4)
measuring ROI of internal communication. A number of approaches to measuring the ROI for
internal communication are discussed, including: cost savings (e.g., idea development programs,
materials development), business outcomes (productivity, retention and turnover, customer
satisfaction, performance ratings and quality factors), employee surveys(channel effectiveness,
extent to which messages received) and pulse surveys and focus groups for specific initiatives.
Gillis, T. L. (Ed.). (2006). The IABC handbook of organizational communication. San Francisco,
Jossey-Bass.
This is the latest edition of an outstanding reference work–a collection of 41 chapters written by
leading academics and practitioners which provides readers with both concepts and practical
applications of elements of organizational communication. The book is divided into six sections.
An introduction provides basic information about organizational communications and key
premises. Part Two deals with current challenges in managing organizational communication,
including planning and implementation strategies. Part Three focuses on employee
communications and highlights the current issues of engagement, internal branding and change
management. Part Four deals with the strategic management of external communications with
diverse stakeholders. Part Five addresses marketing and brand management concepts and
practices, while Part Six looks to future trends and discusses such issues as measurement, new
technologies and knowledge management.
Harris, T. E., & Nelson, M.D. (2008). Applied organizational communication: Theory and
practice in a global environment. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

43
This recent and accessible textbook blends application and theory and would be useful for
practitioners and students who want to explore the complex dimensions of organizational
communication in a dynamic world. The book discusses current organizational and management
theories and adopts a transactional and systems perspective on organizational communication. It
includes chapters on verbal and nonverbal communication, networks and channels, interpersonal
communications, team communications, leadership, new communication technologies and
listening. The latter chapter is particularly valuable in that it provides insights into a crucial topic
that receives limited attention in most organizations.
Kennan, W. R., & Hazleton, V. (2006). Internal public relations, social capital, and the role of
effective organizational communication. In C. H. Botan & V. Hazleton (Eds.), Public relations
theory II (pp. 311-340). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
This academic article provides a compelling argument for communicators to use with their
bosses to help explain the value of their work to the organization. They outline a theory of
internal public relations that is based in social capital theory and argue that such capital–the
creation and use of internal relationships with and among employees and external publics–can
increase productivity and customer and employee satisfaction, help organizations resolve
environmental issues and improve change management processes. This argument positions
internal communication professionals at the center of organizational activities and initiatives.
Larkin, TJ, & Larkin, S. (1994). Communicating change: How to win employee support for new
business directions. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
This well-known book underscores the importance of front-line, F-T-F supervisor
communications in gaining employee understanding and support for change. It’s a must readfor

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professional communicators. Rich with data and case examples, the authors highlight three
crucial approaches in change communication efforts: 1) communicate directly to supervisors, 2)
use face-to-face communication and 3) communicate the relative performance of the local work
area. Data accompanying the arguments strongly suggest that employees have greater trust in,
and stronger relationships with their supervisors than with executives; employees prefer F-T-F
channels to print and videos for change communications; and messages are more salient to
employees when they are closely linked to local work issues and performance.
Putnam, L. L., & Boys, S. (2006). Revisiting metaphors of organizational communication. In
S.R. Clegg, C. Hardy, T. B. Lawrence, & W. R. Nord (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organization
studies, 2nd Ed. (pp. 541-576). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
This chapter will be useful to communication graduate students and scholars. It is a
comprehensive literature review of research and theory regarding organizational communication,
and it’s presented through a series of eight metaphors. The authors note the explosive growth in
internal communication research in the past decade and highlight a major shift from the study of
communication as a linear transmission of messages, to research into how organizations are
constituted by social interactions, symbolic meanings and discursive processes. The eight
metaphors for organizational communication are: a conduit, information processing, linkage,
performance, discourse, symbol, voice and contradiction. Research in the areas of voice, symbol
and discourse are prevalent today.
Rhee, Y. (2003). The employee-public-organization chain in relationship management: A case
study of a government organization. Institute for Public
Relations:http://www.instituteforpr.org/files/uploads/2003_Rhee.pdf

45
Graduate students, scholars and professionals will find this comprehensive case study to be
useful. The case demonstrates that employees who have positive relationships (high levels of
commitment) with their organizations contribute significantly to the development of positive
relationships with the organization’s publics. In addition, publics assess the organization based
on the quality of employees’ relationships with their organization. Successful employee-public-
organization relationships are shaped by: the leader’s communication behaviors and visibility,
the involvement of leaders in public relations activities, the quality of F-T-F communication,
excellent listening skills, and the open sharing of information and decisions. The study also
suggests that employees may feel more empowered through participation in communication
programs with publics.
Senge, P. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art & practice of the learning organization. New
York: Currency Doubleday.
This was one of the first books to deal comprehensively with the idea that organizations are
learning systems, and learning can provide a competitive advantage. Practitioners may find it a
valuable conceptual aid; it provides ways to define, assess and correct communication-related
issues and perceptions in organizations. Senge’s extensive discussion of mental models, for
example, can help professionals understand current communication practices and executives’
perceptions of them. Mental models are deeply held assumptions, generalizations or internal
images that strongly influence how we see and understand the world. These models limit us to
familiar ways of thinking, acting and understanding. Understanding executives’ current mental
models for communication is a crucial first step toward changing them.

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Senge, P., Kleiner, A. Roberts, C., Ross, R. B., & Smith, B. J. (1994). The fifth discipline field
book: Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. New York: Currency Doubleday.
This is a companion book to Senge’s earlier work, and it is strongly recommended for senior
practitioners who are searching for ways to develop the skills, knowledge and unity of their own
professional teams. The field book is a rich, pragmatic guide that includes numerous examples
of, and strategies for building a shared vision, developing team and dialogue skills,
reinvigorating relationships in organizations, using training as learning and giving life to
organizational communications, among others. It is filled with individual exercises, team
exercises and practical devices and techniques. The authors’ contention that, “the only
sustainable source of competitive advantage is your organization’s ability to learn faster than its
competition” (11), also applies to units and teams in organizations.
Shockley-Zalabak, P., Ellis, K., & Cesaria, R. (2000). Measuring organizational trust: A
diagnostic survey and international indicator. San Francisco: IABC Research Foundation.
This research report may be useful to graduate students and practitioners because it deals with
what has been a long-time issue in internal communications and organizations: trust between
managers and employees. The authors argue that trust is “social capital” which has a direct effect
on the organization’s ability to successfully deal with crisis and change. In their research, the
authors found that trust directly affects the bottom line because it influences employee job
satisfaction, productivity and team building. They also found that higher levels of organizational
trust correlated with a lower incidence of litigation and legislation. Practitioners may benefit
from a trust model the researchers developed, which includes the dimensions of communication

47
competence, reliability, concern for employees, openness and honesty and identification. The
report is sold through IABC.
Sinickas, A. D. (2005). How to measure your communication programs: A practical manual for
maximizing the effectiveness of your messages and media. (3rd Ed.). San Francisco: IABC
Knowledge Centre.
This is a hands-on resource book and step-by-step guide for communicators to prepare and
conduct focus groups, construct surveys, measure communication flow, plan and carry out
communication audits, conduct content analysis and measure Intranets and web sites. The
manual also is a good introduction to the terminology of communication research and
measurement. Sinickas is a seasoned professional who has conducted numerous measurement
workshops for IABC members and other practitioners.
Smidts, A., Pruyn, A. T. H., & van Riel, C. B. M. (2001). The impact of employee
communication and perceived external prestige on organizational identification. The Academy of
Management Journal, 1-29.
This research article has appeal for practitioners and academics who are interested in the subject
of employees and organizational identity. The researchers found that effective employee
communication and a positive communication climate can strengthen employees’ identification
with organizations. Communication climate refers to how information is communicated, and
organizations can build positive communication climate by giving employees the opportunities
to “speak out, get involved, be listened to and participate actively” (20). The researchers also
discovered that internal communication affects organizational identity more strongly for
employees than perceived external prestige.

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Williams, L.C. Jr. (2003). Communication research, measurement and evaluation: A practical
guide for communicators. San Francisco: IABC Knowledge Centre.
This is a useful and insightful overview of measurement, evaluation and audience analysis
methods that communicators can use to measure and demonstrate the value of their work to their
organizations. The guide includes sample surveys and questionnaires, guidelines for interviews
and focus groups, directions for data analysis and some best practice cases of internal
communication programs.
Williams, P. (Ed.). (2008). Employee communication: The comprehensive manual for those who
communicate with today’s employees(3rd Ed.). Chicago: Lawrence Ragan.
(http://www.ragan.com).
This is the third edition of what was perhaps the first comprehensive manual written on
employee communications. The two-volume set contains diverse chapters which practitioners
should find helpful in their work. Volume one takes a strategic focus with chapters on research
and measurement, change communications, strategic planning, employee engagement,
speechwriting, executive communications and gaining resources for employee communication.
Volume two focuses more on professional skills, e.g., writing, developing F-T-F communication
programs, using visuals, producing employee newsletters, using social media and so forth.
7 Comments
celestine — August 20th, 2011 at 4:05 am
i actually recommends these tips on effective communication

49
Doudly Elius — December 14th, 2011 at 3:18 pm
I do appreciate to be learning Public Relations in your school and waiting for your answer
patiently.
Thank you so much
Ken — December 15th, 2011 at 5:58 am
Good findings keep up
KAMILYA SAFINA — January 11th, 2012 at 4:19 am
I NEED INFORMATION ABOUT STAFF RELATIONS AND HOW TO MANAGE
JEALEOUSY IN THE WORK PLACE
Ezekiel Maurice Sunday — February 18th, 2012 at 7:26 am
The material is quite interesting and useful.It has helped me to do my assignment on the
importance of communication in an organization.
cleactgaicy — June 25th, 2012 at 8:45 am
Regardless of whether we like this or not, social media is enjoying a massive part in the work
search — as well as not just coming from a job seeker’s stance. Most, it not exclusively,
recruiters are integrating social networking platforms inside their candidate search, as are some
major companies. With Seventy three percent regarding adults possessing and using any
Facebook user profile and an even more astounding 44 percent involving users much older than
50 making use of social networking sites (according to recent data from the Pew Study Center),
you will find that social media offers jutted its head into the job search in such a key way.

50
Andrew Powell has been a expert planner for Seven yrs and have been writing awesome ideas
with Mining Jobs in Australia in part of his involvement with New Ideas Group ,a new
innovative team for developing individuals. Read more about her website to find out about
his government jobs australia advice over the years.
Tim Bradley — July 27th, 2012 at 2:12 am
No matter how I count the bullets, I only get 14 principles of successful internal
communications. What am I missing? Also, in the introductory paragraph to the principles, in
“some practices and principles which seem crucial,” shouldn’t “which” be “that”? Two
paragraphs above, I think “adopt” should be “adapt.” Everybody’s an editor, right?

Dr

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