This document provides an overview of organizational communication. It defines communication and discusses its key functions in organizations. It describes the communication process and different types of communication channels. It also examines downward, upward, and horizontal communication and discusses improving communication effectiveness. The document outlines factors that influence communication media choice and barriers to effective communication. It concludes by examining current issues in organizational communication.

1. Without it,
you travel
alone.*

2. Learning Objectives
 Relate the perspective, historical background, and meaning of the
communication process in the organizations
 Identify the main functions of communication
 Describe the communication process and distinguish between
formal and informal communication
 Discuss the specific downward, upward, and horizontal (interactive)
interpersonal communication processes
 Contrast oral, written, and nonverbal communication

3. Learning Objectives (cont’d)
 Contrast formal communication networks and the grapevine
 Analyze the advantages and challenges of modern communication
technology
 Show how channel richness underlies the choice of communication
channel
 Identify common barriers to effective communication.
 Analyze communication across cultures and how to overcome
potential problems

4. “Developing excellent communication skills is
absolutely essential to effective leadership. The
leader must be able to share knowledge and ideas to
transmit a sense of urgency and enthusiasm to
others. If a leader can’t get a message across
clearly and motivate others to act on it, then having
a message doesn’t even matter.”
-Gilbert Amelio
President and CEO of National Semiconductor Corporation

5. Contribution to Real Managers' Effectiveness
Figure 1.1
Networking (11%)
Traditional Management
(19%)
Human Resources
Management (26%)
Routine Communication
(44%)
Source: Fred Luthans, Richard M. Hodgetts, And Stuart A. Rosenkrantz, Real Managers, Ballinger, Cambridge, Mass., 1988, P. 68.

6. Background of the Role of Communication
 In his classic Functions of the Executive: The pioneering
theorist, Chester Barnard, was the first to develop the idea of
the central, important role communication plays in the
organization.
 He was convinced that communication is the major shaping
force of the organization.
 According to him: “The absence of a suitable technique of
communication would eliminate the possibility of adopting some
purposes as a basis of organization. Communication technique
shapes the form and the internal economy of organization.”

7. Modern Perspective
Figure 1.2
(Managerial communication
Humanistic
interactor
model: How managers
communicate)
Formal
controller
Informal
developer
Mechanistic
isolate
Source: Fred Luthans, and Janet K. Larsen, “How Managers Really Communicate,” Human Relations, Vol. 39, No. 2, 1986, p. 175.

8. Communication: Defined
 Communication: The transference and understanding of meaning.
 Most definitions of Communication used in Organizational Behavior
literature stress the use of symbols to transfer the meaning of
information.
 Also, Communication is a personal process that involves the
exchange of behaviors.
Figure 1.3 (The continuum of communication in organizational behavior)
Communication
Media & Technology
Interpersonal
Communication
Nonverbal
Communication

9. Functions of Communication
 Control member behavior
 Organizations have authority hierarchies and formal guidelines that
employees are required to follow.
 Foster motivation for what is to be done
 Supervisors need to clarify to employees what is to be done, how well
they are doing, and what can be done to improve performance if it’s
subpar.
 Provide a release for emotional expression
 Many employees feel that their work group is a primary source of social
interaction.
 Provide information needed to make decisions
 Communication provides the information that individuals and groups
need to make decisions by transmitting the data to identify and
evaluate alternative choices

10. The Communication Process
The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the
transference and understanding of meaning.

11. Key Parts of Communication Process
initiates message
translating thought to message
what is communicated
the medium the message travel through
the receiver’s action in making sense of the message
person who gets the message
things that interfere with the message
a return message regarding the initial communication

12. Communication Channels
The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels to the
receiver.
 Formal Channels
Are established by the organization and transmit messages that are related to
the professional activities of members.
 Informal Channels
Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization. These
informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a response to individual
choices.

13. Direction of Communication

14. Downward Communication
 The purpose of the Downward Communication: Katz and Kahn identified five
(5) general purposes of top-to-bottom communication in an organization:
1. To give specific task directives about job instructions
2. To give information about organizational procedures and practices
3. To provide information about the rationale of the job
4. To tell subordinates about their performance
5. To provide ideological information to facilitate the indoctrination of goals
 As Katz and Kahn points out: “If people know the reasons of their
assignment, this will often insure they are carrying out the job more
effectively; and if they have an understanding of what their job is about in
relation to their subsystem, they are more likely to identify with
organizational goals.”

15. Downward Communication
 Ways to Improve Downward Communication
 Quality and richness
 People should start using useful information and ignore useless
information.
 The use of the communication technology
 Do not ignore the importance of the receiver.
 If managers understand the impacts of communication on
subordinates and start to do something about them,
communication can become more effective.

16. Upward Communication
 The upward process of communication is non-directive in nature.
 The following are some possible ways to promote more effective
upward communications:
1.
The grievance procedure. This allows employees to make an
appeal upward beyond their immediate manager.
2.
The open-door policy. The manager’s door is always open to
employees.
3.
The use of e-mail. The use of e-mail today eliminates much of
the intimidation of communicating upward.
4.
Counseling, attitude questionnaires, and exit interviews.

17. Upward Communication (cont’d)
5.
Participative techniques. This can generate a great deal of
communication. This may be accomplished by either informal
involvement of employees or formal participation programs.
6.
An empowerment strategy. This involves giving employees
not only the authority to make decisions, but also the
resources, especially information, to get the job done and
satisfy customers.
7.
The ombudsperson (also called ombud). The concept has been
used primarily in Scandinavia to provide an outlet for persons
who have been treated unfairly or in a depersonalized manner
by large, bureaucratic government. If set-up and handled
properly, it may work where the open-door policy has failed.

18. How to Improve Upward Communication
 The best and simplest way to improve upward communication is
for managers to develop good listening habits and systems for
listening.
 Here are some practical guidelines to facilitate active listening:
1.
Maintaining attention
2.
Using restatement
3.
Showing empathy
4.
Using probes to draw the person out
5.
Encouraging suggestions
6.
Synchronizing the interaction by knowing when to enter a
conversation and when to allow the person to speak.

19. Interactive Communication In Organizations
 The purposes and methods of Interactive Communication:
1.
Task coordination. The department heads may meet monthly
to discuss how each department is contributing to the
system’s goal.
2.
Problem-solving. The members of a department may
assemble to discuss how they will handle a threatened budget
cut; they may employ brainstorming techniques.
3.
Information sharing. The members of one department may
meet with the members of another department to give them
some new data.
4.
Conflict resolution. The members may meet to discuss a
conflict inherent in the department or between departments.

20. Interpersonal Communication
Advantages: Speed and feedback
Disadvantage: Distortion of the message
Advantages: Tangible and verifiable (documented)
Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback
Advantages: Supports other communications and provides
observable expression of emotions and feelings
Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures
can influence receiver’s interpretation of message

21. Non-Verbal Communication
 Non-verbal communication – sometimes called as the “silent
language”; defined as “non-word human responses (such as
gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of
the environment through which the human verbal and non-verbal
messages are transmitted.”
 Body Language and Paralanguage
 Body Language – Body movements convey meanings and
messages. This includes facial expressions and what people
do with their eyes, feet, hands, and posture.
 Paralanguage – This include things such as voice
quality, tone, volume, speech rate, pitch, non fluencies
(saying “ah”, “um”, or “uh”), laughing, and yawning.

22. Nonverbal Communication

Unconscious motions that provide meaning

Shows extent of interest in another and relative perceived status differences

The way something is said can change meaning

Show emotion

Depends on cultural norms

Can express interest or status

23. Improving Non-Verbal Effectiveness
 Here are some suggestions to improve non-verbal communication:
1. Look at what is happening in the situation.
2. Consider the discrepancies between the non-verbal behavior and the
verbal statements.
3. Watch for subtleties in the non-verbal behavior.
 Cultural differences must also be recognized in non-verbal communication.
 The following are a few guidelines affecting communication in various
cultures:
 Expect more physical closeness in Latin America;
 the use of “thumbs up” is fine almost anywhere except, Australia;
and
 take your hands out of your pockets when meeting with Japanese.

24. Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks
All Channel:
Wheel:
Chain:
Rigidly follows the
chain of command
 Relies on a central
figure to act as
the conduit for all
communication
 Team with a
strong leader
 All group
members
communicate
actively with each
other
 Self-managed
teams

25. Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria

26. The Grapevine
Three Main Grapevine Characteristics
1. Informal, not controlled by management
2. Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal
communications
3. Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it
Results from:
 Desire for information about important situations
 Ambiguous conditions
 Conditions that cause anxiety
Insightful to managers
Serves employee’s social needs

27. The Grapevine (cont’d)
Suggestions to Reduce Rumors
1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.
2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear inconsistent or secretive.
3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current decisions and
future plans.
4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities—they are almost never as anxietyprovoking as the unspoken fantasy.
Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, “Managing Rumors,” in L. Hirshhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54-56. With
permission.

28. Communication Media & Technology
Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for distribution
Disadvantages:
Messages are easily and commonly misinterpreted
Not appropriate for sending negative messages
Overused and overloading readers
Removes inhibitions and can cause emotional responses and flaming
Difficult to “get” emotional state understood – emoticons
Non-private: e-mail is often monitored and may be forwarded to anyone

29. Communication Media & Technology
Forms of “real time” communication of short messages that often use
portable communication devices.
Explosive growth in business use
Fast and inexpensive means of communication
Can be intrusive and distracting
Easily “hacked” with weak security
Can be seen as too informal
Instant Messaging: Immediate e-mail sent to receiver’s desktop or device
Text Messages: Short messages typically sent to cell phones or other
handheld devices

30. Communication Media & Technology
Linked systems organically spread throughout the nation and world that can
be accessed by a PC:
Includes:
Social networks like Twitter® and Facebook®
Professional networks like Zoominfo® and Ziggs®
Corporate networks such as IBM’s BluePages®
 Blogs: Web sites about a single person (or entity) that are typically
updated daily
 Videoconferencing: uses live audio and video Internet streaming to
create virtual meetings

31. The Matter of Information Richness
 Information Richness can be defined as “the potential informationcarrying capacity of data.”
 If the medium conveys a great deal of information, it is high in
richness; if it conveys very little information, it is low in richness.
 Alternative media can have varying degrees of information richness.
 Information Richness can be measured by four (4) factors:
1. Feedback
2. Channel
3. Type of Communication
4. Language Source

32. Information Richness for Different Media
Table 1.1
Information
Richness
Channel
Type of
Communication
Language
Source
Medium
Feedback
High
Face-to-face
Immediate
Visual, audio
Personal
Body, natural
High/Moderate
Telephone
Fast
Audio
Personal
Natural
Moderate
Personal
written
Slow
Limited visual
Personal
Natural
Moderate/Low
Formal written
Very Slow
Limited visual
Impersonal
Natural
Low
Formal numeric
Very Slow
Limited Visual
Impersonal
Natural
Source: Adapted From R. L. Daft And R. H. Lengel, “Information Richness: A New Approach to Managerial Behavior and Organization Design,” in
B. M. Staw And L. L. Cunnings (Eds.), Research n Organizational Behavior, JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 1984, P. 197.

33. Choice of Communication Channel
 The model of “media richness” helps explain an individual’s choice of
communication channel
Channels vary in their capacity to convey information
 A “rich” channel is one that can:
Handle multiple cues simultaneously
Facilitate rapid feedback
Be very personal
 Choice depends on whether the message is routine
 High-performing managers tend to be very media-sensitive

34. Choice of Communication Channel
Low channel richness
Low channel richness
High channel richness
High channel richness
Source: Based On R.H. Lengel And D.L. Daft, “The Selection Of Communication Media As An Executive Skill,” Academy Of Management
Executive, August 1988, Pp. 225–32; And R.L. Daft And R.H. Lengel, “Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, And Structural
Design,” Managerial Science, May 1996, Pp. 554–72. Reproduced From R.L. Daft And R.A. Noe, Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX:
Harcourt, 2001), P. 311.

35. The Issue of Complexity
 Daft and Lengel suggested that there are three (3) zones of
communication effectiveness:
1. Effective Zone – is the one in which the complexity of the problem
or situation is matched appropriately with the richness of the
medium.
2. Overload Zone – is one in which the medium provides more
information than is necessary.
3. Oversimplification Zone – is one in which the medium does not
provide the necessary information.
 Research studies* have revealed that media usage is significantly
different across organizational levels. Senior-level managers tend to
spend much more time in face-to-face meetings than do lowermanagers.
*Source: R. E. Rice and D. E. Shook, “Relationships of Job Categories and Organizational Levels to Use of Communication Channels, I ncluding
Electronic Mail: A Meta-Analysis and Extension,” Journal of Management Studies, March 1990, pp. 195-229.

36. Barriers to Effective Communication
A sender’s manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably
by the receiver
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their
interests, background, experience, and attitudes
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s processing
capacity
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how the
message is interpreted

37. Barriers to Effective Communication (cont’d)
Words have different meanings to different people
Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written
communication, or both
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individual’s
processing capacity

38. Current Issues in Communication
Women talk to:
 Establish connection and
intimacy
 Criticize men for not listening
 Speak of problems to
promote closeness
 Express regret and restore
balance to a conversation
Men talk to:
 Emphasize status, power, and
independence
 Complain that women talk on
and on
 Offer solutions
 To boast about their
accomplishments

39. Politically Correct “PC” Communication
 Communication is so concerned with being
inoffensive that meaning and simplicity are lost or
free expression is hampered.
 Certain words do stereotype, intimidate, and insult
 In a highly diverse workforce this is problematic:
“Garbage” becomes “post-consumer waste
materials”
“Quotas” become “educational equity”
“Women” become “people of gender”
Such non-standard sanitizing of potentially
offensive words can reduce the clarity of
messages
Source: The Far Side By Gary Larson © 1994 Far Works, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Used With Permission.

40. Communication Across Cultures
 With globalization, the analysis and understanding of
communication across cultures become critical.
 Adler notes:
“Communicating effectively challenges managers world-wide even
when the workforce is culturally homogenous, but when employees
speak a variety of languages and come from an array of cultural
backgrounds, effective communication becomes considerably
difficult.”

41. Global Implications
 Cross-cultural factors increase communication difficulties
 Cultural Barriers:
Semantics: some words aren’t translatable
Word Connotations: some words imply multiple meanings
beyond their definitions
Tone Differences: the acceptable level of formality of language
Perception Differences: language affects worldview
 Cultural Context:
The importance of social context to meaning
Low-context cultures (like the U.S.) rely on words for meaning
High-context cultures gain meaning from the whole situation

42. Communication Breakdown Across Cultures:
1. Perceptual Problems. This is simply portrayed as a person’s
interpretation of reality and is said to be learned. People are
taught to “see” things in a given way, and this will affect their
interpretation of reality.
2. Stereotyping Problems. The tendency to perceive another person
as belonging to a single class or category. This is a very
simple, widely used way of constructing an assumed overall profile
of other people. [See Table 1.4]
3. Ethnocentric Problems. Ethnocentrism refers to the sense of
superiority that members of a particular culture have. When
people interact with each other on an international
basis, ethnocentrism can cause problems.

43. Communication Breakdown Across Cultures (cont’d)
TABLE 1.4
Culture
Stereotyped Image
___1. United States
A. Demonstrative, talkative, emotional, romantic, bold, artistic
___2. English
B. Mañana attitude, macho, music lovers, touchers
___3. French
C. Inscrutable, intelligent, xenophobic, golfers, group-oriented, polite,
soft-spoken
___4. Italians
D. Conservative, reserved, polite, proper, formal
___5. Latin Americans
E. Arrogant, loud, friendly, impatient, generous, hardworking,
monolingual
___6. Asians
F. Arrogant, rude, chauvinistic, romantics, gourmets, cultural, artistic

44. Communication Breakdown Across Cultures (cont’d)
TABLE 1.4
Culture
Stereotyped Image
E
1. United States
A. Demonstrative, talkative, emotional, romantic, bold, artistic
D
2. English
B. Mañana attitude, macho, music lovers, touchers
F
3. French
C. Inscrutable, intelligent, xenophobic, golfers, group-oriented, polite,
soft-spoken
A
4. Italians
D. Conservative, reserved, polite, proper, formal
B
5. Latin Americans
E. Arrogant, loud, friendly, impatient, generous, hardworking,
monolingual
C
6. Asians
F. Arrogant, rude, chauvinistic, romantics, gourmets, cultural, artistic

45. Improving Communication Effectiveness Across Cultures
 Learn about the culture of that country before going there.
Speaking their language correctly is not enough. Pronunciation and
accent are very important.
 Provide the trainee with educational background material on the
country, including social structure, religion, values, language and
history.
 A more recent training approach called “Skill Streaming” also
seems to hold promise for learning culture-specific communication.

46. Improving Communication Effectiveness Across Cultures
To reduce your chance of making a faux pas in another culture, err on
the side of caution by:
 Assuming differences until similarity is proven
 Emphasizing description rather than interpretation or evaluation
 Practicing empathy in communication
 Treating your interpretations as a working hypothesis

47. How to Become More Effective Communicator
 Simplify your Message: Napoleon Bonaparte used to tell his
secretaries, “Be clear, be clear, be clear.”
 See the Person: Become audience-oriented; people believe in great
communicators because great communicators believe in people.
 Show the Truth: First, believe in what you say. Second, live what
you say.
 Seek a Response: Every time you speak to people, give them
something to feel, something to remember, and something to do.

48. Summary
 The less employees are uncertain, the greater their satisfaction; good
communication reduces uncertainty!
 Communication is improved by:

Choosing the correct channel

Being a good listener

Using feedback
 Potential for misunderstanding in electronic communication is higher than for
traditional modes
 There are many barriers to international communication that must be
overcome

49. “Educators take something simple
and make it complicated.
Communicators take something
complicated and make it simple.”
-John C. Maxwell

50. Thank You!
Ü

51. Additional slides for further reading…

52. Barnard’s Contribution
7 Specific Communication Factors:
1. The channels of communication should be definitely known.
2. There should be a definite formal channel of communication to every
member of the organization.
3. The line of communication should be as direct and short as possible.
4. The complete formal line of communication should normally be used.
5. The persons serving as communication centers should be competent.
6. The line of communication should not be interrupted while the
organization is functioning.
7. Every communication should be authenticated.
LO-I

53. Interpersonal Communication
 Interpersonal communication represents the middle ground between
communication media and technology and non-verbal communication.
 For the study of OB, interpersonal communication is the most relevant.
 In interpersonal communication, the major emphasis is on transferring
communication from one person to another.
 Communication is looked on as a basic method of effecting behavioral change
and it incorporates the psychological process (perception, learning, and
motivation) on the one hand and language on the other.
 However, it must be noted that the explosion of advanced technology is also
having an impact on this human interaction process.
 Thus, listening sensitivity and non-verbal communications are closely
associated to interpersonal communication.

54. Importance of How to Talk with Others
 The Director. This person has a short attention span, processes information
quickly, and interested only in the bottom line. So it is best to present a
bulleted list of conclusions and forget all of the background information.
 The Free Spirit. This manager is creative, big-picture type of person who likes
to consider alternative approaches to doing things, but is not very good on
follow-through. In communicating, it is best to be patient, and to be prepared
for changes in direction.
 The Humanist. This manager likes everyone to be happy and is very concerned
with the feelings of others. Any suggestions that are given to him or her will be
passed around the entire department for full consensus before any action is
taken.
 The Historian. This manager likes to know the whole picture and thrives on
details. This individual wants to be given a thorough analysis and background
information, especially if it is presented in linear fashion.

55. The Importance of Giving Feedback
 Table 1.2 summarizes some characteristics of effective and ineffective
feedback for employee performance. The following list explains these
characteristics in more detail:
1. Intention. Effective feedback is directed toward improving job
performance and making the employee a more valuable asset. It is not a
personal attack and should not compromise the individual’s feeling of self worth or image.
2. Specificity. Effective feedback is designed to provide recipients with
specific information so that they know what must be done to correct the
situation.
3. Description. Effective feedback can also be characterized as descriptive
rather than evaluative. It tells the employee what he or she has done in
objective terms, rather than presenting a value judgment.

56. The Importance of Giving Feedback (cont’d)
4.
Usefulness. Effective feedback is information that an employee can use
to improve performance. The guideline is that, if it is not something the
employee can correct, it is not worth mentioning.
5.
Timeliness. As a rule, the more immediate the feedback the better. This
way, the employee has better chance of knowing what the supervisor is
talking about and can take corrective action.
6.
Readiness. In order for feedback to be effective, employees must be
ready to receive it. When feedback is forced on employees, it is much
less effective.
7.
Clarity. Effective feedback must be clearly understood by the recipient.
A good way of checking this is by asking the recipient to restate the
major points of the discussion.
8.
Validity. In order for feedback to be effective, it must be reliable and
valid. It can lead to inappropriate corrective action and compounds the
problem if the information is incorrect.

57. The Importance of Giving Feedback (cont’d)
Table 1.2
Luthans and Martinko’s Characteristics of Feedback for Effective and
Ineffective Interpersonal Communication in Human Resource Management
Effective Feedback
Ineffective Feedback
1. Intended to help the employee
1. Intended to belittle the employee
2. Specific
2. General
3. Descriptive
3. Evaluative
4. Useful
4. Inappropriate
5. Timely
5. Untimely
6. Considers employee readiness for feedback
6. Makes the employee defensive
7. Clear
7. Not understandable
8. Valid
8. Inaccurate

58. Communication Media & Technology
 Choosing a Medium for Communication
Based on the report of the Wall Street Journal:
Telephone
51
E-mail
36
Voice mail
22
Postal mail
19
Interoffice mail
19
Fax
14
Post-it Notes
12
Telephone message slips
9
Pager messages
8
Cell phone
4
Overnight couriers or messengers
4
Express mail
3
Source: D. Clark, “Managing The Mountain,” Wall Street Journal, June 21, 1999, P. R 4.

59. References
Books:
Robbins, S. (2005). Organizational behavior (10th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson
Education, Inc., Publishing as Prentice Hall.
Luthans, F., Holmes, G. (2005). Organizational behavior (10th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Maxwell, J. (1999). The 21 indispensable qualities of a leader. Nashville: Thomas
Nelson, Inc.
Electronic Source:
Shuttle, K. J. Communication [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from google.com:
https://www.google.com.ph/search?newwindow=1&biw=1366&bih=643&site=webh
p&q=robbins_ob14_ppt_11&oq=robbins_ob14_ppt_11&gs_l=serp.3..0.252076.2520
76.0.252862.1.1.0.0.0.0.504.504.5-1.1.0....0...1c.1.26.serp..0.1.503.CvdYApQzShI

60. For MM202: Organizational Behavior
Prepared by: Miamarie Gerona-Estrada
Saturday, 2013 August 31